Lehrhaus Lunchtime Talmud

Transcription

1 Lehrhaus Lunchtime Talmud What Do I See On The Talmud Page? The main body of the page, occupying its center and printed in formal block letters, is the Talmud, or Gemara. Both these synonymous terms derive from words meaning "study" or "learning. "Talmud" is Hebrew, whereas "Gemara" (in the present sense) is found only in the Aramaic dialect of the Babylonian Talmud. What is Talmud? The Talmud is composed in a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (the latter was the spoken vernacular of Babylonian Jews). In general, formal statements by the Amora'im are formulated in Hebrew, whereas the explanations and discussions of those statements are worded in Aramaic. The first part of a Talmudic passage is the Mishna. The beginning of a Gemara passage, following the Mishna passage to which it is attached, is designated by an abbreviated form of the word printed in large bold letters. What is the Mishna? The Hebrew root "ShNH" means "to repeat," and refers to memorization by repetition. "Mishnah" therefore has the sense of "that which is memorized by rote," as distinct from the Rabbinic designation for the Bible: "Miqra," that which is read and recited from a written text. Mishnah can refer in a general way to the full tradition of the Oral Torah, as formulated by the Rabbis in the first centuries of the Common Era. The Mishnah is organized by subject. Midrash, are Rabbinic teachings that are attached to the text of the Tanach, organized by the scriptural narrative. The Jewish teachers in the Mishnah are known as Tanna'im (singular: "Tanna"), derived from the Aramaic root related to the Hebrew "ShNH. The era in which the Mishnah was developed is therefore referred to as the "Tanna'itic" era. The term "Tanna" was originally applied to the functionary in the later Talmudic academies whose job it was to memorize and recite the oral traditions of the Tanna'itic era, serving as a sort of "living book." It came to be applied to the actual Rabbis whose opinions make up the Mishnah and its contemporary works. 1

2 With a very few exception (e.g., quotations from Aramaic legal documents), the Mishnah is composed entirely in Hebrew, in a dialect that appears to reflect the spoken vernacular of Judea. The Mishnah was composed entirely in the Land of Israel, and all the sages quoted there, even if they resided originally in other places (Babylonia, Rome, etc.), were active in Judea. the main body of the Mishnah consists of teachings attributed to authorities from about the middle of the first century, through to the second decade of the third century C.E. This time period witnessed some major historical turning-points for the Jewish nation, such as the destruction of the Second Jerusalem Temple in 70, and the catastrophic failure of the revolt against Rome under the leadership of Simeon bar Kokhba (or: bar Kuziba) in 135. Because the Mishnah is a technical work of religious law, these momentous historical events find almost no explicit mention in the Mishnah, even though the very composition of the Mishnah is often viewed as a response to those very events. When Was the Mishna Composed and by whom? o Yavneh [=Jamnia, Jabneh] The center of Jewish communal leadership and Torah scholarship moved to this Judean coastal town following the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E. The Rabbis of Yavneh (the term "Rabbi" to denote a religious teacher was probably not in use before this time) were faced with the responsibility of reconstructing Judaism and adapting it to the new situation, in which its major center of religious life was no longer in existence. It is likely that the drive to preserve the oral traditions of previous generations was initiated at Yavneh as a central part of this mission. "Yavneh" is usually used to designate at least two full generations, extending from 70 to 135 C.E. o The first Yavneh generation was dominated by such figures as Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai (the academy's founder), Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, and Rabbi Joshua ben Hanania. o The later Yavneh period (sometimes called "the generation of Betar" with reference to the military centre of the Bar-Kokhba insurrection) was known for the appearance of the two influential schools of Rabbis Akiba and Ishmael, each of which formulated a distinctive approach to the interpretation of the Torah. Usha o The tragic aftermath of the Bar-Kokhba uprising saw the complete destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, and the devastation of the region of Judea, the southern portion of the Land of Israel that had hitherto been the main centre of Jewish religious leadership. This situation led to widespread migration to the northern region, the Galilee, and the seat of rabbinic judicial authority resided for a while in the Galilean village of Usha, home of Rabbi Meir. 2

3 o By far the greatest proportions of Mishna s contents derive from this generation. Almost all the "Ushan" Rabbis mentioned in the Mishnah were students of Rabbi Akiba. These include Rabbis Meir, Judah [bar Ilai], Simeon ben Yohai, Yose [ben Halafta], Rabbi Eleazar [ben Shamua] and the Patriarch (Nasi) Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel. Bet Sha'arayim/Sepphoris: The Generation of the Redaction All ancient sources are in agreement that the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Judah the "Prince," before his death around 217 C.E. The Mishna s redactor, who had studied with most of the important teachers of the previous ("Usha") generation, assembled early redactions that had been shaped in various different academies, combining them into a new and integrated work. The Mishnah contains almost no material that is contemporary with its redactor. Rabbi Judah ben Simeon bore the Hebrew title of "Nasi," signifying the position of Patriarch, the official political representative of the Jewish people. From an internal Jewish perspective, the Nasi presided over Judaism's supreme judiciary and legislative body, the Sanhedrin. The title had become a hereditary one, almost without interruption, since the days of the revered Hillel the Elder in the first century B.C.E. In Talmudic texts, Rabbi Judah is usually referred to simply as "Rabbi" or, by virtue of his legendary piety: "Rabbenu Ha-Qadosh" ("our holy master"). After migrating from Judea, Rabbi Judah the Prince resided in Beit Sha'arayim, and later in Sepphoris, both in the Galilee. Presumably, the project of redacting the Mishnah was conducted in both locations. When Was the Talmud Composed and by whom? The teachers (Rabbis) who participated in the Talmud are referred to as "Amora'im" [singular: "Amora"], from an Aramaic word that originally designated the official in the academy whose job it was to recite the scholars' teachings before the public. Most of the Babylonian teachers did not bear the title "Rabbi," but were called Rav. Some of the most prominent Babylonian Amora'im were: First generation: "Rav" (Actual name: Abba Arikha), died in 247. o He was the founder of the great school at Sura. Samuel, died in 254. o He founded the rabbinic school at Nehardea, which later moved to Pumbedita. Second Generation: Rav Huna, died 297. o He was Rav's successor in the leadership of the Sura school. Rav Judah [bar Ezekiel], died 299. o He led the academy at Pumbedita. 3

4 Third Generation: Rav Hisda, died 309. o He stood at the head of the Sura school. Rav Nahman [bar Jacob] died 320. o He was active in Nehardea, and is known as a judge. Rabbah [bar Nahmani], died 330: o The most prominent teacher of his generation, he directed the academy at Pumbedita. Fourth Generation: Abaye, died 339. o He headed the academy at Pumbedita Rava [bar Joseph bar Hama] died 352. o He founded an academy at Mahoza. The disputes and discussions of these two scholars, students of Rabbah, are found on almost every page of the Babylonian Talmud. Fifth Generation: Rav Papa, died 375. o A student of Abaye and Rava, he led a school in Narsh. Sixth Generation: Rav Ashi, died 427. o A prominent head of the Sura academy, he has often been credited with the redaction of the Babylonian Talmud (See below). Seventh Generation: o Rav Ashi's son, Mar bar Rav Ashi [also known as "Tavyomi"], died 468. When Was The Talmud "Closed"? A passage in the Talmud (Bava Metzi'a) speaks of Rav Ashi and Ravina as "the end of instruction" (Hebrew: "sof hora'ah"), in a context that compares them with Rabbi Judah the Prince as "the end of Mishna. Because Rabbi Judah is generally regarded as the redactor of the Mishna, it became common to speak of Rav Ashi as the redactor of the Babylonian Talmud. (The name "Ravina" is a recurring one during the Talmudic era, and there was a figure of that name that was Rav Ashi's contemporary). Since Rav Ashi died in 427, and several later generations are represented in the Talmud's pages, it is clear that we cannot speak of him as the Talmud's final redactor, though there is considerable evidence that indicates that he was involved in some sort of preliminary redaction and organization of the traditions--still in an oral, memorized form. In 987, the medieval authority Rav Sherira Ga'on, leader of the Pumbedita academy (then situated in Baghdad), composed an important study ("Epistle") on issues of Talmudic literature and chronology. Although Rav Sherira accepts that the Talmudic "end of instruction" is a reference to a final redaction, he applies the expression not to the famous Amora Rav Ashi (to whom he attributes only the beginnings of the process), but to a lesser known figure, Rav Yose, and to his contemporary Ravina, who were active at the close of the fifth century. 4

5 Where Was The Talmud Composed? Babylonia was situated in the area that is presently occupied by Iraq and was known to the ancient Greeks as "Mesopotamia" ("Between the Rivers") The agricultural and economic lives of the populace were determined by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the intricate network of canals emanating from them. During most the Talmudic era, Babylonia was ruled by a Persian dynasty, the Sasanians. How Does The Talmud Work? How is it a Commentary on the Mishna? The Babylonian Talmud is a commentary on the Mishna, whose order it follows. It was composed over several generations, from the early third century to about the sixth. As a commentary, it deals with many aspects of the Mishna, often going far beyond mere explanation. Some of the items involved in the Talmud's commentary include: demonstrating how the Mishna's rulings or disputes, derive from interpretations of Biblical texts. exploring the logical principles underlying the Mishna's statements, and showing how different understandings of the Mishna's reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the Mishna, or between the Mishna and other traditions; e.g., by stating that two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or they represent the views of different Rabbis. Debates and Dialectics The distinctive character of the Talmud derives largely from its intricate use of argumentation and debate. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the Amora'im, though most of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors ("This is what Rabbi X could have argued...") As in the Mishna, the Amoraic Rabbis encouraged multiple opinions and interpretations. Whereas the Mishna usually limits itself to a brief statement of the conflicting views, the Talmud tries to verify the integrity of the positions of the Tanna'im and the Amora'im. Proof texts are quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions. Sources Used by the Talmud In addition to the Bible, Mishna, and the teachings of the Babylonian Amora'im, the Babylonian Talmud cites and discusses several other kinds of sources. These include: Teachings by the Rabbis of the Mishna (Tanna'im) that were not included in the Mishna. o Such sources are designated "external mishnas," or in Aramaic: Baraita. There are 5

6 several different types of Baraita. These include: o Tanna'itic (or: Halakhic) Midrash: These follow the text of the Torah, especially its legal sections, explaining it in close detail. Many of the Midrashic Baraita in the Talmud is identical or similar to known Midrashic collections (works such as the "Mekhilta"s to Exodus, "Sifra" (="Torat Kohanim") to Leviticus, or "Sifre" to Numbers and Deuteronomy), stemming from the Schools of Rabbis Akiba and Ishmael. Others are known only from the Talmud itself. o Baraita attached to the Mishna. Many of these are similar or identical to the Tosephta, a Tanna'itic work arranged according to the order of the Mishna that provides explanations and supplementary material. Tanna'itic sources known only from the Babylonian Talmud. Teachings of the Palestinian Amora'im: o The Land of Israel continued to be the most important center of Torah study, and the Rabbis there studied the Mishna in the same ways as their Babylonian counterparts. Their scholarly activities culminated in the production of the Palestinian (or: "Jerusalem") Talmud. Many traditions of the Palestinian Amora'im were cited and incorporated in the Babylonian Talmud. 6

7 The Evolution of Talmud and Torah THE TORAH Torah she-bichtav, the Written Law. According to Pirke Avot, the Torah was given to Moses on Sinai, who transmitted it to Joshua, who transmitted it to the Elders, who transmitted it to the Prophets and eventually, it was transmitted to the Sanhedrin. THE MISHNAH Codification and collection of Torah she-be al peh, Oral Law, transmitted by word of mouth over generations. Compiled by Rabbi Judah and his court around C.E. in Palestine. THE TALMUD The Jerusalem Gemara Compilation of the commentary on the MISHNAH by the Amora im in Palestine, approx. end of 4 th century. Together with the Mishnah, this forms the JERUSALEM TALMUD. The Babylonian Gemara Compilation of the commentary on the MISHNAH by scholars in the Babylonian academies approx. end of 5 th century. This is much larger and more significant than the Jerusalem Gemara. Together with the Mishnah, this forms the BABYLONIAN TALMUD. Comments and decisions of the GE ONIM, 6 th -10 th centuries. Commentaries by RASHI (France, 11 th century) Tosafot: Commentaries by descendants of Rashi (France/Germany, 12 th -13 th century) Mishneh Torah by MAIMONIDES ( The Rambam ) (Egypt, 12 th century) Shulchan Aruch: Code by JOSEPH KARO (Palestine, 16 th century) Other codes and commentaries Responsa Literature 7

8 Foundational Texts Deuteronomy 17: If there arises a matter too hard for you in judgment, between blood and blood, between plea and plea, and between plague and plague, being matters of controversy inside your gates; then shall you arise, and get to the place which the Lord your God shall choose; 9. And you shall come to the priests the Levites, and to the judge who shall be in those days, and inquire; and they shall declare to you the sentence of judgment; 10. And you shall do according to the sentence, which they of that place which the Lord shall choose shall declare to you; and you shall take care to do according to all that they inform you; 11. According to the sentence of the Torah which they shall teach you, and according to the judgment which they shall tell you, you shall do; you shall not decline from the sentence which they shall declare to you, to the right hand, nor to the left. Pirke Avot: A Rabbinic Anthology Moses received the Torah at Sinai and transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets and the prophets to the generation of the great synagogue. The Generation of the Great Synagogue used to say three things: Be patient in justice, rear many disciples and make a fence round the Torah. Simeon the Righteous was one of the last of the generation of the great synagogue. He used to say: the world is based upon three things: the Torah, sacred efforts and the practice of kindliness. Antigonus received the tradition from Simeon the Righteous. He used to say: Do not be like servants who serve the master in the expectation of receiving a gratuity. Be like servants who serve the master without the expectation of receiving a gratuity. Be in awe. Yose ben Yo'ezer of Zeredah and Yose ben Yohanan Jerusalem received the tradition from them: Let your house be a house of meeting for the sages and put into practice being covered by the dust of their feet and drink in their words with thirst. Yose ben Johanan of Jerusalem used to say: Let your house be wide open, and let the poor be members of thy household Joshua ben Perahiah and Nittai the Arbelite received it from them: Take on a teacher and get a companion. Judge all on the scale of merit. Nittai the Arbelite used to say: Keep at a distance from an evil neighbor, do not make yourself an associate of a wicked man, do not abandon faith in [divine] retribution. Judah ben Tabbai: Do thou not [as-a judge] play the part of an advocate; while they are standing before you. Let them be regarded by thee as if they were [both of them] guilty, and when they leave thy presence, [after] having submitted to the judgment let them be regarded by thee as if they were [both of them] innocent. Simeon ben Shetah used to say: Be thorough in the interrogation of witnesses, and be careful in thy words, lest they learn to utter falsehood. Shemaiah used to say: Love work, hate acting the superior, and do not bring thyself to the knowledge of the ruling authority. 8

9 Understanding the Talmudist After months of negotiation with the authorities, a Talmudist from Odessa was finally granted a visa to visit Moscow. He boarded the train and found an empty seat. At the next stop, a young man got on the train and sat next to him. The scholar looked at the young man and thought: 1. This fellow does not look like a peasant, and if he is not a peasant, he probably comes from this city. a. If he comes from this city, then, he must be Jewish, because this is, after all, a predominantly Jewish area. i. On the other hand, if he is a Jew, where could he be going? I am the only Jew in our district that received permission to travel to Moscow. b. Ahh? That is no problem; I know that just outside Moscow, there is a little town called Samvet, and Jews do not need special permission to go there. 2. Yes, but why would he be going to Samvet? a. He is probably going to visit one of the Jewish families that live there, but let me think; how many Jewish families are there in Samvet? There are only two: the Bernsteins and the Steinbergs. The Bernsteins? i. No, that cannot be; it is a terrible family. ii. A nice looking fellow like this young man, must be visiting the Steinbergs. b. However, why would he visit that family? c. The Steinbergs have only two daughters. d. Therefore, my best guess is that he must be their son-in-law. i. However, if he is, indeed, a son-in-law, which daughter did he marry? I heard that Sarah married a nice lawyer from Budapest, and Esther married a businessman from Zhitomir; 1. So, I got it: he must be Sarah's husband, 2. In addition, his name, people say, is Alexander Cohen. 3. However, if he comes from Budapest, a city where anti-semitism is rampant, he must have changed his name. a. What would be the Hungarian equivalent of Cohen? It must be Kovacs. However, it is well known that not everyone is allowed to change his name in Hungary, and if he was able to do so, it must be for a good reason: he must have some special status. Moreover, what could that be? i. Obviously, this fellow Alexander Cohen must have earned a doctorate from the University. At this point, our Talmudic scholar turns to the young man and says, "How do you do, Dr. Kovacs? I hope you have a nice stay in Samvet with your in-laws, the Steinbergs " "I'm doing very well, thank you, sir," answered the startled passenger. "But, please tell me, how is it that you know my name?" "Oh," replied the Talmudist, "it was obvious.