Contents. 11 Characteristics of Basic Religions 13 Sources of Information Concerning Basic Religions 15 Prehistoric Beginnings of Basic Religion 17

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1 Contents Overview 1 A Definition of Religion 2 The Universality of Religion 4 Theories of the Origin of Religion 4 The Animistic Theories 5 The Nature-Worship Theory 6 The Theory of Original Monotheism 7 The Magic Theory 7 The Wish-Fulfillment Theory 8 Types of Religions 9 Basic or Primitive Religions 9 Religions Originating in India 9 Religions Originating in China and Japan 10 Religions Originating in the Middle East 10 Study Questions Basic Religions Characteristics of Basic Religions 13 Sources of Information Concerning Basic Religions 15 Prehistoric Beginnings of Basic Religion 17 Neandertal Religion 17 Cro-Magnon Religion 17 Neolithic Religion 19 Common Features of Basic Religions 20 Animism 21 Magic 22 Divination 23 Taboo 23 Totems 24 Sacrifice 26 Rites of Passage 27 Ancestor Veneration 28 Study Questions 28 Suggested Reading 29 xi

2 xii CONTENTS ~ American Indian Religions The Spirit World 33 Animism 34 Controls Over the Spirit World 35 Sacrifice 36 Taboos 36 Ceremonies and Rituals 38 Visions 39 Religious Leadership 40 Other Means of Contact With the Spirit World 42 Death and Life After Death 45 American Indian Religions Today 47 Study Questions 47 Suggested Reading 48 Source Material 49 American Indian Myths 49 Sioux Legend of the Buffalo Maiden 49 Zuni Genesis: The Creation and Emergence of Man ~ African Religions Non-Native African Religions 57 Christianity 57 Islam 58 Other Religions 59 Native Religions 60 The High God 60 The Lesser Spirits 62 Ancestors 64 Sacrifice 65 Rites of Passage 67 Religious Leaders 71 African Religions Today 73 Study Questions 74 Suggested Reading 74 Source Material 75 An African Divine King 75 An African Creation Story Religions Originating in India Hinduism 81 The Origins of Hinduism 83 Pre-Aryan India 83 The Coming of the Aryans 84 Aryan Religion 85 The Vedic Era 87 The Vedas 87 The Upanishads 92 The Code of Manu 94 Jainism and Buddhism 98

3 CONTENTS xiii Bhagavad-Gita 99 Postclassical Hinduism 102 Devotion to Three Major Gods 104 Devotion to Knowledge 108 Muslim Influences in India 113 Modern Hinduism 114 Hinduism Today 118 Study Questions 118 Suggested Reading 119 Source Material 120 Selection from the Rig-Veda 120 Varuna and Indra 120 "What God Shall We Adore With Our Oblation?" 121 XI, 15-21, 24, The Upanishads 125 The Laws of Manu 126 Brahman 127 Shankara on the Nature of Jainism 131 The Life of Mahavira 132 The Teachings of Jainism 134 Jain Sects 138 Jainism Today 139 Study Questions 139 Suggested Reading 140 Source Material 141 A Jain Parable and "The Example of Mahavira" 141 A Jain Parable: The Man in the Well 141 Jain Respect for Life 142 Akaranga-sutra, I, Buddhism The life of Gautama 146 The Teachings of the Buddha 151 The Development of Buddhism 152 Theravada Buddhism 154 Mahayana Buddhism 156 The Principles of Mahayana 156 The Spread of Mahayana Buddhism 158 Mahayanist Sects 160 Tibetan Buddhism 165 Buddhism Today

4 xiv CONTENTS, Study Questions 170 Suggested Reading 171 Source Material 172 Gautama Speaks of His Ascetic Practices 172 Majjhima-nikaya XII 172 The Buddha Explains the Eightfold Path 174 The Infinite Compassion of the Bodhisattva 176 The Importance of Sitting 177 rw Sikhism 179 The Life of Nanak 180 The Teachings of Nanak 182 The Historical Development of Sikhism 183 Divisions Within Sikhism 185 Sikh Religious Life 185 Sikhism Today 187 Study Questions 187 Suggested Reading 187 Source Material 188 The Japji 188 A Book of Psalms of Guru Nanak Nirankari Religions Originating in China'-- and Japan 193 ES Chinese Religions 195 Basic Chinese Religious Concepts 197 The Recognition of Multiple Gods and Spirits 197 The Yin and the Yang 198 Filial Piety and Ancestor Worship 199 of Belief in the Shang Ti Feudal System 201 Taoism 201 Divination 199 Development 200 The Decline of the The Life of Lao-tzu 202 The Tao Te Ching 202 The Teachings of the Early Taoist Philosophers 203 Schools That Rivaled the Early Taoists 208 The Later Development of Taoism 209 Confucianism 212 The Life of Confucius 213 The Teachings of Confucius 215 The Development of Confucianism 218

5 CONTENTS XV Taoism and Confucianism Today 222 Study Questions 223 Suggested Reading 224 Source Material 225 Selections from Sacred Chinese Literature 225 Tao Te Ching 225 The Analects 228 Book 11/ 228 Book IV 230 The Meaning and Value of Rituals 232 Shinto Japanese Mythology 237 The History of Shinto 238 Shinto Prior to 300 A. D. 238 Chinese Influence 235 Upon Shinto 238 The Revival of Shinto 241 The Modern Era 245 Three Forms of Shinto 246 State Shinto 246 Sectarian Shinto 247 Domestic Shinto 249 Shinto Today 250 Study Questions 251 Suggested Reading 251 Source Material 252 Shinto Myths 252 Myths Regarding the Plain of High Heaven 252 The Conflict Between Amaterasu and the Storm God Susa-No-O 253 The Enshrinement of Amaterasu at Ise Religions Originating in the--- Middle East 257 Zoroastrianism Pre-Zoroastrian Persian Religion 260 The Life of Zoroaster 262 The Teachings of Zoroaster The Nature of God 263 The God of Evil 265 The Nature of Humankind 266 The Destiny of Humankind 267 Zoroastrian Ethics 270 Zoroastrian Worship 271 The Historical Development of Zoroastrianism 274 Zoroastrianism Today 277

6 xvi CONTENTSi Study Questions 277 Suggested Reading 278 Source Material 279 Zoroastrian Eschatology 279 Roads to the Netherworld 279 Zoroastrian Dualism Judaism The Biblical Patriarchs 286 The Exodus 288 The Religion of the Hebrew Monarchy 291 The Temple 292 The Prophetic Movement 292 The Exile and the Return 294 Religious Institutions of the Diaspora 296 The Synagogue 296 The Mishnah 299 The Talmud 300 The Cabala 303 Judaism and the Modern World 305 Reform Judaism 308 Zionism 308 The Nazi Holocaust 309 The State of Israel 312 Current Varieties in Judaism 313 Jewish Holidays 314 Sabbath (Shabbat) 314 Passover (Pesach) 315 The Feast of Weeks (Shavuot) 315 New Year (Rosh Hashanah) 315 The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) 316 The Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot) 316 The Feast of Dedication (Chanukkah) 316 The Feast of Lots (Purim) 316 The Son of the Commandment (Bar Mitzvah) 317 Judaism Today 317 Study Questions 318 Suggested Reading 319 Source Material 320 Selections from Hebrew Scriptures and the Mishnah 320 Deuteronomy 320 The Psalms 323 Micah 324 The Mishnah: Pesahim (The Feast of Passover) ~ Christianity The World of the First Century A.D. 328 The Life and Teachings of Jesus 330 Early Christianity

7 ~CONTENTS xvii The Jerusalem Church 339 The Life of Paul 340 The Worship of the Early Church 341 Leadership in the Early Church 343 The Production of the New Testament 345 Early Heresies 346 Growth of the Church of Rome 348 The Emergence of Christianity As the Religion of the Roman Empire 349 Augustine 350 The Monastic Movement 352 Medieval Christianity 353 The Division Between Eastern and Western Christianity 353 The Medieval Papacy 354 Thomas Aquinas 356 The Protestant Reformation 357 Early Reform Movements 357 Martin Luther 358 Ulrich Zwingli 360 John Calvin 360 Other Reformation Leaders and Movements 361 Modern Christianity 363 The Catholic Counter-Reformation 363 Catholic Dogmas Since the Counter-Reformation 366 Vatican /I 367 Modern Movements 367 Christianity Today 370 Study Questions 371 Suggested Reading 372 Source Material 373 Selections from the New Testament 373 Sermon on the Mount 373 Romans Corinthians 379 Revelation 381 The Martyrdom of st. Polycarp 382 n~ Islam Pre-Islamic Arab Religion 388 The Life of Muhammad 390 The Quran 396 The Nature of God 397 Eschatology 399 Religious Institutions 401 The Mosque 401 Calendar 405 Predestination 398 The Five Pillars 402 Islam and Women 405 Taboos 406 The Holy War (Jihad) 406 The Spread of Islam 407 The Caliphate 408 Variations Within Islam 410 Muslim 387

8 xviii CONTENTS, The Sunnis 410 The Shi'ites 411 The Mystical Element 412 Islam in the Modern World 414 Islam Today 416 Study Questions 417 Suggested Reading 418 Source Material 419 The Muslim Vision of Allah 419 Muhammad Proclaims the Prescriptions of Islam 422 1l~ Baha'i Origin and Development of Baha'i 428 The Teachings of Baha'i 430 Baha'i Practices 433 Study Questions 436 Suggested Reading 436 Source Material 438 Selections from the Writings of Bahaullah Glossary 441 Index 455