CONTENTS. Preface 13. Introduction 15. Chapter One: The Man and his Works against the Background of his Time 23

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1 CONTENTS Preface 13 Introduction 15 Chapter One: The Man and his Works against the Background of his Time 23 (a) The Social and Cultural Background of his Biblical Scholarship 23 (b) Biography 32 (c) His Commentaries on the Torah 51 (d) Manuscripts of his Commentaries 53 Chapter Two: His Pshat Approach to Biblical Exegesis 55 (a) Plain Meaning of the Text 56 (b) Commitment to Context 63 (c) Double Meaning 68 (d) Torah and Science 70 (e) Summary 73 TEXTUAL CRITICISM Chapter Three: Critical Inquiry into the Traditional Consonantal Text 74 (a) The Critical Approach to the Masoretic Text the Problem and its Solution Jewish Scholars Before Shadal Attitudes toward Textual Criticism during the Haskalah Period Pre-Shadal Christian Scholars and Textual Criticism 87 (b) Shadal s Basic Approach to Textual Emendations 90 (c) His Position on Criticism of the Consonantal Text of the Torah His Caution with Textual Emendations of the Torah Motivation for the Few Textual Emendations Proposed by Shadal for the Torah 102

2 (d) His Position on Criticism of the Consonantal Text of the Books of Prophets and Hagiographa Motivation for Shadal s Proposed Textual Emendations in the Books of Prophets and Hagiographa 109 a) Erroneous Separation of Words 109 b) Transposition of Letters 115 c) Graphical Similarity between Letters 116 1) In Ancient Hebrew Script 116 Alternation of Yod and Tsade 117 Alternation of Alef and Tav 118 Alternation of Nun and Peh 119 Alternation of Kaf and Mem 120 Alternation of Bet and Mem 121 2) In Square Hebrew Script 122 Alternation of Gimel and Nun 122 Alternation of Dalet and Resh 123 Alternation of Heh and Het 125 Alternation of Kaf and Nun 126 Alternation of Final Kaf and Final Nun 126 Alternation of Vav and Zayin 127 Alternation of Kaf and Bet 127 d) Phonetic Similarity 127 e) Haplography and Dittography 129 1) Haplography 129 Haplography between Words 129 Haplography within a Single Word 130 2) Dittography 131 3) Haplography of Whole Words 132 4) Haplography of Entire Verses 132 f) Word Alternation 133 g) Additions Caused by Marginal Notes 134 h) Abbreviations 135 i) Use of Letters as Numbers Alternate Versions of Parallel Texts Textual Emendations Based on Context 143 (e) Summary and Conclusions 145

3 Appendix: List of Textual Variants in the Order of their Appearance in Scripture 150 Recovery of Silent Alef that had been Deleted at the End of a Word 154 Chapter Four: Other Scriptural Textual Issues 155 (a) Tiqqunei Soferim and Kinnah Hakkatub Shadal s Basic Approach His Notes on Passages Included in the Tiqqunei Soferim Tradition 164 (b) Qere and Ketiv His Predecessors Positions on Qere and Ketiv Qere and Ketiv in Shadal s View 174 (c) Masoretic Pointing and Accents On the Development of the Masoretic Pointing and Accents Testimony from Ancient Sources Exegetical Commitment to Masoretic Pointing and Accents in Medieval Commentaries Attitudes toward Masoretic Pointing and Accents in Shadal s Time Shadal s Attitude to Masoretic Pointing and Accents Interpretations by Shadal that are Inconsistent with Masoretic Pointing and Accents How Shadal Accounts for Deliberate Deviations and Errors Tension between Masoretic Pointing and Accents 203 Appendix: List of Pointing Variations Discussed in this Chapter in Order of Appearance in Scripture 206 Chapter Five: The Samaritan Pentateuch 207 (a) The Samaritan Pentateuch in the Opinion of Shadal s Predecessors 208 (b) Shadal's Stance toward the Samaritan Pentateuch 209 (c) His Attitude towards the Samaritan Pentateuch as Reflected in his Commentaries A Priori Rejection of the Samaritan Version Rejection of Samaritan Version on Objective or Linguistic Grounds Rejection of Samaritan Version on Other Grounds Failure to Take Account of Correspondence between the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint 216

4 5. Rejection of Samaritan Version even when it Corresponds to that of Chronicles His Mention of the Samaritan Pentateuch and Disregard of the Septuagint Disregard of the Samaritan Version 219 (d) Shadal s Use of the Samaritan Version for Textual Criticism 221 (e) Summary 221 Chapter Six: Septuagint Version 224 (a) Pre-Shadal Studies of the Septuagint 224 (b) His Basic Attitude towards the Septuagint 225 (c) Reflections of his Attitude towards the Septuagint in Shadal s Commentaries The Septuagint as a Commentary His Attitude toward Differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text in his Torah Commentaries His Attitude toward Differences between the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text in his Commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa Disregard of the Septuagint 236 (d) Summary and Conclusions 240 HIGHER CRITICISM Chapter Seven: Shadal s Position on the Critical Approach to the Torah 242 (a) Authenticity of the Torah Basic Assertions 246 (b) The Documentary Hypothesis 248 (c) Dating of Scriptures Non-traditional Dating of Verses or Partial Verses Each Dealt with Individually Evidence of the Torah s Antiquity Found within the Biblical Hagiographa 265

5 3. Basic Case against Non-traditional Dating the Composition of the Torah 270 (d) Summary and Conclusions 283 Chapter Eight: The Unity of the Book of Isaiah 285 (a) His Basic Position 285 (b) Objective and Linguistic Case against Non-traditional Dating of Prophecies in the Book of Isaiah 289 (c) Theological Case against Non-traditional Dating of Prophecies in the Book of Isaiah 295 (d) His Motives for Defending the Unity of the Book of Isaiah 298 (e) Seventeen Verses (56:19 57:13) Dated Later than Isaiah by Shadal 302 (f) Summary 307 Chapter Nine: The Non-traditional Dating of Psalms 308 (a) His Manner of Dealing with the Dating of Certain Psalms to the Hasmonean Period 309 (b) His Manner of Dealing with the Dating of the End of Psalm (c) Examination of Shadal s Approach 316 Chapter Ten: The Date of Composition of the Book of Job 319 (a) His View of the Antiquity of the Book of Job 321 (b) Analysis of his Method 330 Chapter Eleven: The Identity and Period of the Author of Ecclesiastes 334 (a) His Grounds for Disassociating the Work from King Solomon 336 (b) His Reasons for Opposing the Traditional View 340 (c) Summary 344 SHADAL S POSITION VIS-À-VIS THE ANCIENTS Chapter Twelve: His Attitude to Rabbinic Exegesis of Scripture 345 (a) Rabbinic Exegesis in the View of Medieval Commentators 345

6 (b) Attitudes to Rabbinic Exegesis during the Haskalah Period 355 (c) His Critical Attitude towards Aggadic Exegesis Inconsistent with the Plain Meaning of the Text Statements of Principle Implied Objections to Aggadic Midrashim Explicit Objections to Aggadic Midrashim Summary 375 (d) His Critical Attitude towards Halachic Exegesis Inconsistent with the Plain Meaning of the Text Statements of Principle Actual Exegetical Objections to Halachic Midrashim 381 (e) Summary 395 Appendix: The Polemic between Shadal and Shir over Appreciation of the Personality and Works of Rabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra 402 Abbreviations 427 Bibliography 428 Original Publication of Various Chapters of this Book 488 Indexes 491 Index of Persons 491 References 510