An introduction to grammatical-relation changing processes
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1 An introduction to grammatical-relation changing processes
2 Each verb permits a certain number of arguments: (1) The baby cried. [Intransitive verb 1 argument] (2) Harry took the vase. [Transitive verb 2 arguments] (3) Jenny gave Mike $50. [Ditransitive verb 3 arguments] Choosing the wrong number of arguments makes a sentence ungrammatical: (4) *The baby cried her broken toy. (5) *Harry took. (6) *Harry broke Mike the vase. (7) *Jenny gave Mike. Some verbs allow more than one set: (8) Elvis left. [V INTR ] (9) Elvis left the building. [V TRANS ]
3 Participants who benefit from an action are normally indicated by for or to (recipients): (10) I brought the ice cream for Mary. (11) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. This preposition can be deleted if the participant is moved right after the verb: (12) I brought Mary the ice cream. Notice: No preposition! (13) The teachers gave every child a cookie. The transformation only works with participants that have a benefactive meaning: (14) I brought the ice for the party. *I brought the party the ice.
4 The Indirect Object Transformation (=Dative Shift = Applicative) changes an adjunct into an object of the verb, thus resulting in an increase in transitivity by one. It is therefore an example of a transitivityincreasing device: (15) I brought the ice cream for Mary. 1 object: transitive S V O Adjunct (16) I brought Mary the ice cream. 2 objects: ditransitive S V O 1 O 2 Indirect object Direct object
5 Passivization of (17) is ungrammatical: (17) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. (18) *Every child was given a cookie to by the teachers. After undergoing Dative Shift, passive works: (19) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. Apply Dative Shift: (20) The teachers gave every child a cookie. Apply passive: (21) Every child was given a cookie by the teachers.
6 Dative shift/applicative (22) You kill that pig. [kill: V TRANS ] (23) You kill that pig for me. [for me: Adjunct] (24) Can you kill me that pig? [2 objects!] Causative (25) The tree fell. [fall: V INTRANS ] (26) The loggers felled the tree. [fell: V TRANS ] (27) The loggers made the tree fall. Increased (28) The loggers had the tree fall. control (29) The loggers caused the tree to fall. (30) The loggers let the tree fall.
7 Normal word order in transitive active sentences is Subject-Verb-Object: (31) Active: John took the cookie. S V O The passive highlights the original object by making it into the subject of the passive sentence: (32) Passive: The cookie was taken by John. S V PP Three changes have occurred: 1. The original object, the cookie, has become the new subject. 2. The original subject, John, has been moved into a PP with by. 3. The auxiliary be has been added and the verb changed to a participle.
8 Passives are acquired late. Even very fluent 5- year olds will often not understand them yet. Reasons: 1. Complexity: 3 simultaneous changes are involved. 2. Passive word order runs counter to the basic pattern of the language: Name the agent first! The car hit the truck. Child will pick up the toy car and 1 2 slam it into the truck. The truck was hit by the car. Child will pick up the toy truck and 1 2 slam it into the car.
9 Chinese: Active: Passive: 他 骂 你 了 你 被 他 骂 了 Tā mà nĭ le. Nĭ bèi tā mà le. he scold you you by he scold He scolded you. You were scolded by him. Contrast with English: - No AUX added. - Bèi agent is preverbal. - Meaning: Adversative [Data from Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. University of California Press]
10 German has both, passives from transitives (33 & 34) and from intransitives (35 & 36): (33) Der Junge sah den Mann. the:nom:sg:m boy saw the:acc:sg:m man The boy saw the man. (34) Der Mann wurde von dem Jungen gesehen. the:nom:sg:m man got from the:dat:sg:m boy seen The man was seen by the boy. (35) Die Leute tanzten viel. the:nom:pl people danced People danced a lot. (36) Es wurde viel getanzt. It got much danced There was much dancing. much
11 Passivization Noun incorporation (33) I went bear-hunting. [hunt: V TRANS ] (34) Book-reading is a dangerous obsession. [read: V TRANS ] Some types of nominalization (35) The destruction was devastating. [destroy: V TRANS ] (36) The enemy s destruction of the city was devastating. But:(37) Destroying (*of) the city was devastating. Morphological reflexives/reciprocals (38) Ni kwəšθ-ət kwθə swǝʔqeʔ [Halkomalem] AUX shoot-self DET man [tones removed] The man shot himself.
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