Conflicts within the Muslim community. Angela Betts. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Transcription

1 1 Running head: MUSLIM CONFLICTS Conflicts within the Muslim community Angela Betts University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

2 2 Conflicts within the Muslim community Introduction In 2001, the western world received a wake-up call about the extent of evil in the world, when a small group of men flew airplanes into the World Trade Center and killed thousands of people. Because the men who plotted against the United States that day were from minority backgrounds and of the Islamic faith, many Americans have taken the stereotype offered by the media and adopted it as their own opinion of the Muslim community. The U.S. media has often been known to encourage racial, ethnic, cultural, and religious stereotypes pertaining to different groups of people, and because of their influence in the past five years Americans have developed a greater fear of the Muslim faith that did not previously exist. Apart from Christianity, the Islamic faith is the largest religion in the world with about 20% of the earth s population professing to be Muslim; (Ganeri, 1997) between six and seven million live peacefully within the United States (McCourt, 1998). However, many Americans today choose not to associate with Muslim believers or people of middle-eastern decent, because they have been given inaccurate information about whom they should fear. This paper explores the different dimensions of being a part of the Muslim minority. It offers background and current information to allow the reader to have a better understanding of the Islamic faith and thus eliminate some of the fear he or she might have concerning Muslims. After indicating how structuralism and conflict theory can be used to explain and describe the Muslim community, this paper will answer the questions: What kind of conflicts do Muslims face within their own communities and from the other cultures around them? And, do these conflicts have a positive, or negative impact on their religious experience?

3 3 Theoretical Perspective The structuralist theory of culture can be used to explain why there are variations of beliefs within Muslim communities. Structuralism says that within a culture there can be opposing ideas among individuals, that when brought together work to create a more complete reality. From Buchman s (2204) research among the Muslim population in Yemen, he found two common beliefs about the nature of their god that were very contradictory. Within the group he studied they referred to these two ideas of god as tanzin and tashbin. Tanzin is a god of wrath and destruction, while tashbin is the loving forgiving god. Each person holds a different view of their god, and as a consequence, practices religious rituals differently. Although his personal study was limited to one group of Muslims, this cultural structure is consistent with Muslims in other parts of the world as well. Lila Abu-Luughod studied a group of Muslims who had opposing views within their culture that implemented the same structure as the Yemen believers (Buchman, 2004). Sometimes it is beneficial to a whole culture for individuals to maintain their differing beliefs to produce a more complete view of the whole culture. Hodge (2005) describes a situation like that when he says: values are held in tension with one another. Muslims retain a sense of individualism, for example, while endorsing community (p.169). Accepting a diversity of values can also help to keep the whole religion in balance. The ideal for a Muslim believer is to find the balance between the two extremes of their beliefs, accepting both the tanzih and tashbin interpretations of their god. Perhaps what Muslim societies share worldwide are not their axiomatic ideas and interpretations per se, but the tanzih/tashbih modes of interpretation (Buchman, 2004, para. 34). Conflict theory is another perspective that can be used to explain the Muslim community, especially those who have converted to the Islamic faith after living in the U.S. mainstream

4 4 culture. Hermansen (1999) points out that many converts felt that their values and views were considered extreme by those around them, even before they converted to Islam. In many cases the rejection they were experiencing from their original culture lead them to seek something better and more meaningful (Hermansen, 1999, para.57). These individuals have used this conflict to encourage a shift in their value system (Hermansen, 1999). Women converts also point out that in converting they were able to alleviate some of the stress of complying with the expectations placed on women in American society, as well as the discrimination and inequality they have faced over the years (Hodge, 2005). Literature Review The literature pertaining to conflicts throughout the Muslim community is as diverse as the actual population. Abu el-haj (2002) and Alatas (2006) focus in their articles on the need for a better multicultural education in schools specifically specificly focusing on Islamic culture and the Muslim religion. Writers such as Shaheen (2000) and Abu Lughod (2002) try to point out some of the common misconceptions that the Western cultures have adopted about Islam, while other writers focus their attention on the issues that Muslims face within their communities (Karim, 2005; Hartford, 2004). Multicultural education in America is considered by Alatas (2006) and Abu el-huj (2002) to be inadequate to remove the stereotypes and anti-semitism towards Muslims in America. The attitudes being taught today say we may do culture differently, but underneath it all we are essentially the same (Abu el-haj, 2002, para. 9). However, Abu el-haj (2002) mentions the importance of not only recognizing differences, but experiencing other cultures to reach a fuller understanding of why the diversity in cultures is an important aspect of our world. Alatas (2006) also says that education needs to broaden their definition to mean more than just coexistence of

5 5 a plurality of cultures (p.112) and instead, encourage individuals to reach a comfortable understanding of how other cultures experience the world. Karim (2005) examined the conflicts that are sometimes found between the Immigrant Muslim and the African American convert populations in America and how they interact and influence each other. Many of the African Americans who have converted to the Muslim faith struggle to find their place in Islamic culture because much of the time, immigrant Muslims place pressure on them to conform to their cultural norms that have more to do with their nationality than their identity as a Muslim. Another type of conflict that several of the writers mention is in regards to the religious beliefs accepted by different groups of Muslims. Two examples of this conflict are the Muslims in Yemen whose view of God are diverse (Hartford, 2004), and Hodge s (2005) statement that no particular set of beliefs and values exists that is representative of all Muslims (p. 164). The burqa has raised conflict within the Muslim communities and between Muslims and other cultural groups. Karim (2005) says that many young African American Muslim women feel that Muslim immigrants question African American Muslim legitimacy not because they know Islamic teachings better but because they consider invalid any expression of Muslim identity outside their cultural notions of Islam (p. 503). For this reason, when the African American Muslim chooses to wear a variation of head covering that resembles the African geles, which leaves the neck and ears visible, immigrant Muslims look down on them for it (Karim, 2005). The Burqa has also been perceived as a sign of oppression by the western word, even when the women who choose to wear it do not perceive it as oppressive. Many of the women who choose to cover their heads do so to show their rejection of the cultural norms for beauty and sexuality placed on women in America (Rouse, 2004).

6 6 There are many stereotypes that have been placed on Muslims that hold very little truth. Hodge (2005) points out that the rich diversity of Islamic culture is frequently simplified to denigrating images connoting ignorance, oppression, fanaticism, violence, and so forth in mainstream U.S. media depictions of Muslims (p ). In an article written before the bombing of the World Trade Center, Shaheen (2000) gives many examples of movies that depict Muslim, or Middle-Eastern men in the role of the villain such as The Mummy, Wanted dead or Alive, and True Lies. With so many negative messages being sent to the American public through media, it is no surprise that in a national survey taken around 2000 more than 30 percent of Americans regarded Muslims as having a negative influence on the U.S. society (Shaheen, 2000, para.11). Muslims who live in the United States have had to adapt their lifestyles to be able to function within the culture without letting it consume them. The Islamic spirit obligates young African American Muslims to serve as respectful, productive citizens wherever they live (Karim, 2005, p.500). Another step that the Muslim community has taken to ensure that their people are taken care of is the resources that have been made available through the local Mosques. There are many schools and programs that have been established to provide an environment for Muslim individuals and families to provide support for each other (Hodge, 2005). The literature has conflicting views about whether the oppression of the Muslim community is becoming greater or not. Some say that because of the incident in New York in 2001 there is a greater level of stereotypes and discrimination towards Muslims than there has been in the past. But it is also true that shining light on this group of people has allowed some Americans to seek more information about Islamic beliefs and gain a deeper understanding of the Muslim community (Abu el-haj, 2002).

7 7 Interviews section The signs of oppression of the Muslim community are closer to home than many people caught up in the mainstream culture would like to realize. Because many Muslims are immigrants as well, they often face racial discrimination in addition to the religious stereotypes people associate with them. In a recent interview, two Muslim sisters from Palestine, who grew up in America, said that even before they began wearing a headscarf they were faced with racial discrimination. They stated that in high school, they never found friends that fully accepted who they were; and later when they began to wear the burqa they felt even more isolation from the other members of their class. One of the sisters reinforced what Alatas (2006) said about multicultural education by stating that in her experience, oppression and discrimination towards Muslims has been allowed to persist because of a lack of education about their culture. She also said that in her opinion, education was one of the only ways to reduce the negativity which mainstream culture has associated with the Islamic faith. Both sisters mentioned that one of the main reasons they love being Muslims in America is because of how much diversity they are introduced to at their mosque. It is a melting pot and you re just exposed to all kinds of different foods, languages, and cultures. Although when asked about conflicts within the Muslim faith, they mentioned that they felt some of the people who convert to Islam only do so to follow a popular trend or to try and profit from it, not because they are true believers in the teachings of Allah. Their answers are consistent with other Muslims who were quoted in the literature previously mentioned. Both ladies were aware that many Americans consider a burqa to be a sign of oppression, and as a result, one of them stressed the fact that they were never forced to wear a head covering. Instead, they were allowed to decide for themselves when they felt ready to begin wearing the

8 8 burqa. One of the girls said she was 16 years old when she first put it on, and instead of feeling oppressed by it, she felt that she was free to be more of herself them she could while she was trying to live up to the popular culture s standards. There were several times throughout the interview that the negative media bias towards Islam was mentioned. They feel that the media has instigated some misconceptions about Muslims that have no foundation. Also, towards the end of the interview, they elaborated on the meaning of the term Jihad. They explained that it is highly misunderstood in this country. Jihad is considered, according to American media, as Islamic war; or just violence. However, the true definition incorporates many different types of struggles within a person s soul. Therefore, when the media focuses on violence in Muslim countries, implying that the individuals involved are acting out of religious conviction, their explanations are based on an incorrect understanding of Jihad. The two theories discussed earlier were both supported by the information gathered through the interview. The structuralist theory that encourages differences within communities to help gain a balanced picture of what a reality should be explains the interviewee s love for diversity within her community. The sisters seemed to agree that the differences within their Muslim community have allowed for learning experiences and a fuller picture of the Islamic community. The second, conflict theory, explains how both sisters came to a decision to reject the portrait mainstream culture has painted to describe the essential components of the ideal woman. Their inner conflicts between whose culture, and who their religion said they should be, drove them to make a change to relieve the stress of being pulled in different directions by the forces in their lives.

9 9 A love for diversity, a strong family background, and their use of jihad are areas that have helped these sisters maintain a positive outlook on life and cope with the stress that comes with being part of a negatively stereotyped minority in America. Diversity is respected within their religion, and therefore has encouraged them to adapt to new situations or groups of people easily. Also, grounded into them was a strong sense of the importance of family; they know they have the love and support of their family who allows them to develop their individuality without fear of rejection. Finally, jihad, or personal struggle, allows each of the girls to find, within themselves, what they feel is right or appropriate for a given situation. It helps them define their feelings and work through possible options to achieve the best result. Recommendations & Conclusions In light of the research done concerning the literature collected and the interview conducted concerning the Muslim community, do the conflicts that take place within the Muslim community and conflicts faced with other surrounding cultures have a positive or negative impact on their religious experience? Although conflict can have a negative impact on a person, there are lessons to be learned through it that cannot be faced by any other means. Conflicts concerning only Muslims such as differences of beliefs encourage the person to look closely at their personal values and help them to determine the reasons why they believe the way they do (Hodge, 2005). Because the literature did not seem to have anything positive to say about the effects of stereotypes in the media and discrimination, it must be concluded that the harm that is caused by these attitudes far exceeds any possible good. Therefore, it can be concluded that in the Muslim society, the right kind of conflict in the correct context can be a positive experience, but many conflicts that can be avoided, should be.

10 10 Abu el-haj (2002) and Alatas (2006) both spent most of their article discussing what steps need to be taken in order to encourage the mainstream culture to be more accepting of the Islamic faith and other minority ideas. Their main focus is educating children in schools properly to ensure that society is more aware of the issues Muslims face and are more sensitive to their concerns. Another point that was discussed in the literature was concerning the messages the media is allowed to send about certain groups of people. It is the social worker s responsibility to encouraging positive thinking where diversity is concerned and the media is one place where they are needed to make some changes take place (Shaheen, 2000). Also, those who plan to work with Muslims should keep in mind that not all Muslims believe the same things; they cannot be reduced to a list of beliefs. Each individual has a value system that may or may not line up with what the social worker beliefs to be true of the Islamic faith (Hodge, 2005).

11 11 References Abu el-haj, T. (2002). Contesting the politics of culture, rewriting the boundaries on inclusion: working for social justice with Muslim and Arab communities. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 33(3), Abu-lughod, L. (2002). Do Muslim Women really need saving? Anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others. American Anthropologist, 104 (3) Alatas, S.F. (2006). From Jami ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian- Muslim dialogue. Current Sociology, 54(1) Buchman, D. (2004). Structuralism reconsidered: Ibn al- Arabi and cultural variation in the Muslim societies. Muslims World, 94 (1) Ganeri, A. (1997). Religions explained: A beginners guide to world faiths. Markham: Henry Hold. Hermansen, M. (2000). Hybird identity formations in Muslim America: The case of American Sufi movements. Muslim World, 90 (1/2) Hermansen, M. (1999). Roads to Mecca: Conversion narratives of European and Euro- American Muslims. Muslim World, 89(1), Hodge, D. (2005). Social work and the house of Islam: orienting practitioners to the beliefs and values of Muslims in the United States. Social Work, 50(2), Karim, J. (2005). Between immigrant Islam and black liberation: young Muslims inherit global Muslim and African-American legacies. Muslim World, 95(4), McCourt, F. (1998,Dec). God in America. Life, p. 60. Rouse, C. M. (2005). Engaged surrender: African American women and Islam. Muslim World, 95(1),

12 12 Shaheen, J.G. (2000). Hollywood s Muslim Arabs. Muslim World, 90(1/2) Shatzmiller, M. (1996). Marriage, family, and the faith: women s conversion to Islam. Journal of Family History, 21,