State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present

State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present

Middle East Today Series editors: Mohammed Ayoob University Distinguished Professor of International Relations Michigan State University Fawaz A. Gerges Professor and Chair of Middle Eastern Politics and International Relations Director of the Middle East Centre London School of Economics The Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the subsequent Gulf Wars, along with the overthrow of the Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, have dramatically altered the geopolitical landscape of the contemporary Middle East. This series puts forward a critical body of first-rate scholarship that reflects the current political and social realities of the region, focusing on original research about the Israeli Palestine conflict; social movements, institutions, and the role played by nongovernmental organizations such as Hamas, Hezbollah, the Taliban, and the Muslim Brotherhood; Iran and Turkey as emerging preeminent powers in the region the former an Islamic republic and the latter a democracy currently governed by a party with Islamic roots; the oil-producing countries in the Persian Gulf and their petrol economies; potential problems of nuclear proliferation in the region; and the challenges confronting the United States, Europe, and the United Nations in the greater Middle East. The focus of the series is on general topics such as social turmoil, war and revolution, occupation, radicalism, democracy, and Islam as a political force in the context of modern Middle East history. Ali Shari ati and the Shaping of Political Islam in Iran Kingshuk Chatterjee Religion and the State in Turkish Universities: The Headscarf Ban Fatma Nevra Seggie Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization Hasan Kösebalaban Nonviolent Resistance in the Second Intifada: Activism and Advocacy Edited by Maia Carter Hallward and Julie M. Norman The Constitutional System of Turkey: 1876 to the Present Ergun Özbudun Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns Edited by Asma Afsaruddin Bahrain from the Twentieth Century to the Arab Spring Miriam Joyce Palestinian Activism in Israel: A Bedouin Woman Leader in a Changing Middle East Henriette Dahan-Kalev and Emilie Le Febvre with Amal El Sana-Alh jooj Egypt Awakening in the Early Twentieth Century: Mayy Ziyadah s Intellectual Circles Boutheina Khaldi The Social and Economic Origins of Monarchy in Jordan Tariq Moraiwed Tell Palestinians in the Israeli Labor Market: A Multi-disciplinary Approach Edited by Nabil Khattab and Sami Miaari State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present Behrooz Moazami

State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present Behrooz Moazami

STATE, RELIGION, AND REVOLUTION IN IRAN, 1796 TO THE PRESENT Copyright Behrooz Moazami, 2013. All rights reserved. First published in 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN in the United States a division of St. Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the World, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-137-32588-4 DOI 10.1057/9781137325860 ISBN 978-1-137-32586-0 (ebook) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Integra Software Services First edition: October 2013 10987654321

In memory of my mother, Fatemeh Moazami, and those who have fought for freedom and democracy in Iran.

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Contents List of Figures Acknowledgments 1 Introduction: State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present 1 Section I: From Fragmented Political Authority to Central Bureaucratic Power, 1796 1963 2 The Political Authority of the Qajar State, 1796 1925 11 3 Forming a Utilitarian Buffer State: The Pahlavis, 1921 1963 31 Section II: The Institutionalization of the Shi i Ulama, 1796 1963 4 Religious Revivalism and the Formative Phase of Orthodoxy, 1796 1892 55 5 The Constitutional Moment: The Ulama and the Political Sphere, 1892 1921 77 6 The Nationalization of Religious Morality and the Organizational Expansion of the Ulama, 1921 1963 93 Section III: The Making of the Islamic Revolution and Its Aftermath, 1963 to the Present 7 The Islamization of the Social Movements and the Revolution, 1963 1979 117 8 The Invention of a Modern Theocracy: An Unfinished Revolution 135 9 Conclusion: Making Sense of the State, Religion, and Revolution 155 Notes 163 Bibliography 177 Index 197 ix xi

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List of Figures Figures 2.1 The centralized, but fragmented rule of the protected kingdoms of Iran, 1796 1925 14 3.1 The centralized and bureaucratic rule of the Pahlavi imperial government of Iran, 1926 1979 40 8.1 The relational transformation of the state and religious spheres, 1796 to the present 152

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Acknowledgments This book has been long in the making and, like other books, has its own history. During its creation, I have become indebted to more people than I could possibly name here. Its nucleus emerged from endless discussions and debates with my close political friends in Tehran after the revolution. Along with many other left and liberal secular activists during the Pahlavi period, I had an existential need to understand why we had lost our revolution to Khomeini and his followers. This question and its implications were further shaped by the experience of repression in Iran and constant dialogue with a handful of Iranian intellectuals during my Parisian exile from 1983 to 1992. The late Fereydoun Ilbeigui (Bahram) was exceptional among these for having been one of the very few intellectuals in the months leading up to the 1979 revolution; he was apprehensive about what Khomeini s rise to power might mean for the movement and Iran. For most of us, the desire for political change became inseparable from the need to reflect on our tragic and unexpected loss. Our failure in politics was not unique, but each generation must make sense of its own history. This book attempts to rethink Iranian history from the perspective of a generation that fought honorably and failed, but is proud of its deeds and its history. Further setbacks in politics led me to move my personal and generational quest into the academy. The Center for Studies of Social Change at the New School for Social Research in New York was an ideal place for such reflection. From day one, I was lucky enough to meet some of the most magnificent scholars of our age, and I got to know many passionate souls who were ready to share their knowledge and curiosity with me. I feel nostalgic and extremely privileged whenever I think of those years and the people I encountered. Many teachers, fellow students, visiting scholars, colleagues, and old and new friends encouraged me to turn my thoughts into a dissertation examining why the revolution became Islamic. That dissertation became the backbone of this book. I can acknowledge my debt only to a few of them here, for naming them all would test the endurance of any reader. In our first conversation, Janet Abu-Lughod told me that even if I were Max Weber, I would have to set aside my previous knowledge and learn sociology anew as a student. She kept up that pressure as a member of my dissertation committee while encouraging my explorations. José Casanova taught me how to think about religion and politics in sociological terms and warned me against the trap of simple explanations. The late Eric Hobsbawm, Louise Tilly, and Michael Hanagan taught me history and historical thinking, and, more importantly, humility and care.

xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS David Plotke was provocative and demanding and has been a great source of wisdom and support. As a member of my dissertation committee, he constantly asked for a concise presentation of my arguments and helped me sharpen them. I am still benefiting from his sound advice. Ervand Abrahamian s important works on Iran influenced my interpretation of history, and his insistence on critical interactions with documents made me more attentive to the problems of historical interpretation. His friendship, support, and encouragement have been a source of inspiration. He gave me welcome advice when I was writing the dissertation and later on expanding it into a book. The late Chuck Tilly acted as one expects from a mentor of his caliber. He was a masterful teacher who shared his knowledge, insight, and scholarly resources with students and colleagues; a tough critical reader who penetrated deeply into texts; and a brilliant thinker and great strategist of analytical endeavors. I will always be thankful for his years of patient and passionate supervision of my work. A keen reader will easily see the extent of his impact on this book and my other writings. Chuck was also the outside reader of my first dissertation on state formation in Europe. He was without a doubt the best academic mentor I could have encountered, and I miss him enormously. Nasser Pakdaman, an exiled intellectual and scholar, not only pushed me to continue my education but also provided me with insights, references, and critical responses to earlier drafts of my work when I was preparing it as a dissertation. The late Houshang Keshavarz Sadr, an insightful scholar of Iranian history and society, possessed immense knowledge of historical sources and was an invaluable interlocutor. These two scholars sharpened some of my initial thoughts, guided me to the right sources, and helped shape many important elements of this book, and I greatly appreciate their friendship and support. I have also enjoyed support, friendship, and wise academic advices from Misagh Parsa, Saeed Rahnema, and Ariel Salezmann. Upon graduation, I was lucky to land in the Department of History at Loyola University New Orleans. New Orleans is the perfect place to dream. It has its own pace and charm. Here, I ended up in a serious, collegial, and supportive department that continually accommodated me in my writing and other academic adventures. The very wise David Moore always asked for a clear but balanced view, and the astutely critical Mark Fernandez always asked for precise and sharp arguments, and both encouraged and pushed me to finish the book. My colleagues in a small but efficient multidisciplinary research faculty workshop at Loyola (John Sebastian, Alice Clark, Nathan Henne, Laura Hope, and Edward McClellan) read and commented on most of these chapters as a work in progress. The university also supported my research through the Summer Marquette New Faculty Fellowship and the Bobet Summer Fellowship. My good fortune at Loyola University also includes having many good students. Among them Nate Thacker and Keaton Posler read, edited, and commented on early drafts of the first two chapters, and Michael Krautkraemer edited and commented on much of the manuscript in its later stages. Many other people have helped me along the way. Reza Maghoul encouraged and facilitated my return to school. Leyli Shayegan, Nahid Mozaffari, Betty Fussell,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii Mahshad Mohit, Mahnaz Moazami, and Melissa McDaniel read, critiqued, and edited the manuscript in its different stages and helped bring the project to its final form. I have discussed ideas in this book with my wife, Jilla Moazami, from long before writing anything down through every stage of putting the book together. Jilla has helped me define and chase my various obsessions in life for almost four decades. I am especially indebted to the magical intervention of my dear friend and colleague Guy Baldwin. For years he has given the best possible personal, academic, and intellectual advice at the Center for Studies of Social Change, and he ultimately lent his complex mind, affinity with social and historical analysis, and mastery of the English language to my dissertation and now to this book. The text would not have been conceived as it is without his intervention. He is a good friend, a relentless editor, and a sharp critic, and I am thankful and indebted to him. I also want to thank Flora Kenson from Integra Software Services who carefully and patiently supervised the copy editing and formatting of this manuscript. If there is any value in this book, the credit goes to these and many other members of my extended tribe. Needless to say, all remaining deficiencies in it are mine. Note on Transliteration For the rendering of Persian terms, I have used a modified version of the method used by the Encyclopædia Iranica; the Arabic terms and expressions have also been rendered in the Persian system for the sake of uniformity. Asterisks were omitted to avoid unnecessary complications and to make the presentation more user friendly.