The Quest for Excalibur s Identity. John Boorman s Excalibur

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1 The Quest for Excalibur s Identity John Boorman s Excalibur By: Amanda Halter Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Institut für Anglistik/Americkanistik 05 April, 2016

2 Table of Contents 1 Introduction: The Quest 1 2 Excalibur: Form, Symbolism, and Name 2 3 Analysis of Excalibur in Concurrence with a Survey of Texts 4 i. possessed by King Uther 4 ii. driven into a stone by Uther 7 iii. pulled from the stone by Arthur 8 iv. used to knight Arthur by Uryens 9 v. broken in battle with Lancelot and fixed by the Lady of the Lake 10 vi. thrusted between adulterers, Lancelot and Guinevere 13 vii. returned to Arthur by Guinevere 15 viii. used by Arthur to kill is son, Mordred 16 ix. returned to the Lady of the Lake by Perceval 18 4 Conclusion 20 5 Bibliography 22

3 Halter 1 1 Introduction: The Quest Arthur s sword is as much a character in the legend as any hero or supernatural being (Driver n.d.). This is very true of John Boorman s representation of King Arthur s sword, Excalibur, in his fittingly entitled film, Excalibur. This film has been critically acclaimed as the best King Arthur film. When released in 1981, critics dubbed the film, a wondrous vision but also commented that it is buried in a wealth of detail (Ebert 1981). Exhausting the audience in detail is exactly what this two hour and twenty-minute compression of fifteen hundred years time, tradition, and literature does. The cast includes a menagerie of characters from Uther, Merlin, Lancelot, Perceval, Gawain, Morgana, to Mordred and the plotline is nothing short of an attempt to show the entire Arthurian Lore. Overwhelming detail aside, the film relies upon an inconspicuous character to propel the story: Excalibur. This Arthurian element is present at almost every pinnacle turning point of the film s plot; its heroic quest is broken into nine key parts in Boorman s film. Excalibur is: i. possessed by King Uther ii. driven into a stone by Uther iii. pulled from the stone by Arthur iv. used to knight Arthur by Uryiens v. broken in battle with Lancelot and fixed by the Lady of the Lake vi. thrusted between adulterers, Lancelot and Guinevere vii. returned to Arthur by Guinevere viii. used by Arthur to kill is son, Mordred ix. returned to the Lady of the Lake by Perceval These nine instances of Excalibur in John Boorman s film stretch over the length of the film; Excalibur is present in the first scene and in the last, with an important role throughout the body of the film. The occurrences it is present in, derive from a vast number of individual stories in texts of the Arthurian Lore. However, Excalibur is not always found in these Arthurian texts stories. John Boorman was innovative in compressing a wide array of Arthurian stories into a single film, with Excalibur tying everything together. As the star of John Boorman s Arthurian rendition, Excalibur deserves consideration of its character and role in the film. Before looking at the film, an inspection on the purpose and meaning of the sword ensues, followed by considering the specific name of Excalibur as it has been presented in history and literature. Then, an analysis of each of the nine specified instances

4 Halter 2 in which Excalibur is utilized in the film in conjunction with a survey of texts portraying the Arthurian tradition, shall reveal the character of Excalibur. 2 Excalibur: Form, Symbolism, and Name Before commencing into analyzing Excalibur s star role and character in the film it is essential to consider the form of this character, the symbolism associated with it, and a closer look at the name given to it. Regarding the basic form as a sword, an inspection of this word s various meanings can provide characterizing insight. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the term sword is related to Old High German swearn meaning to hurt and also from swertha-, literally the cutting weapon (Harper 2016). Hence, the present day signifier sword signifies a weapon with a long metal blade and a hilt with a hand guard (Oxford 2016: s.v. sword). Quite literally, a sword historically and in its existent uses is a weapon utilized for causing harm. However, the understanding and further connotative meaning of a sword extends beyond using it to hurt and cut. Cirlot s A Dictionary of Symbols states that the understanding of some arms is enriched by the associations of the element of which they pertain ; therefore, the sword is typically linked with steel which is a symbol of the transcendent toughness of the all-conquering spirit (Cirlot 1962: 349, 309). This view of the tough and conquering sword are symbolically furthered by it typically seen in conjunction with the Middle ages, where it takes on the form of the cross (Cirlot 1962: 307). For, in the Middle Ages, the sword was a proper instrument for knights, who are the defenders of the forces of light against the forces of darkness making a sword literally the weapon of salvation (Cirlot 1962: 349). Conclusively, Excalibur s form as a sword, carries the connotations of weaponry used for destruction and its compound, steel, projects a spirit of conquest. Further texts and associations point to this religious symbolism and connotations associated with the sword. Warren quotes the book of Ephesians in the Bible when it states to put on the arma Dei (arms of God) loricam iustitiae (the hauberk of justice), scrutum fidei (the shield of faith), galeam salutis (the helmet of salvation), and the gladium Spiritus quod est verbum Dei (sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God) (Warren 2000: 18). The Bible s call for a sword of God, gives those who wield a sword a Holy cause. Additionally, sometimes the sword is also said to be associated with fire, and flames of destruction, which corresponds to

5 Halter 3 it in shape and resplendence symbolizing purification (Cirlot 1962: 308). Even looking at Roman tradition, the sword was seen to be capable of warding off evil spirits since it was made of iron and iron s association with Mars (Cirlot 1962: 307). All in all, the symbolic connections of a sword placed in one s hands portrays it as not only a destructive weapon, but that when using it, evil is conquered for the will of God; thus, the connotation of the word sword is a positive one and Arthur s pursuits of destruction are justified in a Holy light. Better said, the sword does not merely function as a symbol (the physical embodiment of an abstract principle); but it also has the physical capacity to enforce the consequences of that principle (Warren 2000: 22). Looking now at this specific sword, Excalibur, an inspection of its name in history and literature garner more understanding. It is credited that first mention in literature of Arthur s sword, the fabled Caliburn or Excalibur, comes from Geoffrey of Monmouth s History of the Kings of Britain (Fife 1991: 23). This first line mentioning the sword is in Arthur s battle with the Saxons; it says, the girding on his Caliburn, which was an excellent sword made in the isle of Avallon (Geoffrey of Monmouth: 153). However, it is not in the meaning of the word Caliburn that provides the best understanding of the sword, but it requires a closer look at the sources from which Geoffrey might have drawn his story, the sword, and its name. In Camber s the Sources of Geoffrey, the reference to a Welsh story from Kulhech and Olwen is mentioned. In this Welsh story, is the sword Caledvwlch (Chambers 1967: 72). Breaking down this possible original name for Excalibur, it is said that, Caled means hardness and is synonym for stone; fwlch means gap, hence freed from the stone. But fwlch often appears and bwlch which means notch suggesting that the hardness of caled may be of steel. So Caledfwlch may be translated as hard steel (Fife 1991: 23-24). Conclusively, the exact meaning of the word, Excalibur, is not clear but the combination of its previous names usually denotes it meaning, Devourer (Fife 1991: 24). Linguistically speaking, Excalibur is a hard weapon used for destruction; what specifically Excalibur destroys can be linked to the purposes of its beholder. For the sword is part of the warrior, not merely associated with him it shares the characteristics and reputation of the hero, and the hero attracts those of the sword (Warren 2000: 18). Therefore, it is important to consider who the person is that holds the sword, and the acts they do, garnering a positive or

6 Halter 4 negative reputation. Inspecting who, when, how, and considering why Excalibur is utilized in each of the nine instances in John Boorman s film and similar instances found in traditional Arthurian texts could help to understand Excalibur. 3 Analysis of Excalibur in Concurrence with a Survey of Texts Upon inspection of John Boorman s film, Excalibur, I have identified nine occurrences where Excalibur is imperative. These are not all of the moments in the film when the audience might see Excalibur. For example, after re-reading through the script of the film, there are a couple of moments where the stage directions mention Arthur grabbing the handle of Excalibur in anger, but not drawing the sword, or other characters in the film mention that the King is no longer in possession of Excalibur. However, I believe that these nine moments I have identified, are distinct. Firstly, the moments identified are pinnacle turning points for the plot of the film; without Excalibur s presence in these parts, other parts of the film would not occur. Secondly, these occurrences all show specific wielders of the sword, in specific circumstances which reveal something about Excalibur. In each of the following sections, there is a summary of the pertinent plot events from the movie that coincide with how Excalibur is utilized in that particular piece. Any quotations given from the film Excalibur are taken exactly from the online, typed script of the film. After giving this explanation of how Excalibur is used in the film, a section includes texts that I have found to completely agree, partially agree, or completely oppose what John Boorman has shown of Excalibur in that instance. The texts chosen are not an exclusive selection; meaning, I in no way say that I have selected all texts which might add to the discussion on this portion. However, I have tried my best to locate a variety of texts in the Arthurian tradition that add to further understanding the choices Boorman made in his presentations of Excalibur. Ultimately, at the end of each section, and the final conclusion, my hope is that we can conclude this quest for Excalibur s character. i. Excalibur is possessed by King Uther The first time audiences encounter the sword Excalibur in Boorman s film, is in the opening scenes. In the midst of fog and slaughtered men on the ground, Merlin calls out Lord Uther! Lord Uther! Out of this mist arises the shape of Uther with the blade of his sword glowing in

7 Halter 5 an unnatural aura ; it is Excalibur (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981)! Uther s initial possession of Excalibur is presented in the midst of what appears to have been a slaughter. In the next scene, Uther is confronted with the Duke of Cornwall and his knights, demanding that Uther surrenders but Merlin calls out, just show the sword (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). And so, Uther unsheathes his mighty sword, and brandishes it in the air high over his head. The blade hums disquietingly and leaves a lingering electric hue upon the air. The marvel instills dread in all present (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). After this impressive display of Excalibur, Merlin goes on to expound upon the expansive and impressive history of the sword s ownership, saying: Behold the sword of power, Excalibur. Before Uther, it belonged to Lud, before Lud, to Beowulf, before Beowulf to Baldur the Good, before Baldur to Thor himself and that was when the world was young and there were more than seven colors in the rainbow. (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981) Immediately following this tale of the sword s impressive history, the Duke of Cornwall submits and yields to the Uther s sword, Excalibur. Upon searching texts as to where Boorman derived the idea to have Uther be in possession of Excalibur first, no text could be found. However, there are some fragments in texts. In The Alliterative Morte Arthure, it is mentioned that Mordred, whipped out the sword that shone like silver,/ That was Arthur s own, and Uther, his father s (Lines ). This seems to be a hint of a sword having a lineage between Arthur and Uther. However, the author tells the audience in a line previously that the name of this sword is Clarent, not Excalibur (Alliterative Morte Arthure: line 4202). Clarent is used by Mordred to give the fatal blow to Arthur, and Caliburn is mentioned as the sword that Arthur kills Mordred with. Turning back to the film for further insight, Merlin s lineage provided for the sword is helpful. Merlin mentions that before Uther, Lud had the sword. In Geoffrey of Monmouth s History of the Kings of Britain, Lud is not mentioned as having Excalibur, but he is said to be withal a warlike man (History of the Kings: 52). Searching for Lud in other texts, he can be found in the collection of Welsh tales called the Mabinogion. Charlotte Guest s translation of the Mabinogion became the standard for nearly a century (BBC 2014). Here we can find Lud s (Lludd) story entitled, Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys. The tale tells of King Lludd s great achievement is combating and solving three plagues that have overcome his kingdom(guest 1849). However, there is no mention of Lludd wielding a sword at any moment; conclusively,

8 Halter 6 Merlin stating that Ludd once held the sword denotes that the sword comes from a lineage of fierce warriors. The next holder of the sword that Merlin declares is Beowulf. In Beowulf, there are a plethora of swords mentioned in a variety of instances, but none with the name Excalibur. There is one interesting point in Beowulf that reflects when Arthur breaks Excalibur later in Boorman s film; at one point, the narrator says, That it stood in the bead by hatred driven;/ Nægling was shivered, the old and iron-made/brand of Beowulf in battle deceived him/ Twas denied him that edges of irons were able (Beowulf: XXXVI, lines 75-78) suggesting that Beowulf is so strong that he breaks swords, like his sword Nægling, in half. Again, Beowulf s supposed possession of the sword deems that Excalibur has been held by those who are strong and mighty in battle. Conversely, the next holder of the sword is Baldur 1 the Good. he is a Norse god known as the god of light, joy, purity, beauty, innocence, and reconciliation (Lindemans 2002). This said possessor of the sword provides a slightly different perspective on Excalibur; it is utilized by those who hold purity, light, and reconciliation. Additionally, Thor is also a Norse god, deemed as the most powerful of gods who is the protector of both gods and humans against forces of evil (Lindemans 2006). He does not have Excalibur, or even a sword, but a powerful hammer that his sons inherit after his death (Lindemans 2006). This passing of the warrior s weapon to their sons after death is also seen in Boorman s passing of Excalibur to Arthur. Conclusively, no texts were uncovered to support either Boorman s idea of Uther beginning with Excalibur, or even of Merlin s list of previous holders of the sword. That is, as far as I am able to distinguish, Boorman completely created Uther s possession of Excalibur and the lineage posed by Merlin. Nonetheless, this initial use of Excalibur and the proposed lineage does communicate a few things about Excalibur. First, Excalibur shows power and success, especially in terms of war. The first time audiences see it in the film, it is in Uther s hand, overtop of a mass of slaughter. Additional to this point is that all of the past Excalibur holders named by Merlin, except Baldur, were warriors; this gives Excalibur a long history of power and destruction. Secondly, seeing that another of the famous war heroes breaks his sword in battle (Beowulf), shows that these tools of destruction can be broken. That is, Excalibur is not impervious; there must be something or someway that it s power can be broken. Third, the inclusion of Baldur the Good adds a positive 1 Other common spellings of his name are Baldr and Balder

9 Halter 7 characteristic to Excalibur as able to induce reconciliation and other positive connotations, such as purity and innocence. Overall, this first moment of Excalibur in John Boorman s film shows that it is a character of righteous battle and destruction, with a hint of light and reconciliation. ii. Excalibur is driven into a stone by Uther The next pinnacle point for the sword in John Boorman s Excalibur, happens as a result of Merlin helping King Uther trick the Duke of Cornwall s wife, Igraine. In magical disguise, Uther impregnates Igraine, and Arthur is born. As the original promise, Merlin takes Arthur from Igraine immediately after birth. In this chaos, Uther runs away and is ambushed by men loyal to the Duke. As his pursuers are closing in to kill Uther, he shouts, No one shall have the sword. No one shall wield Excalibur but me (Boorman and Pallenberg 198). And with all the strength that rage and pain can muster, and more, he drives the blade of Excalibur into the stone, nearly to the hilt and then is killed by enemy knights (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). In the previous section, the quest for texts did not muster up any account of Uther ever having Excalibur; likewise, no texts of Uther driving Excalibur, or any sword into a stone were found (Olton 200: 82). Additionally, in Le Morte d Arthur there is the telling of a sword being taken from a stone, but there is no indication of who put it there. However, Prose Merlin, provides some insight into who put the sword in the stone, but it is not Uther. From the chapter Arthur and the sword in the stone, the clergy and people are praying to God for a new king, as their king has died. In the midst of their prayers, they find the sword in the stone with the inscription that says whoever pulls the sword, is the king. Immediately following this, two clerks say, when thourgh youre prayers and orisouns oure Lorde hath shewde this grete myracle ( Arthur and the Sword : line 82). Therefore, in the Prose Merlin text, it is God that put the sword in the stone; there is no mention if this sword s name is Excalibur, or if it is a different sword than Excalibur. Considering that a text in the Arthurian tradition, Prose Merlin, depicts that Excalibur was put in the stone by God, Boorman s account can be considered. In both Boorman and Prose Merlin a sword is thrust in the stone in the same circumstances: the people are to be without a king. In Boorman, Uther thrusts it in seemingly out of personal preservation, but what comes of it later, is that the rightful king wields it. In Prose Merlin, their king has died, and they need a king so God sends the sword in the stone as the process of ensuring the rightful king will wield

10 Halter 8 the sword and take charge. In both cases, the need for the sword in the stone is to ensure rightful kingship over the lands and in a sense, provide deliverance to the people who are without a ruler. Therefore, these two qualities can be attributed to the character Excalibur: prophecy of divine selection and the power of deliverance of the people. iii. Excalibur is pulled from the stone by Arthur Continuing on in the film Excalibur, Fifteen years passed and the land was without a king until the next turning point of the film, when Excalibur is taken from the stone (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). The scene is set with Arthur assisting, unknown to him, his adoptive father, Sir Ector, and his brother, Sir Kay. In the midst of helping Kay prepare for a bout, Arthur has forgotten the sword. In searching for Kay s sword, Arthur realizes that it has been stolen and sees one that could replace it: Excalibur in the stone. He grasps the sword by the hilt and it comes away easily from its stone lock (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). After initial doubt from Sir Ector and the crowd and various nobles attempts to pull the sword themselves, he shyly returns the sword to the stone and then pulls it out. Then, as if gaining confidence from the sword itself, he turns it in arcs above his head and the Bishop declares, We have our King, thanks be to God (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Texts from the Arthurian Tradition include this pinnacle episode of Arthur pulling the sword from the stone. In the cases found, the sword in the stone either is clearly not the same sword Excalibur, or it is unclear if the two swords are the same. All accounts of Arthur pulling a sword from the stone help shed some light on what this episode means and reveals about Excalibur. In the section, Arthur and the sword in the stone, of Prose Merlin, Arthur is also on the quest to get Sir Kay his sword, and finds the sword in the stone to replace it (lines ). Arthur is also bade to put it back in the stone and redraw it, not only once, but four times 2 (Prose Merlin: lines 224, , 256-7, 342)! Arthur speaks of how this sword was given to him, That Lorde whiche hath graunted me to have this honoure mote yow pardon; and as moche as is in me, I make yow quyte (Prose Merlin: lines 327-8). That is, the sword was given to him as an honor, by God and the Archbishop comments on what the sword will do for him saying, Now go fecche the swerde wherewith ye shull kepe justice, to deffende Holy Cherche, and mayntene 2 In the film and Malory, he only has to put it back in one time to demonstrate that he had successfully drawn it. Prose Merlin s account of this is quite exhaustive, not only because the English is difficult to read, but also because it seems as if Arthur has to keep proving that he has pulled the sword, over and over again.

11 Halter 9 right and the Cristin feith to youre power (Prose Merlin: lines 331-2). The Archbishop speaks of the sword keeping justice and defending the Holy Church. However, in Prose Merlin, there is no name given to this sword in the stone, and therefore, one cannot conclude whether or not Excalibur is meant to be portrayed as the same sword. In Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthur, this sword pulled from the stone is different from Excalibur; Excalibur is given to Arthur by the Lady of the Lake in Book I, Chapter xxv (Lupack 2005: 135). Just as in Prose Merlin, Malory s text says, a great stone four square, like unto a marble stone; and in midst thereof was like an anvil of steel a foot on high, and therein stuck a fair sword naked by the point, and letters there were written in gold about the sword that said thus: Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born of all England (I, v). The rest of Malory s account of Arthur pulling the sword from the stone is the same as Boorman s account. Compared to these two traditional Arthurian texts, Malory and Prose Merlin, Boorman was innovative to mesh together the sword in the stone and Excalibur. He fused the two swords into one, anchoring Excalibur as the central tie in the film. In this scene, two characteristics can be derived of Excalibur. First, Excalibur is magically or divinely sanctioned and powered. In Boorman, Uther is able to thrust the sword into the stone only due to the presence of Merlin s magical powers. Additionally, the appraisement of God for selecting their King runs throughout these Arthurian renditions; it is by God s power that the sword was there for the rightful king to pull it out, and it is by the selection of God that Arthur pulls it out of the stone. Secondly, Excalibur bequeaths divine responsibility to whomever draws the sword. In each account of the sword in the stone s reference, it is said that whoever pulls this sword, is granted king; the bishop in Excalibur says thanks be to God that they have their king (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Additionally, each time Arthur must return and redraw the sword only further proves his divine selection and responsibility to each witness. Conclusively, Excalibur is a divine responsibility. The responsibility of the beholder is revealed in other uses of the sword. iv. Excalibur is used to knight Arthur by Uryens The next pivotal use of Excalibur, is when it is used to knight Arthur. His knighting comes about after the slaughtering of opponents outside of the Camelyarde Castle. Of the final opponent knights that remain, Arthur grants them the opportunity of mercy by saying, You are in my hands, to slay or spare. I need battle lords such as you. Swear faith to me and you shall have

12 Halter 10 mercy (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). However, one of the opposing knights, Uryens, denies to swear faith to a mere squire (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Arthur recognizes this and says, You are right. I m not yet a knight. You, Uryens, will knight me then as knight to knight I can offer you mercy, kneeling and offering Excalibur to Uryens (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Uryens then dubs the sword on Arthur s shoulders, knighting him, and Arthur becomes king with the humble knights kneeling and now pledging their allegiance to King Arthur. As it is easy to see the running thread throughout this analysis, Boorman s presentation of the Arthurian Lore does not exactly match the existing texts. For example, in Geoffrey of Monmouth, there is mention of a coronation, but it does not involve Arthur being knighted or any mention of a sword. (History of the Kings: IX, xiii). However, in Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthure there is a knighting of Arthur that takes place. It says: Arthur took the sword between both his hands, and offered it upon the altar where the Archbishop was, and so was he made knight of the best man that was there. And so anon was the coronation made. And there was he sworn unto his lords and the commons for to be a true king, to stand with true justice from thenceforth the days of this life. (Malory: I, vii) Although not directly found in the source texts, knighting Arthur with the same sword that he pulled from the stone tells the audience something about Excalibur. As pulling Excalibur from the stone shows Arthur s divine right to be king, being knighted with the sword explains the other side of it, responsibility. Uryens knighting Arthur and then swearing allegiance to him shows that with Excalibur and the right to be King, comes the responsibility to serve and protect those people who swear their allegiance. Malory s text also instills this idea of responsibility by the final sentence of the above quote saying, And there he was sworn unto his lords to stand with true justice (Le Morte d Arthure: I, vii). That is, Excalibur exudes responsibility to the rightful holder of it; Excalibur is used to serve and protect the people. v. Excalibur is broken in battle with Lancelot and fixed by the Lady of the Lake Time has passed since Excalibur is seen in John Boorman s film. Arthur is older and informed by Sir Ector that one man defeats all of his knights (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Against the protests that a king does not engage in single man battles, Arthur races on to confront Lancelot. Upon seeing Lancelot, Arthur states, I am king and this is Excalibur but Lancelot

13 Halter 11 does not recognize Arthur as his king (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Therefore, the two engage in first a jousting battle and then later sword-to-sword combat. During this epically long fight, Arthur s anger and pride rise as he has been knocked off his horse and Lancelot successfully keeps thrashing Arthur. Lancelot courteously gives Arthur multiple chances to yield, seeing that his rage has unbalanced him and that it is he who knows not the virtue of humility (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). However, in his struggle and anger, Arthur pushes forward in the fight with Lancelot. With Excalibur in his hands, and in its mirror-like metal Arthur can see his own reflection, a face distorted by uncontrolled passion and with a frightening shout that speaks all of his rage, he swings a terrific blow. cutting through his own reflection and the metal (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Upon impacting Lancelot, Excalibur breaks in half. In shock, Arthur shouts and throws Excalibur into the pool of water: My pride broke it, my rage broke it... Humiliation and defeat lie in ambush even for a king. This excellent knight who fought with fairness and grace was meant to win. With Excalibur, I tried to change that verdict. I have lost for all time the ancient sword of my father s whose power was meant to unite all men, to serve the vanity of a single man. (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981) Then suddenly, to Arthur s amazement, an arm outstretches from the center of the pool of water, lifting a renewed Excalibur; the Lady of the Lake has restored Excalibur and returned Arthur s power. Excerpts from Arthurian texts correlate to Boorman s account of Excalibur being utilized in battle, rage, and fixed by the lady of the lake. Excalibur being used in battles is found abundantly in Geoffrey of Monmouth s History of the Kings of Britain. In this text, Excalibur is always used and mentioned only in the case of Arthur fighting enemies. The name Caliburn (Excalibur) is only named five times by name and in each instance, Arthur is wielding the sword to fight enemies. Additionally, as Boorman s Arthur calls upon some alternate force when wielding Excalibur in the fight with Lancelot, so Arthur does in one instance in Geoffrey. This is seen in the battle with the Saxons: Arthur drew out his Caliburn, and, calling upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward with great fury into the thickest of the enemy s ranks (History of the Kings: ). Another parallel is the occurrence of rage in Arthur while wielding the sword. For example, when fighting Flollo, Geoffrey states: When Arthur saw his coat of mail and shield red with blood, he was inflamed still greater with rage, and lifting up his

14 Halter 12 Caliburn with his utmost strength struck it through the helmet into Floll s head, and made a terrible gash (160). In both Geoffrey and Boorman, Excalibur is present and used in the presence of Arthur s battles against enemies and sometimes it is used in rage. However, the combination of Excalibur and rage does not yield the same result; in Geoffrey, rage does not hinder Arthur s sword or ability to conquer his enemies but, in Boorman, rage demolishes his weapon. Furthermore, in Le Morte d Arthur, Arthur is in another sense returned Excalibur by the Lady of the Lake; Accolon has Excalibur and is using it against Arthur, but then the Damosel of the Lake beheld Arthur, how full of prowess he was, and the false treason that was wrought for him (Malory: IV, x). And so, the Damosel of the Lake then used her enchantment and make Accolon drop the sword so Arthur could take it back and successfully kill him. Although this account is not with Lancelot, nor does the sword have to go in the water, it at least provides some fragments for the Lady of the Lake s power and connection of putting Excalibur back into Arthur s hand. On a final note, in the chapter of Arthur and the sword in the stone from Prose Merlin, the Archbishop speaks to the people gathered around the sword in the stone and says, And lete no man be to hasty for to assaye, for it shall never be drawen oute for richesse ne for pride ( Arthur and the sword : lines ). Sticking with the idea from Boorman, that Excalibur is the sword in the stone, Pose Merlin further demonstrates that Excalibur is not meant to be used for pride or personal riches. Conclusively, this episode of death and regeneration of Excalibur as presented by Boorman cannot be found entirely in a source text. Malory s text does have a fragment of the Lady of the Lake helping Arthur in returning the sword but it is a very different account that does not require the sword to go into the water, and no rage is present. However, there are some correlations of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Prose Merlin that can reveal key characteristics of Excalibur. First, Excalibur is used not only as a symbol, but it is actually wielded as a weapon to defeat enemies, making it an essential piece of a king s ability to conquer enemies and defend his empire. Secondly, when used in junction with rage or personal pride, Excalibur does not succeed but breaks; this shows that the holder of the sword must have qualities of humility and not to misuse its power. Finally, Excalibur can be fixed only with the assistance of the Lady of the

15 Halter 13 Lake. Looking more closely at the symbolism of the lake, immersion in water signifies a return to the pre-formal state, with a sense of death and annihilation on the one hand, but of rebirth and regeneration on the other, since immersion intensifies the life-force (Cirlot 1962: 345). That is at this moment of the death of Excalibur, it is the immersion in the water that regenerates it. At the same time, the lake- or rather, the surface alone- holds the significance of a mirror, presenting an image of self-contemplation, consciousness and revelation (Cirlot 1962: 168). In Boorman, it is actually in the sword s broken metal, that Arthur sees his reflection and has the moment of realization. All in all, Excalibur is a powerful character in military commands, and a symbol of power, but it is only successful when the power is used for the purposes of good, and in humility. vi. Excalibur is thrusted between adulterers, Lancelot and Guinevere As the plot in Excalibur trudges on, another apex moment for Excalibur is found after Arthur has established the round table, married Guinevere, and Lancelot has proven the Queen s innocence in a joust on his horse against Sir Gawain. After the battle, Lancelot realizes that the feelings between him and Guinevere have proven too strong, so he must do the honorable thing and leave. During his request to King Arthur to leave to the forest, Arthur sees the way Lancelot and Guinevere look at each other and senses their feelings of passion; thus, he grants Lancelot s request to leave. Guinevere then follows Lancelot into the forest and the two embrace in passion. Without anyone telling him of the actions, Arthur states in the next scene that he is alone and betrayed by his wife. Arthur then gallops off in his horse and finds Lancelot and Guinevere sleeping in silence, in the forest, embracing each other in their nakedness. Arthur, stands over them. He draws Excalibur. Checking all emotion, he holds it above his head. The ancient steel glows darkly. The lover s faces are serene and innocently beautiful. He hesitates, tormented. His mask of anguish gives way to determination and calm. He strikes the sword home, letting go of it. (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981) The next morning, Lancelot and Guinevere see Excalibur and know that Arthur has found them in their betrayal. Lancelot tears the roots from a tree, the terrible tearing and renting the symbol of his own inner torment and Guinevere sinks to the ground next to Lancelot s abandoned sword (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). The foundation for the plot of the love affair between Lancelot and Guinevere can be found in Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthur. Throughout the entire Book XVIII of Malory, the

16 Halter 14 old love between Lancelot and Guinevere is conveyed. In the beginning of the book, the Queen even speaks to King Arthur about her feelings. Sir Mador impeaches her of treason, Arthur comments that no knight is there to defend her honor, saying, Where is Sir Lancelot and the Queen responds, Now I miss Sir Launcelot, for an he were here he would put me soon to my heart s ease (Malory: XVIII, iv). Malory draws out their love affair to the point that Sir Launcelot went unto bed with the queen but took pleasaunce and his liking until it was in the dawning of the day; and wit ye well he slept not but watched (Malory: XIX, vi). Through evidence of blood on her bed, and Launcelot s cut hand, he eventually must battle for his life, and leaves the court. Although Malory does not per say have the same elements or plot of the Lancelot and Guinevere s affair in Boorman, there is another instance that might have inspired Boorman s use of Excalibur in dividing the lovers. In Book IV, Chapter xxii, a sword is used to divide another set of unapproved lovers (Malory). Sir Gawaine tells Lady Ettard that her promised knight (Sir Pelleas) was slain, and therefore it would not be a sin to be in bed together; hence, they go to bed together and Sir Pelleas comes to find them sleeping together and says, Though this knight be never so false, I will never slay him sleeping, for I will never destroy the high order of knighthood and pulled out his sword naked in his hand, and went to them thereas they lay and laid the naked sword overthwart both their throats (Malory: IV, xxii). They awoke and found the sword over their throats, knowing it was Sir Pelleas s sword. Although it is not the same characters as Boorman s Excalibur, the idea of a sword being used to divide lovers holds symbolic meaning and thus the use of Excalibur to divide lovers reveals symbolism and further characteristics of the sword. First, Excalibur is the sword of truth. Boorman s choice to make the sword cut or divide through these adulterous lovers personifies this. Arthur cannot kill them, because of the honor and code of knighthood, so instead he leaves his sword to show that he knows about their untruthful actions. The second characteristics is that Excalibur ensures the survival of the king and kingdom. Driving the sword into the earth, symbolizes the decline of the king. The loss of Excalibur is not only a symbolic manifestation of Arthur s failing powers- Excalibur is the symbol and scepter of leadership but also, there is an immediate link between the king s health and vitality and the fertility, or infertility of the land (Lacey 2002: 37). This is the idea that the king and the land are one. Since Arthur has quite literally left his power and tool to defend his kingdom, the kingdom and king himself will begin to wither. Lancelot even says in realization of what it means that Arthur has

17 Halter 15 left his sword, the king without his sword, the land without a king... (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). The next scenes show that the land is barren, the people are hungry and forsaken, and the king must send the knights on a quest for, the secret that will redeem us from the evil that has fallen upon us (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). This evil love between Lancelot and Guinevere is a betrayal by not only his wife but also by a knight that has been entrusted to the codes of knighthood and sworn loyal to his king. Their elicit love, emblematic of the decay of the Arthurian court, sows the seed of its ultimate destruction (Lacey 2002: 36). Excalibur holds the power to ensure the king is able to defend the kingdom s prosperity and success. Without the king s power of Excalibur, the consequences are widespread. vii. Excalibur is returned to Arthur by Guinevere As the film progresses, things have spiraled out of control, and Excalibur needs to return to the king. In the absence of Excalibur, Morgana has used Merlin s power to transform herself into Guinevere and take Arthur to bed, giving later birth to Mordred. During the incestuous birth of Mordred, a storm shook the church, and the chalice was broken, propelling Arthur to send his knights on the quest for the Holy Grail. Perceval ultimately brings the chalice to Arthur and revives the King. Now that Arthur has been revived, he gathers his knights, and rides off to see Guinevere. Upon entering the convent, he says to a nun blocking the door: I am Arthur (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). He enters the cell and asks Guinevere for forgiveness, telling her that he must leave and defend his kingdom. At this moment, Guinevere says that she has kept Excalibur, and gives it back to Arthur. Arthur exits with Excalibur, saying: I have often thought that in the hereafter of our lives, when I owe no more to the future and can be just a man, that we may meet, and you will come to me and claim me as yours, and know that I am your husband. It is a dream I have... (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981) Now that Excalibur has been returned, trees are in blossom, and Arthur rides off to battle Mordred. In looking for any possible source text of this instance of Excalibur in Boorman, absolutely nothing could be found. There are no texts in which Guinevere returns the sword to Arthur after some time. However, there are texts in which Guinevere goes to the convent after she and

18 Halter 16 Lancelot were discovered 3. However, I could find no mention that Guinevere ever took and gave back Excalibur in the same manner as in Boorman s. There is a mention of a text in which Lancelot encourages Guinevere to steal Excalibur: The New King Arthur. It is a burlesque play by an American, Edgar Fawcett, that was a mock dedication to Tennyson in which after stealing Excalibur, Lancelot and Guinevere will run off together (Lupack 2005: 161). However, in Boorman, Excalibur is not stolen, but left by Arthur. As to the true reason Guinevere kept the sword all of those years, one cannot discern. Although sparsely supported with any other texts for additional insight, Boorman s creation of the return of Excalibur by Guinevere portrays quite a number of characteristics about the sword. Throughout the aforementioned instances of Excalibur, a majority of the characteristics are attributed to combat, power, and kingship. However, this innovative episode with Guinevere sheds a different light on the sword s powers. Namely, Excalibur exists also for unification, mercy, reconciliation, and reunion. It was not an accident that Boorman had Guinevere retain and return Excalibur; Lancelot taking it, or the sword disappearing from the film entirely would have had entirely different implications. These two reunions of Arthur with Guinevere and Arthur with Excalibur ultimately allow Arthur to move forward and take back responsibility of his kingdom. This could be thought back to connect with Merlin s naming Baldur the Good as one of the previous holders of Excalibur; he is known as a God of purity and light. Conclusively, Excalibur has the power for reconciliation and unification. viii. Excalibur is used by Arthur to kill is son, Mordred With Excalibur returned to the king, Arthur moves forward to combat evil and restore the kingdom. The battle ensues between Arthur, his knights and his son, Mordred, and his knights. After initial onslaught, Arthur sees that it is he who must kill Mordred. When the two meet, it is a contest between a good and divinely selected king, and an evil and incestuously begot usurper. In Boorman, Mordred mortally wounds Arthur with his spear. In the moment that Arthur is struck with the spear, Arthur lifts Excalibur and cuts through flesh and bone (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). In this blow, Mordred s head falls to the ground, rolling away, ending the battle and both of their lives (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). 3 She goes to a convent in Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthur.

19 Halter 17 This battle, between Arthur and his son Mordred, is widespread in Arthurian texts. It can be found in Sir Thomas Malory s final book of Le Morte d Arthur entitled, The Most Piteous Tale of the Morte Arthur. Arthur and Mordred combat one another, in essentially the same manner as Boorman s film. Malory s text says: And there King Arthur smote Sir Mordred under the shield, with a foin of his spear, throughout the body, more than a fathom. And when Sir Mordred felt that he had his death wound he thrust himself with the might that he had up to the bur of King Arthur's spear. And right so he smote his father Arthur, with his sword holden in both his hands, on the side of the head, that the sword pierced the helmet and the brain-pan, and therewithal Sir Mordred fell stark dead to the earth; and the noble Arthur fell in a swoon to the earth. (XXI, iv) The difference is, Excalibur is not used to kill Mordred. Rather, Arthur wounds Mordred with a spear, and Mordred kills Arthur with a sword. Malory puts the sword, in the wrong hand. The adjective wrong denoting the character s moral drive, not the correct character that should hold the sword 4. The Alliterative Morte Arthure also includes Excalibur in this final battle. However, weapons also slightly change; it is sword against sword in this version. The weapon Mordred uses to kill Arthur is not a spear but Mordred s sword, Clarent, and then Arthur then kills Mordred with his sword, Caliburn (Excalibur). It is both evil and good that hold named swords which give the final blows of death. What is interesting about The Alliterative Morte Arthure, is the use of adverbs to throw a certain connotation on Arthur s actions while using Caliburn. This is seen in line 4230 describing how Arthur fights with Caliburn saying, And the king with Caliburn heroically smites and in line 4242, Still with his sword Caliburn bravely he strikes (Alliterative Morte Arthure). In both giving and receiving the mortal strikes in this battle, Arthur is portrayed as grasping Caliburn in a particular light: valiantly. Excalibur s role in killing Mordred shows qualities of its character. First, Excalibur holds the power to bring justice. Mordred is the embodiment of evil; he was born from forced incest. The occurrence of Arthur fight his son is present in a plethora of texts; the presence of Excalibur to finish this evil in Boorman and The Alliterative Morte Arthure denotes Excalibur s importance in the serving of justice. Secondly, fighting to the purposes of Excalibur and dying is honorable. 4 However, it makes sense that Boorman would switch this and put Excalibur in the hands of Arthur, as it is the sword of truth.

20 Halter 18 The adverbs used in The Alliterative Morte Arthure poignantly displays the valor that is bequeathed upon those who die while fighting with Excalibur. Boorman plays this up even more than Malory by having Arthur be struck with the spear initially, and then through the pain, death, and physical reality of the spear, he is able to strike with Excalibur, killing evil. Conclusively, Excalibur is the sword of truth, bringing justice and bestowing honor upon those who use it fittingly in these pursuits. ix. Excalibur is thrown to the Lady in the Lake by Perceval Excalibur has one more role to play in Boorman s film. As King Arthur is lying wounded in Perceval s arms, he says, There is one thing left to do Excalibur And you must do it, Perceval Take Excalibur. Find a pool of calm water and throw the sword into it (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Initially, Perceval is too stunned and refuses to throw the sword into water, so he returns to Arthur. When Arthur learns of this, he shouts at him, By itself it is only a piece of steel. Its power comes from he who wields it. For now, there is no one. Do as I have ordered! (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). Perceval takes Excalibur and throws it to the middle of the pool. As Excalibur is about to touch the water, a woman s hand reaches and grasps it by the hilt. It holds the sword aloft for a moment and then draws it under (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). When Perceval returns to where Arthur was, he does not find him there. Instead, he sees a vessel sailing away with Arthur s body on it. Perceval closes the film saying, All the knights of the Round Table are dead. Excalibur is returned. Arthur is gone. Maybe he lives, maybe he will return Only I remain, and this, the chalice (Boorman and Pallenberg 1981). This final scene has two main factors to tackle in consideration of Excalibur and its characteristics: returning Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake and how this contributes to the end of Arthur s reign and his kingdom. The notion of returning Excalibur to the lake can be found in a plethora of texts with a variety of characters returning it. Malory s Le Morte d Arthure says that the dying Arthur entrusts Excalibur to Bedivere to return to the water (Lupack 2005: ). In the text, Arthur says to Bedivere take thou Excalibur, my good sword, and go with it to yonder water side, and when thou comest there I charge thee throw my sword in that warer, and come again and tell me what thou there seest (Malory: XXI, v). Just as Boorman s Perceval ignores Arthur s command, Malory s Bedivere betrays him by not throwing the sword in the water.

21 Halter 19 Finally, Bedivere throws it in the third time and there came an arm and an hand above the water and met it, and aught it and so shook it thrice and brandished, and then vanished away the hand with the sword in the water (Malory: XXI, V). Another knight throwing the sword into the water, and an arm coming up from the lake also occurs in The Vulgate Cycle which draws on Chretien de Troyes s Perceval. However, it is used by yet another character; Excalibur is returned to the lake by Girflet (Lupack 2005: 108). Then, a reluctant Girflet does so only on the third occasion, when a hand rises from the water, flourished the sword and sinks back (Williams 1994: 156). Regardless of the character which finally obeys Arthur s command, there are two rudimentary facets of what Boorman has also portrayed: Arthur realizes that he must return Excalibur to the lake, and what is known as the Lady of the Lake reaches to receive the sword. These two facets of the final episode are critical for considering how Excalibur completes a cycle in Boorman s film, and what this means for Arthur. There are a variety of conclusions presented in Arthurian texts as to what happens to the mortally wounded Arthur. Logically, a grave would exists, containing the body of King Arthur. However, a narrative written by Hermann of Tournai in 1113 documents the countering belief; he reported that during the course of a religious observance, violence broke out because someone dared to contend that Arthur was really dead (Medieval Folklore 2000: 41). That is, the belief is that Arthur did not die eternally, but that he will come again. Arthur is the only one among a number of legendary figures around whom such beliefs coalesced; folklorists know the motif as culture hero s expected return, motif A580 (Medieval Folklore 2000: 41). A plethora of Arthurian Lore texts portray this belief of the once and future king. In the final book of Le Morte d Arthur, Malory makes mention of the inscription on Arthur s tomb, but he also notes that men believe Arthur will come again (Lupack 2005: 144). Additionally, William, of Malmesbury in 1125 wrote Gesta regum Anglorum (Deeds of the Kings of England) saying that Arthur s grave is nowhere beheld, so that ancient songs say that he is still to come (Medieval Folklore 2000: 41). Returning Excalibur to the water, and the fate of Arthur that follows denotes characteristics of Excalibur. The fact that water-symbolism is closely connected with the symbolism of the abyss serves to corrobate the fatal implications of the lake-symbol, for the part played by the liquid element is to provide the transition between life and death (Cirlot 1962: ). That