chapter 9 The Five Republics

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1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OKLAHOMA chapter 9 The Five Republics Key Themes Intellectual and Religious Development With the support of Christian missionary groups, the Five Tribes establish religious structures and school systems. Democracy and Civil Rights The Southeastern Indians write Oklahoma s first constitutions and establish republican forms of government. Commerce and Economic Development The Five Tribes economy hinges on ranching and agriculture, supported by black slave labor. Multicultural Heritage Religious songs called spirituals express the slave experience among the Five Tribes people. Objectives Describe the constitutions and governments of the Five Tribes after their removal to Indian Territory Explain the ways in which Indians of the Five Tribes made a living Discuss the work of missionaries in Indian Territory and the Five Tribes reaction to them Key TERMs legislative branch executive branch judicial branch bill of rights blood feud stern-wheelers reservation denominations 132

2 Overview Following the trauma of removal, the Five Southeastern Tribes rebuild their society in Oklahoma. Some write constitutions; all set up representative governments. They clear land for small and large farms and ranches. With the help of white Christian missionaries, they also rebuild their social and cultural institutions. Thomas Farnham was impressed. In 1839, he had left his native England to explore North America and to be amused by its savages. His trip had gone according to plan until he got to Indian Territory. There he was given a copy of the Choctaw Nation s new constitution. What he saw moved him almost to poetry: At the time when the lights of religion and science had scarcely begun to dawn upon them... they read on all the holy battlements, written with beams of living light, all men are, and of right ought to be, free and equal. This teaching leads them to rear in the Great Prairie wilderness a sanctuary of republican liberty. Farnham may have romanticized the document, but his basic assumption was correct: the Choctaws and others of the Five Southeastern Tribes cherished their right to govern themselves. As soon as they arrived in Indian Territory, they began to reorganize their tribal governments along lines similar to those in the East. Key People and Events 1834 Fort Washita is established 1834 Choctaws write a constitution at Tuskahoma 1840 Cherokees adopt a new constitution 1842 Choctaws create a school system 1846 Wheelock Church is built 1846 Cherokee seminaries are built 1856 Chickasaws write a constitution 1859 Butterfield Overland Route opens 1859 Creeks adopt a written constitution 133

3 chapter 9 NEW MEXICO COLORADO NO MAN S LAND (United States) Indian Nation Capital U.S. Military Forts Early Settlements Modern Cities miles N Beaver Cr. SEMINOLE NATION kilometers North Fork of Red R. (Claimed by Texas February 8, 1860) GREER COUNTY Cimarron R. Washita R. Ft. Cobb LEASED DISTRICT Camp Radziminski Red R. KANSAS CHEROKEE OUTLET North Fork of Canadian R. Canadian R. Wichita Agency Chouteau s Trading Post Arkansas R. CREEK NATION Oklahoma City Greenleaf s Store Seminole Agency Clear Boggy R. Ft. Arbuckle CHICKASAW NATION TEXAS Verdigris R. Tullahassee Mission Creek Council Grounds Blue R. Tishomingo Ft. Washita CHEROKEE NATION Creek Agency Camp Holmes Edward s Perryville Post Muddy Boggy R. Boggy Depot Tulsa Kiamichi R. Ft. McCulloch Armstrong Academy Grand R. Tahlequah San Bois Cr. QUAPAW CHOCTAW NATION Doaksville Ft. Towson SENECA ARKANSAS Park Hill Ft. Gibson Ft. Smith Skullyville Eagletown Indian Territory prior to the Civil War Governmental Reconstruction The Five Tribes were the first peoples in Oklahoma to write constitutions to establish republican forms of government. Choctaw National Government The nearly 13,000 Choctaws wrote a constitution that was their second but Oklahoma s first. On June 3, 1834, tribal representatives gathered at Nanih Waiya, near Tuskahoma in present Pushmataha County. The constitution that they wrote envisioned a government with three branches. The legislative branch was a unicameral (single-chamber) council of 10 representatives from three districts that met annually. Its executive branch consisted of three district chiefs who were elected for four years and governed together. Three appointed judges composed the judicial branch, while a lighthorse of 18 elected peace officers enforced the law. The constitution included a bill of rights (a document stating basic rights of the people that are protected from government violation) and extended voting rights to all males 16 years of age and older. This impressive document restored political authority west of the Mississippi to the Choctaws themselves. The Chickasaw National Government The Chickasaws benefited from the Choctaws governmental experience. The 4,900 Chickasaws who came to Young, educated, and ambitious, Peter Pitchlynn ( ) was a principal author of the Choctaw constitution of 1834 Oklahoma s first constitution. He represented the Choctaws in Washington, D.C., and he was their chief during the Civil War. 134 the story of oklahoma

4 Indian Territory after 1837 expected to become citizens of the Choctaw Nation. They were assigned a specific district in which to settle and given the right to participate on an equal basis in the established Choctaw government. But within a decade they found this minority status restrictive. In 1855 they negotiated a treaty with the Choctaws that permitted them to create an independent nation of their own. In the following year they drafted their own constitution, creating a government almost identical to that of the Choctaws and establishing their capital at Tishomingo in Johnston County. Cyrus Harris was elected as the first governor of the Chickasaws. The Cherokee National Government Establishing constitutional government was relatively easy for the Choctaws and the Chickasaws, but not for other tribes. The 11,500 Cherokees led by John Ross had arrived in Indian Territory early in John Jolly and other leaders of the 5,000 Western and treaty-party Cherokees met the newcomers and invited them to participate fully in the existing government, centered at Tahlonteskee. Ross declined and insisted that the Old Settlers should join with the emigrants to write a new constitution. When the Western Cherokees demanded that their government should remain, Ross and the Eastern Cherokees blamed their stubbornness on the hated treaty party. What followed was almost predictable. Apparently without the knowledge of John Ross, his supporters invoked the law of blood revenge. On June 22, 1839, Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot all signers of the Treaty of New Echota were brutally killed. Stand chapter 9 Cherokee chief John Ross invited 21 regional tribes to send representatives to Tahlequah to discuss problems stemming from the removal process. Meeting in June 1843, the delegates worked hard to draw up an agreement of peace, friendship, and mutual support. John Mix Stanley captured the earnestness of the council in this painting. the five republics 135

5 chapter 9 Educated in mission schools in the Cherokee Nation and New England, Elias Boudinot ( ) was a brilliant language expert and the editor of the Cherokee Phoenix. He was assassinated in 1839 for having signed the Cherokee removal treaty of New Echota. Watie gathered members of the treaty party to avenge the deaths of his uncle, cousin, and brother. For seven long years, the two groups carried on a blood feud (a conflict between family members that ends in murder). Although Ross had a part in the disorder, he wanted unity for the tribe, not division. At his call, the Cherokees gathered in July to organize a new government for the whole tribe. Not many Western Cherokees came, but the esteemed Sequoyah took a leadership role. On July 12, 1839, the convention adopted a formal Act of Union, which declared that the Eastern and Western Cherokees were one body politic. The next September, another convention adopted a fundamental, organizing law similar to the constitution of A third convention, this time with the Western Cherokees participating, was held in It ratified the constitution and set Tahlequah as the tribal capital. This document remained in place for the next 66 years. Creek National Government The Creeks had no experience with constitutional government when they arrived in Indian Territory. Like the Cherokees, they had come in two different groups the treaty party, or Lower Creeks, in 1826 and the Upper Creeks 10 years later. But in contrast to the Cherokee experience, the more than 15,000 late arrivals agreed to accept the leadership of the 2,500 Western Creeks, namely, Roley McIntosh. Moreover, the newcomers also agreed to live in a more remote district of their new homeland, to continue the dual division of the tribe. Government among the Creeks was not centralized. All of the nearly 50 towns of the confederation were important. Each town recognized a hereditary principal chief, or king, and a second chief. Besides his local duties, the king represented the town at the regional Upper Towns or Lower Towns council and at the National Council. The chiefs of the Upper Town and Lower Town districts presided over their separate councils but sat together on the National Council. Organized in 1840, the National Council met at High Spring, just north of Hitchita in McIntosh County. In 1859, representatives of the Upper and Lower Creeks joined to produce the tribe s first written constitution. It maintained the two divisions of the tribe, including the dual executive branch. But it departed dramatically from tradition by changing the town and division chiefs to elected positions. The Lower Creeks elected Motey Kennard as their principal chief, while the Upper Creeks selected Echo Harjo. Seminole Tribal Government Of the Five Tribes, the Seminoles had the least organized government and for good reason. Federal officials intended that the 4,000 or so Florida natives who were removed to Indian Territory would become a part of the Creek Nation, much as the Chickasaws had been joined to the Choctaws. But the Seminoles always objected to that plan. They feared that the Creeks would rob them of their slaves and of their identity as a people. With the encouragement of the United States and the consent of the Creeks, in 1845 the Seminoles left their temporary camps near Fort Gibson, settled on Little River (near Wewoka), and lived according to their own laws. For them, as for the Creeks, the basic governmental unit was the town. The 25 Seminole towns had their own chiefs and councils of warriors and often acted independently. An annual summer meeting of the town chiefs 136 the story of oklahoma

6 and leading men advised Chief Micanopy, who spoke for the Seminole Nation as a whole. The Seminoles small degree of autonomy from the Creeks did not satisfy all of them. In 1849, national councilor Wildcat and former slave John Horse organized a group of Seminole, Creek, and Black Seminole warriors to establish a colony south of the Rio Grande in Mexico. Anxious to prevent a mass departure, especially of their slaves, the Creeks agreed to Seminole independence in a treaty signed in The Seminoles received their own domain in the West, and they promptly moved there. Under their new chief, John Jumper, the Seminoles reestablished their towns and built a national council house near present Trousdale in Pottawatomie County. chapter 9 Economic Reconstruction As the Five Tribes reestablished their governments in Indian Territory, they also began rebuilding their economies. For the traditionalists, that meant selecting new farm sites, clearing small fields out of the timber, and planting patches of corn, beans, potatoes, peas, pumpkins, and melons. Many also planted fruit trees. It was hard work, especially when floods in one year and drought in another wiped out the crops. Most of these farmers did not plant for the commercial market, but they were so skillful that they often produced surpluses, which were sold to forts from Fort Smith to Fort Washita and to people in border towns. Other tribespeople selected farm sites in the lowlands along the Red, Washita, Arkansas, Canadian, and Verdigris rivers. With the help of slave labor, they cleared and cultivated the fields, which they planted with cotton. Steamboats that they owned carried their harvests to markets in New Orleans and sometimes Cincinnati. Robert M. Jones of the Choctaws was one of the more successful cotton growers. He maintained six large Red River plantations, owned more than 300 slaves, and operated his own steamboats. A Different Kind of Slavery Slavery had been introduced among the Five Tribes long before they were removed to Indian Territory. At the Choctaw Robert M. Jones ( ) maintained six plantations, 300 slaves, two steamboats, and 28 trading stores. He represented the Choctaws in Richmond, Virginia, during the Civil War and in Washington, D.C. Rose Hill, his two-story mansion near Hugo, was the most elegant house in the Choctaw Nation. time of removal, the Cherokees owned nearly 1,600 slaves, more than any other tribe owned. In the West, slavery grew rapidly among all the tribes. By 1860, the more than 8,300 slaves in Indian Territory were 14 percent of the total population. Fewer than 10 percent of the Indians owned slaves, however. Slavery among the Five Tribes differed from slavery elsewhere in the American South. It rested less heavily upon the bondsmen held by the Creeks and the Seminoles, whose slaves cultivated their own plots of land, acquired personal property, acted as interpreters, and moved about with relative freedom. Often, African Americans and Indians married one another, even though the five republics 137

7 PROFILES John Horse, Lieutenant E. R. S. Canby of the U.S. Army was given the task of conducting about 100 Seminole Indians from Florida to the Creek Agency in what is now Oklahoma. In August 1842, he took them by steamboat to New Orleans and then up the Mississippi and Arkansas rivers. At Little Rock, low water grounded the steamboat. Canby tried to buy supplies to continue the trip overland, but he did not have enough money. To his surprise, one of the Seminoles volunteered to lend him $1,500. What made this offer especially unusual was that it was made by John Horse a Black Seminole slave. Of Indian, Spanish, and African ancestry, Horse was born a slave in Florida around Among the Seminoles, slavery was different from elsewhere. Slaves had a lot of personal freedom and usually lived in separate villages next to the Seminole towns. About the only thing their masters required of them was a share of their agriculture products and a recognition of subservience. In the Seminoles war with the United States, which began late in 1835, John Horse represented both the war chief, Alligator, and the head chief, Micanopy. John Horse was a fine-looking fellow of six feet... [with] a jaunty air that would fix your attention at sight, and he dressed very well. The war of Alligator and Micanopy was John Horse s war too, because removal to Oklahoma might mean that the Black Seminoles would be sold to white or Creek slaveholders. He fought so bravely over the next two years that the traditional tribal leaders recognized him as a subchief of the Black Seminoles. Ignoring truce flags, the U.S. Army imprisoned John Horse, Wildcat, Osceola, and other chiefs at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida, in September They were prisoners for less than 90 days. Working an iron bar loose to create an opening, John Horse, Wildcat, and 20 other Seminoles slipped out to freedom. They rejoined their comrades and continued to fight for another year. By that time, Micanopy and Alligator had tired of the struggle and agreed to move to Oklahoma. That decision by his chiefs caused John Horse to change sides in the conflict. At that time, the U.S. Army was trying to round up Seminole bands who resisted removal to Oklahoma. So, until 1842, John Horse and other Black Seminoles worked for the army as scouts and interpreters. It was not popular work, but it was lucrative. His army pay was probably what John Horse loaned to Lieutenant Canby on the trip to Oklahoma. Once in Indian Territory, John Horse and his wife joined the emigrant Seminoles in their camps near Fort Gibson. Micanopy welcomed John Horse to the tribal councils. Because of his loyalty and his skills as a diplomat, Micanopy had John Horse declared a free man the next year. But his freedom was a mixed blessing. John Horse now lived in daily fear of being kidnapped by slave catchers from Arkansas and sold back into bondage. He also faced danger from some Seminoles who resented his support of the U.S. Army in the recent war. One of those men had shot a horse out from under him. John Horse did not know which was worse: angry Indians or thieving slave catchers. By the 1840s, Chief John Horse had become a principal spokesman for the Seminoles. He was an interpreter for a tribal delegation that went to Washington. He also helped negotiate an agreement with the Creeks that allowed the Seminoles and their slaves to settle in the western part of the Creek Nation. The chief then helped his band of Black Seminoles establish a community that they called Wewoka, the capital of the Seminole Nation. Today it is the county seat of Seminole County, Oklahoma. John Horse had hoped that the Black Seminoles could live peacefully in their separate towns. But whites and Indians of other tribes constantly tried to 138 the story of oklahoma

8 chapter 9 The offer of a reward for the capture of Allen, a runaway slave, is a reminder that slavery was a denial of freedom. The advertisement was published in the Cherokee Advocate on October 23, This sketch of John Horse ( ), or Gopher John, is the only known image of him. capture them and sell them into slavery. By 1849, Chief Horse had had enough. He and his friend Wildcat gathered Black and other Seminoles and fled south to find refuge in Mexico. Descendants of those people still live along the Rio Grande today. John Horse remained their chief until his death in Horse is important in Oklahoma history even though he spent only seven years in the region. His story is a reminder of who the state s early pioneers were several thousand black men and women who lived and worked in obscurity but nonetheless helped knit the social fabric that is Oklahoma today. Further Reading: Kenneth W. Porter, The Black Seminoles: History of a Freedom- Seeking People, revised and edited by Alcione M. Amos and Thomas P. Senter (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996). to do so was illegal. Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw slaves led a more restricted life, but it was less demeaning than that of slaves with white plantation owners. Slavery may have been less harsh in Indian Territory, but it still denied freedom to those involved. In 1842, thirtyfive Cherokee slaves belonging to Joseph Vann and other slaveholders ran away and fled west toward Mexico, but they were captured and returned to their owners. Uncle Wallace Willis and Aunt Minerva, slaves of Choctaw owners, expressed their longing for freedom by composing the spirituals Swing Low, Sweet Chariot and Steal Away to Jesus. The freedom for which they longed did not come until Ranching In addition to farming, the Five Tribes raised livestock. On the prairies of their domain, the Creeks ranged large herds of cattle and hogs. In 1846, they sold 1,000 hogs to buyers as far away as Indiana. The Chickasaws were famous for their distinctive horses and for large herds of cattle, sheep, and goats that grazed their open fields. In 1859, Cherokee stockmen pastured 24,000 head of cattle and 20,000 horses and mules. Some Five Tribes people depended on the hunt for part the five republics 139

9 chapter 9 of their food. Fortunately for them, the forest was filled with white-tailed deer and smaller animals. Some people even journeyed to the plains in search of buffalo, but that effort was more for sport than for food. Commercial Development Along with the revival of agriculture, a thriving commerce evolved. Annuity payments from the federal government and the profits from farming and ranching were used to buy goods imported by enterprising Indian merchants and licensed white traders. These included Elijah Hicks among the Cherokees, G. W. Stidham among the Creeks, Robert M. Jones among the Choctaws, and Benjamin Franklin Colbert among the Chickasaws. Some tribespeople, like Cherokee Jesse Chisholm, traded regularly with the various tribes that roamed western Oklahoma. Indian merchants centered their operations in strategically located towns. The list of these commercial centers is long, but among the most important were Tahlequah in the Cherokee Nation, North Fork Town in the Creek Nation, Doaksville in the Choctaw Nation, and Pontotoc in the Chickasaw Nation. Most shops lined a single main street, with small houses clustered behind them. Each town had its own U.S. post office, and two had their own newspapers the Cherokee Advocate at Tahlequah and the Choctaw Intelligencer at Doaksville. Transportation Network No systematic transportation network connected the commercial centers in Indian Territory. Goods and people followed the wagon roads and trails that the U.S. military had built in the 1820s and 1830s. These routes linked the forts, especially Fort Smith with Fort Towson. Heavier traffic flowed along the famous northeast-southwest Texas Road (currently U.S. Highway 69 and the Union Pacific Railroad tracks). Most people who followed those roadways were headed south toward Stephen Austin s Texas rather than to a destination among the Five Tribes. In the 1850s, two new trails were established to accommodate people and goods passing through Oklahoma. One of these was the familiar eastwest route that followed the Canadian River. Marked clearly in 1839 by Josiah Gregg, a prominent Santa Fe trader, it was surveyed officially on two later occasions by the U.S. Army. Captain Randolph B. Marcy evaluated it in 1849 as an overland route to California goldfields, and Lieutenant A. W. Whipple assessed it in 1853 as a possible route for a transcontinental railroad. The government s interest made the so-called California Trail a major east-west thoroughfare across Five Tribes lands before the Civil War. Another road passing through Indian Territory to California was the route of the Butterfield Overland Mail, a mail and passenger stagecoach service. Established in 1859 to connect St. Louis with Los Angeles, this road entered Oklahoma at Fort Smith and made its way southwest to Colbert s Ferry on the Red River. Along the route, horse-pulled stagecoaches carried passengers and the U.S. mail twice each week, stopping at 14 stations within the Choctaw Nation to change horse teams and to give weary travelers some rest. The trip across Oklahoma took 45 hours. When the Civil War broke out, the stage company closed its operations in Indian Territory, but the road itself remained a major transportation artery linking Arkansas and Texas. But overland traffic was not nearly as important to the commercial life of the Five Tribes as was river transportation. Only the Red and the Arkansas rivers were actu- Steamboats, such as these two stern-wheelers at Webbers Falls, became the preferred method of commercial transportation to and from Indian Territory after They remained important through the 1880s. 140 the story of oklahoma

10 Tryphena s Husband: A Big Bug for the Country Charles Fanning Stewart was born in Connecticut $1,100, as well as 75 head of cattle, 55 hogs, and in When he was 16 years old, he left New 10 horses. He was sorry, he wrote his mother, that England for New Orleans. There he worked for a he had not married sooner, for when I was single I firm of wholesale merchants for five years. By 1841, sought every means but the right to make me happy he was in Doaksville, Choctaw Nation, clerking without success. In 1845, the Stewarts owned their for a merchant in that community. His salary was store, a tavern, five slaves, and 400 to 500 head of $1,200 per year, plus room and board. The following year, he married Tryphena Wall. A member a tolerable big bug for this country. cattle, horses, and hogs. Charles was, as he put it, of an elite Choctaw mixed-blood family, she had In July 1849, Tryphena Stewart died, leaving four been educated in schools of the American Board small children and a deeply bereaved husband. of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). Charles buried Tryphena in the Doaksville cemetery Through his marriage to Tryphena, Charles became a under a slab with the simple marking Tryphena s citizen of the Choctaw Nation. The couple moved to Grave. Four months later, he married again. His Mayhew, a hamlet just north of Boswell in Choctaw business continued to prosper. Within two years, County, and opened a general merchandise store. he was able to buy the steamer Sun to carry his The Stewarts prospered in their new location on own freight upstream from New Orleans. About the road between Fort Towson and Fort Washita. 1855, tragedy struck. The Stewart Store at Mayhew Charles built a fine house, one of the handsomest places in this District, and a new store building. the fire. He never recovered from the exertion and caught fire, and Charles rushed to save his safe from Within a year, he was able to purchase two slaves for died within the year. chapter 9 ally navigable, although larger craft could occasionally travel in some of the deeper tributaries. The goods destined to go upriver to the Indian nations after 1820 came first in keelboats and then in steamboats. In 1828, four stern-wheelers (riverboats propelled by a rear-end paddle wheel) the Velocipede, Scioto, Catawba, and Highland Laddie reached Fort Gibson, making it the beginning of navigation on the Arkansas River. Between Fort Gibson and Fort Smith, the boats stopped at 22 landings. On the Red River, successful navigation required removal of a 150-mile logjam (called the Great Raft), but stern-wheelers pushed regularly to the mouths of the Kiamichi and Washita rivers in the 1840s. Manufacturing In their western domains, the Five Tribes engaged in limited yet significant industrial activity. Energetic members of the tribe operated gristmills and sawmills, while others opened saltworks and cotton gins. Some even manufactured spinning wheels and looms for government distribution among the Indians. Reestablishment of Religious Life As the Five Tribes rebuilt their economies, they also resumed a meaningful social life. The religious observances and guidance that took place before their removal to Indian Territory continued in their new homelands. Traditional Traditionalists rekindled sacred fires and retained their faith in the power of secret medicines. At least once each year, they gathered to renew clan ties, to honor their elders, to participate in sacred dances, to take medicine, and to light new fires. These gatherings were widespread and involved large numbers of Oklahoma s newest residents. What is known about them today is minimal, however, mainly because participants were reluctant to the five republics 141

11 PROFILES Black Beaver, Black Beaver was once trying to impress on a Comanche friend that the ways of the whites were better than those of the Indians. In signs and in broken Comanche, Black Beaver told his friend that white people knew that the earth was round. How could that be, his friend asked, when everyone could see that the prairie was flat? What was more, said the Comanche, his grandfather had actually been to the end of the earth and seen the sun set behind a wall. Black Beaver then described the steam engines that he had seen with his own eyes and how they propelled huge boats up rivers. The Comanche did not believe it. He said that Black Beaver must have been dreaming. U.S. Army captain Randolph B. Marcy observed the entire conversation. He thought that both Indians might be impressed with the wonders of the new telegraph. He explained the invention to Black Beaver and then told him to tell the Comanche. Black Beaver thought about that for a moment and said, I don t think I tell him that, Captain, for the truth is, I don t believe it myself. Black Beaver was a member of the Delaware tribe. His people took great pride in having signed the first treaty with William Penn. Since those days of power and prestige, they had been pushed steadily westward. In the early nineteenth century when Black Beaver was born, the Delawares were in Illinois. From there, his part of the tribe moved to northeast Arkansas. By the late 1820s, it was living along the south bank of the Canadian River in what is now Hughes County. The Delawares had always been exceptional guides, and Black Beaver was one of the best. Any geographical landmark that he saw once, he always recognized again, even if he saw it from a different direction. He could also ride into any abandoned Indian camp and tell exactly what tribe had camped there and when. Black Beaver With such skills, Black Beaver was in great demand as a guide. As a young man, he had accompanied brigades of the American Fur Company on expeditions to the headwaters of the Missouri River. In 1843, he helped escort John James Audubon, a student and painter of birds, to the Yellowstone country. Black Beaver also guided several army units that were exploring the West, including one commanded by John Charles Fremont and two led by Randolph B. Marcy. In 1846, Black Beaver signed on as a scout for Colonel William S. Harney during the Mexican War. According to Black Beaver s own account, by 1853 he had seen the Pacific Ocean on seven different trips. In the 1850s, worn out by his journeys, Black Beaver focused on his family and farm. By then, he was a meager-looking man of middle size, and his long black hair framed a face that was clever, but which bore a melancholy expression of sickness and sorrow. He and other Delawares occupied the abandoned buildings of the first Fort Arbuckle in McClain 142 the story of oklahoma

12 County, where they cleared fields and planted corn. In 1859, they joined the Wichitas and other tribes on a new reservation (a tract of land assigned exclusively to a single Indian tribe) farther west. There Black Beaver built a four-room log house, cultivated 90 acres, and ranged 600 head of cattle and 300 hogs. When the Civil War came to Indian Territory in 1861, the Delaware guide lost all those improvements. He led the outnumbered U.S. troops to safety in Kansas, where he and his family stayed throughout the war. When the conflict ended, he returned to the Washita River valley, establishing a homestead near the Wichita Agency. Soon he had 100 acres planted in corn and a new house, the first in what is today Anadarko. In the last years of his life, Black Beaver participated in Indian councils called to promote peace on the Southern Plains. He also embraced Christianity, becoming an active member of the Baptist Church. Captain Marcy had found Black Beaver to be reliable, brave, competent, and without vanity. A fellow Baptist described him as one of God s noblemen, honest and truthful. He was all of that and much more. As one of the foremost guides of the American West, he brought international recognition to Oklahoma during the nineteenth century. Above all, he showed that Indian society was not rigid, that over time it could adapt to different cultural patterns. Black Beaver, in the course of his lifetime, had been a hunter, a warrior, a guide, a farmer, a peacemaker, and a lay Christian preacher. Further Reading: Carolyn Thomas Foreman, Black Beaver, Chronicles of Oklahoma 24 (August 1946): Photographed with his wife, Randolph B. Marcy ( ) saw service in the Black Hawk and Mexican wars. He was on active duty in the Southwest from 1847 to 1857, exploring the Canadian and Red rivers in Oklahoma. record their faith and practices in the writing system of whites. Presbyterian Because its adherents left written records and because it won the battle of religions, much more is known about Christianity in Indian Territory. Among the most influential missionaries were those sent by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. As we have seen, the ABCFM sent its first missionaries to the Five Tribes when they still lived in the East. With removal, its workers followed their converts to Oklahoma, reestablishing Presbyterian congregations and organizing new ones. By 1860, some 500 ABCFM workers had served in Indian Territory. Two of the most noted missionaries in American history served in ABCFM stations in Indian Territory. chapter 9 the five republics 143

13 chapter 9 Fort Nichols Santa Fe Trail N NO MAN S LAND miles kilometers Beaver Creek SEMINOLE NATION North Fork of Red River GREER COUNTY Cimarron River California Rd. Washita River Red River CHEROKEE OUTLET North Fork of Canadian River Rock Mary LEASED DISTRICT Canadian River CHICKASAW NATION Arkansas River CREEK NATION Clouteau s California Rd. Edwards Post CHEROKEE NATION North Fork Town Mustang Creek Delaware The Mound Mound Geary s Boggy Depot Atoka Nail s Fort Washita Crossing Carriage Point Colbert s Ferry Verdigris River Coal Creek Kiamichi River Grand River Cooper Creek Salina Fort Gibson Skullyville Ford Holloway s Perry s Riddle s Pulsey s Buffalo Station Blackburn s Waddell s Texas Rd. CHOCTAW NATION Butterfield Overland Route Brazil Station Important routes and trails, 1858 One of these was Cyrus Byington, who worked among the Choctaws at Stockbridge Mission, near present Eagletown in McCurtain County. The other was Samuel A. Worcester, who ministered to the Cherokees at Park Hill, just southwest of Tahlequah. Byington converted the Choctaw language to written form, while Worcester printed millions of pages of material in both the Cherokee and the Choctaw languages. Other venerable ABCFM missionaries included Cyrus Kingsbury at Pine Ridge, near Fort Towson in Choctaw County, and Alfred Wright at Wheelock, just east of Valliant in McCurtain County. Wright was Byington s co-worker in learning the Choctaw language. The Presbyterian church he organized in 1832 is the oldest in Oklahoma; the stone building constructed in 1846 still stands. The Foreign Mission Board of the Presbyterian Church was also With Presbyterian support and administration, Tullahassee (just north of Muskogee) opened in 1848 as a boarding school for the benefit of Creek Indian children. Superintendent William Robertson and his wife, Ann Eliza Worcester, shared administrative and teaching duties there for 35 years. Oklahoma congresswoman Alice Robertson was born there. 144 the story of oklahoma

14 HOW ITWorks Moving A Keelboat Upstream Keelboat men moved their craft up the Arkansas and Red rivers in a variety of ways. If the wind was right, and it seldom was, sails were hoisted to propel the boat. Where the current was slow, the crew used oars, and where the bottom was firm, they could use poles to move the boat. But the current was often swift and the bottom was often soft, so the crew spent most days cordelling which was more like skinning a mule than piloting a boat. In cordelling, as many as 20 men stepped ashore hundred feet and anchor it to a tree. Then the crew and pulled the vessel upstream with a towline the on the keelboat would reel it in, pulling the craft to cordelle. The line was tied to the top of the mast to lift the tree. it clear of bushes along the bank. The men onshore With cordelling and warping, keelboats could did not have the benefit of paths. They crashed cover some 10 to 15 miles per day, but they were a through underbrush, scrambled across steep bluffs, distinctly pedestrian mode of navigation. and slopped through muddy shallows. When both banks were impassable, they resorted to warping. A Source: Paul O Neil, The Rivermen (New York: Time-Life small boat would take the cordelle upstream several Books, 1975), 64. chapter 9 active among the Five Tribes. Robert M. Loughridge and William S. Robertson, along with their wives, served as ministers and educators among the Creeks at Koweta (now Coweta) and at Tullahassee, just north of Muskogee. John Bemo, John Lilly, and J. Ross Ramsey and their families did similar work among the Seminoles at Oak Ridge, southeast of Holdenville. The board also managed and staffed major schools among the Choctaws and the Chickasaws. Baptist Sponsored by their Foreign Mission Board, the Baptists were almost as active in Indian Territory as the Presbyterians. Evan Jones was the dean of Baptist missionaries. He had begun his work among the Cherokees before their removal and followed them to Indian Territory in Appealing to full-blood traditionalists, Wheelock Church was organized in 1832 among the Choctaws and is Oklahoma s oldest Christian (Presbyterian) church. This building was constructed in Still used as a place of worship, it is located near Millerton in McCurtain County. the five republics 145

15 PROFILES Sophia Nye Byington, One evening, Sophia Byington finished her chores at the barn and returned to her one-and-a-half-story, double-pen log house (a house with two rooms, each with its own door) to make dinner for her two sons, Cyrus and Horatio. Her husband Cyrus Byington, an American Board missionary to the Choctaws was away on a preaching tour. She expected him back at their home near present Eagletown in the next day or two. Their only daughter, Lucy, was away at school in Ohio. Once inside the house, Sophia noticed that 30-month-old Horatio, born when she was 44 years old, had a fever. Sophia fed him and his older brother and then put them to bed. Horatio s fever did not lessen during the night, and it got worse the next day. Sophia was holding Horatio when her husband returned. He administered medicine, but it did not help. Baby Horatio died that night. The next afternoon, August 19, 1846, Sophia and Cyrus buried their son in a small grave next to one where the baby s older brother was buried. Sophia s loss was almost more than she could bear. Horatio s last sigh, she wrote to daughter Lucy, dissolved earth s charms for me. For nearly 19 years, Sophia had labored with her husband in the Choctaw mission field, doing everything from cooking and washing to tending cattle and hoeing corn, teaching school and nursing the sick, copying and proofreading her husband s manuscripts, having babies and changing diapers, and being a lady & everybody s humble servant. On two occasions, she had nearly died from serious illness. And now her baby was dead. How could she go on? There was no answer to that question, other than with courage. In a way, courage was Sophia s middle name. She had grown up in a prosperous household in Marietta, Ohio, and had the benefit of some education. In October 1827, she met a scholarly, older gentleman who had been working in the Choctaw mission field for seven years. After knowing Sophia for less than a week, Cyrus Byington proposed marriage before he left on a preaching tour. While away, he wrote love letters to Sophia, urging her to marry him and to go with him back to Sophia Nye Byington the Choctaws. Sophia was impressed if not smitten, and she was 27, after all older than the typical bride. The couple were married in December. For the next 41 years, they were more than husband and wife: they were co-workers, friends, and mutual admirers. Sophia courageously said good-bye to her parents and went with her husband to his mission post in Mississippi. His duties there included teaching and preaching, but his passion was to learn the Choctaw language and to create a written form for it. Meanwhile, in her home in the woods, Sophia set up housekeeping, nursed and mothered Choctaw students, copied her husband s manuscripts, gardened, and began her own family. She had had three children by When the Choctaws later moved to Oklahoma, the missionaries followed. In 1835, Sophia bundled up her newborn baby and, with her two older children and Cyrus, set out fearlessly on the long trek to the new nation. They established their mission near Eagletown in McCurtain County, naming it Stockbridge. Sophia s first home in Indian Territory was a log cabin with plank wood floors. Nearby were 146 the story of oklahoma

16 a small cabin that her husband used as a study, and another that served as a schoolroom. The family lived in those quarters for the next nine years. Then they moved into the larger log house. It was closer to Iyanubbi, the boarding school that her husband managed after Sophia Byington and her husband served the Choctaws until the end of the Civil War. They ministered continually to the spiritual, educational, and physical needs of the Choctaws. And always the Byingtons, with the help of some others, worked on giving their beloved Choctaws a written language. The best measure of their efforts was that the Choctaws were widely acclaimed as a literate and Christian people by the time the Byingtons retired in In that year, the couple moved to their daughter s home in Ohio. Cyrus died there the next year; Sophia died 12 years later. Sophia Byington was certainly not the only nineteenth-century Oklahoma woman who suffered intense grief or exhibited great courage. Thousands did. Nor was she the only one who committed herself to a life of Christian service. Hundreds did. But few saw their duty so clearly and did it so diligently. It is well, she wrote, to wear out in a good cause. She did just that. Further Reading: Louis Coleman, Cyrus Byington: Missionary to the Choctaws, Chronicles of Oklahoma 52 (Fall 1984): ; and W. David Baird, Cyrus Byington and the Presbyterian Choctaw Mission, in Churchmen and the Western Indian, , edited by Clyde A. Milner and Floyd A. O Neil (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), Harriet Bunce Wright was the partner of her husband, missionary Alfred Wright. He ministered to the Choctaw congregation at Wheelock Church. She and her husband were given the task of working with the Choctaws to develop a written Choctaw language. Jones set up a large station north of Westville that included a church, a school, and a print shop. Jones and his foremost disciple, Dennis Bushyhead, published religious writings, a newspaper, and books of the Bible in both English and Cherokee. Unlike most Presbyterian missionaries, Jones strongly opposed slavery and often preached against it. Other noted Baptist missionaries included H. F. Buckner among the Creeks, Joseph S. Murrow among the Seminoles and the Choctaws, and Ramsey D. Potts among the Choctaws. Methodist Methodist missionary work among the Five Tribes had begun well before removal, and it continued in Indian Territory afterwards. The Methodist missionaries, unlike those of other denominations (large groups of religious chapter 9 the five republics 147

17 PROFILES Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson, Ann Eliza Robertson received a letter in June 1892 at her Muskogee address. The board of trustees of the University of Wooster in Wooster, Ohio, had awarded her an honorary doctor s degree for her study of languages. The news that she was the first woman in the United States to receive an honorary PhD was unexpected but also very welcome. Finally she had received recognition of her life s work. Robertson was born into a family where language was important. Her father, Samuel A. Worcester, was one of the earliest Christian missionaries to work among the Cherokees. At his post at Brainerd, in present Tennessee, he began a careful study of the Cherokee language, became fluent in it, and learned to write it, using Sequoyah s syllabary. Later, Worcester acquired a printing press and published Cherokee-language materials, many of which were biblical texts he had translated. The Cherokees, Worcester believed, should hear and read the Christian Gospel in their own language. One of four Worcester children, Ann Eliza went with the family to Indian Territory. There they reestablished her father s mission and printing press at Park Hill, near present Tahlequah. At the age of 15, she journeyed to Vermont to begin her own formal education and showed uncommon skill in Greek and Latin. After five years, she returned to Park Hill to help her father as a classroom teacher in the mission school. She did not stay there long. In 1850, she married William Robertson, a young Presbyterian minister. Together, they moved to Tullahassee, a mission school for the Creek Indians near present Muskogee. Ann Eliza lived and worked at Tullahassee for the next 35 years. Her responsibilities were enormous. She shared the administrative and teaching duties at the boarding school, which often enrolled more than 100 students. At one point, she was teaching six hours each day, besides supervising household chores that Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson ranged from making candles to washing and ironing for the whole school. She also had four children of her own to care for, and she endured ill health. Actually, ill health enabled Ann Eliza to devote time to her true interest translation of the Bible into the Muskogee language. That work alone, she believed, would give the Creeks and Seminoles, both Muskogee speakers, access to the saving power of the Gospel. Over the next half-century, she became a thorough scholar of the native language. She spoke it fluently, she helped in putting it in written form, and she learned its grammar rules. To her, the Creek language was not the work of man but the Creator s gift to man. To translate Scripture into Muskogee, Ann Eliza worked directly from the original Hebrew or Greek text. Others joined her in this labor, including her 148 the story of oklahoma

18 husband and a corps of talented young Creek men, but she was the leading scholar. She had an instinctive feeling for the function of language, one historian wrote, and an imaginative comprehension of how to adapt the modes of one language to those of another so that the translation is easily comprehensible. The crowning joy of her life came in 1887 when she received the first edition of the complete Muskogee New Testament. Not everyone believed that Robertson was making the best use of her time. The secretary of the mission board that supported her and her husband s ministry thought that the effort was wasted because the Creeks would soon understand English. Some kinfolk wrote that spending money, time, and life upon the Indians was of little use. Even members of her immediate family questioned her labor of love. A mother s first duty is the care of her own offspring, her son later wrote in criticism. Her three daughters, however, followed her into a life of service. One of them, Alice, was elected as Oklahoma s first woman member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson never wavered in her commitment to providing the Creeks and the Seminoles a Bible in their own language. How many of them embraced Christianity because of her labor is hard to say. But one thing is clear: her efforts helped preserve the Muskogee language, and in doing that, she helped preserve the Creek and Seminole culture that persists in eastern Oklahoma today. Further Reading: Hope Hollway, Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson as a Linguist, Chronicles of Oklahoma 37 (Spring 1959): Baptist missionaries and Choctaws opened Armstrong Academy near Bokchito as a boys boarding school in At its peak, the academy enrolled more than 50 students. Between 1863 and 1883, the building served as the Choctaw Nation s capitol. It was destroyed by fire in congregations united under a common name and a single administration), were assigned by regional conferences to work among the Indians as circuit-riding preachers. In 1844, a Methodist Indian Conference was organized at Riley s Mill near Tahlequah, with 11 stations in Indian Territory. Samuel G. Patterson worked among the Quapaws and other northeastern tribes, Thomas B. Ruble preached among the Creeks, and William H. Goode worked among the Choctaws. Moravians The Moravians had sent their first missionaries among the Cherokees as early as After removal of the Cherokees, the Moravians reestablished their missions in Indian Territory, near Oaks in Delaware County. Altogether, the Moravians ministered to the Cherokees for 100 years, but fewer than 200 Cherokees converted. All of the missionary societies assigned many women to serve in Indian Territory. One historian has counted at least 190 missionary women in Oklahoma before Some of them were the wives of ministers, teachers, or farm managers. But many were unmarried and came simply to teach in one of the several schools supervised by the missionary agencies. The contribution of these women to the religious and educational life of the Five Tribes is often overlooked. On the tombstone of C. M. Belden, who died after only two years of service among chapter 9 the five republics 149

19 chapter 9 the Choctaws, is a simple but eloquent epitaph: Here sleeps a Missionary. Whatever their denomination, the Christian missionaries among the Five Tribes had similar duties. First, of course, they were to preach the gospel. For most missionaries, this meant long and frequent trips to speak at different places. It also meant starting churches, training leaders, and counseling members. But missionaries also served in other ways. Many acted as doctors, dispensing medicine and making house calls. They organized societies based on the Bible, pamphlets, and opposition to the use of whiskey. They advised tribal leaders on constitutions and laws. Especially important was their work in converting all of the Five Tribes languages to written form except Cherokee, for which Sequoyah had already created a syllabary. This project helped the missionaries teach Christianity, but it also helped preserve the Indian languages. Since language and culture are nearly inseparable, preserving the languages of the Five Tribes helped preserve the traditions that made them unique peoples. Only this simple and nearly illegible stone recalls the ultimate sacrifice that Miss C. M. Belden made as a missionary and teacher at Goodwater in the Choctaw Nation. She died in Educational Reconstruction The missionaries made their greatest contribution in education. As they opened their churches in Indian Territory, they also opened schools. Almost every mission station had some kind of school. Usually it was a day school where students were taught to read and write in English. Eleven such schools existed among the Choctaws in 1836; tribal annuity funds supported eight others whose teachers were not missionaries. The missionaries also cooperated with the tribes in providing advanced educational opportunities. In 1842, for example, the Choctaws created a system of boarding schools financed by treaty annuities and staffed by several Christian mission boards (ABCFM, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist). The use of religion-based agencies to accomplish their social goals did not disturb the tribal leadership. Among the eight schools established before 1860 were Spencer, Fort Coffee, Wheelock, and Armstrong. The Chickasaws and the Creeks had similar experiences. The Chickasaws opened five schools during the 1850s: Chickasaw Manual Labor Academy, Bloomfield, Colbert Institute, Wapanucka, and Burney Institute. The Creeks established three: Koweta, Tullahassee, and Asbury Manual Labor School. All the boarding schools had a similar curriculum. Besides reading and writing in English, students received instruction in arithmetic, history, Latin, Greek, philosophy, biology, astronomy, and the Bible. Each student also received vocational training. Boys learned how to care for animals, grow a crop, and do carpentry and other mechanical arts. Girls learned about cooking, sewing, child care, and other household activities. In short, the curriculum was designed to educate the head, hands, and heart of each Indian after the fashion of white Americans. Although the curriculum was much the same, the organization and staffing of boarding schools among the Cherokees differed from the others. The schools at Park Hill and Dwight were both built and staffed by the ABCFM. But the architecturally magnificent Cherokee Male Seminary and Cherokee Female Seminary were built in 1846 with tribal funds and operated strictly under tribal authority. Cherokee-funded day schools also functioned without direct missionary participation. The Cherokees had separated church and state a century before the practice became popular in the United States. Whatever their organization and function, the school 150 the story of oklahoma

20 In 1842, the U.S. Army established Fort Washita southeast of Tishomingo in Murray County. Its aim was to protect the Chickasaws and Choctaws from hostile Plains tribes and from traders, trappers, and other migrants. Federal troops abandoned the fort in 1861, and it never reopened. The stone barracks seen here were first built in but fell into ruin after the Civil War. The Oklahoma Historical Society restored them in the 1970s. the U.S. government. In the 1830s and 1840s, they met in international councils, which western tribes also attended, to discuss common problems. Among the more troublesome difficulties they faced were efforts by leaders of Mexico and the Republic of Texas to draw them into the dispute between those countries. They had already pushed the western tribes to bloody warfare. Open discussion of the problems helped ease the tension, but so did the establishment of new U.S. military posts: Fort Coffee, on the Arkansas River ( ); Fort Wayne, near the Missouri border ( ); and Fort Washita, near present Durant ( ). The western borders of the Five Tribes remained in turmoil through the 1850s. To try to stabilize them, the United States built Fort Arbuckle near present Davis in Garvin County (moved from its first location in McClain County) and Fort Cobb in Caddo County. Officials also opened the Wichita Agency near present Anadarko and tried to resettle the Wichitas, the Comanches, the Kiowas, and other tribes to prevent conflicts between the tribes and Texans. The leaders of the Five Tribes strongly encouraged these arrangements. If the Civil War had not intervened, these efforts might very well have brought order to the border. chapter 9 systems of Indian Territory were commonly acknowledged as superior to those of neighboring states. Certainly a larger percentage of tribal funds was invested in education, and literacy levels (the percentage of people who could read and write) may even have been higher. International Relations The Five Tribes did not reestablish and develop their national institutions in isolation. They constantly interacted with each other, with tribes farther west, and with Why Is This Part of the Story Important? Historians have referred to the period before the American Civil War as the Golden Years of the Five Tribes. The amount and speed of acculturation was remarkable. The accomplishments of the Five Tribes during those years were many, but they often had little to do with the experiences of the majority of tribespeople. Modern studies have shown that the total population of the Southeastern Indians decreased by more than a third between the time of removal and the Civil War. Since populations decrease only when they are under great stress, the golden years apparently were golden for only a few. the five republics 151

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