A Critique of Orientalism and the Christian Western View of Islam 1

Transcription

1 Dr. Abdolrahim Gavahi A Critique of Orientalism and the Christian Western View of Islam 1 Introduction I would like to thank the host, the Embassy of Islamic Republic of Iran in Zagreb and especially my dear friend Ambassador Sharif-Khodai, Mr. Jamshidi, the cultural representative of Iran in Zagreb, officials of the Faculty of Politics at Zagreb University, and finally all the scholars and students attending this session for their kind invitation, hospitality, and presence. I sincerely hope that during this session, and future similar sessions both in Zagreb and Tehran, we can reach to a better mutual understanding, thus laying the ground for a better cooperation of our two cultures and nations in the international arena. 1 Paper presented by Dr. Abdolrahim Gavahi, research fellow, lecturer on comparative religious studies, and the president of World Religions Research Center at the Faculty of Political Science, Zagreb University, Dec. 20,

2 During my half a century academic endeavor and close to fourty-five years encounter with the Christian West, and lecturing in the Western institutes, one of the main issues which has always attached my attention has been the way the Western academic-scientific circles view the East and the Eastern religions, specifically Islam. 1. Orientalism and the Western/Christian view of Islam In spite of the fact that there have been some unbiased & impartial Christian Orientalists such as Louis Massign on Reynolds Nicholson, Montgomery Watt, Helmut Ritter, Henry Corbin, Annemarie Schimmel and others, altogether, it can well be stated that the view of the Christian West towards Islam has been rather negative, one-sided, pessimistic, and far from justice and impartiality. According to Annemarie Schimmel, the famous contemporary Islamologist and Orientalist: "Among all the religions which Christianity had to confront and deal with, Islam was both misunderstood and attacked most intensely. For more than a millennium Islam seemed to be a major-if not the major-threat for the people of Europe, and this feeling has contributed to the fact that Islam and those who confessed it, the Muslims, were regarded as arch enemies of Christianity and western civilization". 2 Unfortunately, this rather distorted, irrational, and brutal image of Islam is noticed in many books written about Islam in the West, especially after the terrorist attack of September 11, books such as "Islam Unveiled" or "The Myth of the Islamic Tolerance" by Robert Spencer 3 and the like. Although, in this same period, we have also witnessed the appearance of 2 Schimmel, Annemarie, Islam: an Introduction, State University of New York Press, Albany, N.Y., 1992, P.1. 3 Prometheus Books, N.Y., U.S.A.,

3 "The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization" 4 which is a very fair and thought-provoking book, and the very fine books of Professor Schimmel Orientalism and the Western view of the East Regarding the historical Orientalism and the biased, illusionary, despotic, and arrogant view of the Christian West towards East, I believe referring to only one profound work, the Orientalism of Edward Said should be more than sufficient. 6 For those of you who do not have time to go over the whole work, following they may find a sample of some of the major points of its very first pages: Orientalism is a way of coming to terms with the orient that is based on the Orient s special place in European Western experiences. 7 The term Orientalism connotes the high-handed executive attitude of nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century European colonialism. 8 Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between "The Orient" and "The Occident". 9 4 Columbia University Press, New York, Prof. Schimmel has authored about 100 books and a few hundred articles on Islam of which I have translated three of her books into Persion. 6 Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London, Orientalism, P.1. 8 Ibid. P.2. 9 Ibid. 83

4 Orientalism is a western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient. 10 Orientalism had such an authoritative position that no one writing, thinking, or acting on the Orient could do so without taking account of the limitations on though and action imposed by Orientalism. In brief, because of Orientalism, the Orient was not (and is not) a free subject of thought or action. 11 There is no internal consistency between Orientalism and its ideas about the Orient, with a "real" Orient. 12 I believe that Orientalism is more particularly valuable as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient than it is as a verdict discourse about the Orient. 13 In a quite constant way, Orientalism depends for its strategy on this flexible positional superiority, which puts the Westerner in a whole series of possible relationship with the Orient without ever losing him the relative upper hand. 14 It seems that these few citations are enough to demonstrate what we mean by deviated view of the Orient by the Occident. 3. The Uproar of political Islam The term "Political Islam" which has become fashionable in the Western world during recent years, doesn't have an origin in the Eastern religious traditions or political thinking, but more resembles to a term coined by 10 Ibid. P Ibid. 12 Ibid. P Ibid. P Ibid. P.7. 84

5 Orientalists and colonial powers for special purposes in the colonial era. Later on, this term has been adopted by some scholars and politicians of the Muslim world for somehow similar purposes. Before presenting a brief discussion on the presence of the element of politics in Islam and demonstrating that, in the language and logic of Islam and Qur'an, and in the Tradition of the Holy Prophet (s), such a terminology has never existed and, to the contrary, what could logically exist, and in fact does exist, are topics such as "Islamic politics" or "Islam and politics" or "the political dimensions of Islam," etc., I would like to point out that the non-existence of the notion of "political Islam" is not only true about Islam but, in a broader sense, it also applies to other religious traditions, divine or non-divine. Based on the same logic, one cannot speak of "political Christianity" or "political Buddhism," but it would rather make sense to speak of "politics in Christianity" or "the political dimensions of Buddhism," etc. As we know, one can talk about a particular type of something, only if other types of the same thing or the same concept exist. Therefore, it logically makes sense to talk about "red apple" or "Western philosophy" because there exists a non-red apple (such as a green apple) or a nonwestern philosophy (like Eastern philosophy). In other words, something can be described with different qualifications, only if different types of the same thing can be cited in reality. Thus, talking about subjects such as a big house, a small house, a villa, a city house, a mountain house, etc. can logically be a valid expression. However, when there is only one type of a religious tradition, whether Christian or Jewish or Islamic regardless of our definition for religion-then how can we divide that indivisible whole into different types which don't have actual exemplification in reality. 85

6 Now, if we accept that the Islamic tradition, like Christian tradition and other great religions, is a universal whole which encompasses all economic, political, social, cultural and other dimensions and aspects, then the question may be raised that since when the term "political Islam" has been coined and has entered into the thoughts and writings of some Western and, later on, Islamic thinkers? Our "initial studies, which of course needs further investigations, shows that the term "political Islam" has been originated from the time of military adventures of the West into the East and the Islamic world and subsequently suppressing the liberation movements in these countries. In other words, the Islamic movement which resisted these acts of occupation and colonization has been labeled as "political Islam" and the clergies who have led such political anti-colonial movements, as defined by Imam Khomaini (RA), has been labeled as "Political Clergy", to be later on blamed and rejected by conservative clergies of the same tradition. However, the Islamic nations and communities, or at least a great part of their scholars, intellectuals and the Muslim masses, not only do not consider the celebrities such as Mohammad Ahmad Sudani (in Sudan), Sheikh Shamil (in Caucasia), Amir Abdul Qadir, Ben Badis, Bashir-ul-Ebrahimi and others in (Algeria), Sayyed Jamaluddin Asadabadi, Ayatollah Kashani, Navab Safavi, Imam Khomaini and others (in Iran), Abdul-Rahman Kavakebi (in Syria), Eqbal Lahori, Abul-Ala Moudodi (in Pakistan) Sheikh Mohammad Abdeh, Hassan-al Banna, Sayyed Qotb and others (in Egypt), Halal al-fasi (in Morocco), Molla Saeed Nourasi (in Turkey), Mohammad Baqir Sadr and others (in Iraq) and many other theologians and clergies who participated all over the Muslim world in defending Islamic frontiers and fighting against foreign colonial powers and their domestic allies, namely local dictators, as political clergy, but as renewer and reviver of true Islam and the holy prophet's tradition. 86

7 4. The relation between religion and politics in Islam In all religious traditions there are many social dimensions, which relate to political aspects. In Islam too, such strong socio-political dimensions have been acknowledged by many Western scholars. Also, the political dimension of rituals such as congregational prayer or hajj (pilgrimage) has not been questioned by anybody. What has been challenged by some ulema or scholars is the relation between religious authority and the governance of the state. 15 As already stated, in our opinion, not only in Islam, but also in other Semitic religions, a close relation exists between religion and politics. In the holy Qur'an, there are hundreds of verses connected with social and political matters. In fact, it is clearly stated that the main reason for God's sending Prophets is to bring about justice, which is evidently a political act. Also, many verses in Qur'an address issues such as war and peace, protection of Muslim frontiers, etc., which point out socio-political dimension of Islam and Qur'an, a fact well noticed by many Western scholars. 16 Furthermore, as stated before, Islamic rituals such as Pilgrimage, Friday Prayer, Congregational Prayer, etc., all have strong political aspects. 17 Contrary to what some ulema preach nowadays that, for example, hajj is 15 Yann Ric.hard. Ayatollah Kashani: The Precursor of the Islamic Republic, article reproduced in Nikki R. Keddie, Religion and Politics in Iran: Shi'ism from Quietism to Revolution, New Haven For example see Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modem lran, N.Y., 1981, p.5; Gustave Le Bon, the History of Civilization of Islam and Arabs, translated into Persian by S.M.T. Fakhre Da'i, Tehran, Fifth Edition, 1967, p A fact well noticed in contemporary Iran. For details see Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Vclayat-e Faqih, Tehran, 1981, p

8 just a personal ritual, one can well argue that if the objective of hajj (pilgrimage) was not to assembles representatives of Muslim countries from all over the world and provide them with the opportunity of discussing their common economic, social, and political concerns, then it would be unjustified for a Muslim living on the other side of the continent to travel to Mecca in order to perform only a "personal ritual" there. In short, we would like to concur with Mangol Bayat that, ideally, Islam and Qur'an recognize no separation between church and state Religion and politics in other Semitic traditions Many Western scholars have expressed the opinion that the link between religion and politics is not limited to Islam, but is also present in other Semitic religions, i.e. Judaism and Christianity. Watt asserts: "If we are to understand the relative importance of religious and non-religious motives in the conversion of seventh-century Arabs to Islam, we must get rid of the current Western idea that politics and religion exist in separate compartments, and we must not expect emotional conversions of the type described by William James. From the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, through Old Testament times, through New Testament times, through the patristic period with its sects, and down to the present day, religion and politics in the Middle East have always been closely linked with one another" 19. Alan Dowty, in an article published on Religion and Politics is Israel, states that: "In the Middle East, there is no separation between spiritual life and religion. In Islam, the religion encompasses all different aspects of life, and governs both its individual as well as social dimensions. Secularism is one of the innovations of the Western societies which, up 18 CF. Mangol Bayat, Islam in Pahlavi and post-pahlavi Iran: A Cultural Revolution, Article reproduced in John Esposito, Islam and Development: Religion and Sociopolitical Change, Syracuse University Press, 1980, p Montgomery W. Wall, Mohammad at Medina, Oxford, 1981, p

9 to a few centuries ago, has not been present in the history of the West too. Secondly, Judaism, just like Islam, considers itself to be a total way of life. A review of the Ten Commandments, which include all aspects of social life, or paying attention to the political role of the prophets in the Gospel, clearly demonstrate this point. In the Gospels there is no separation between religion and politics ". While relation between religion and politics is clearly demonstrated in, let's says, the chapter of Exodus of the Old Testament, some have argued that such a relation is not so obvious in New Testament. In our opinion, even if one assumes that Jesus's movement has originally been one based on spirituality, there is no doubt that Christianity, at least since the Constantine era, has turned into a political tradition, establishing many states in the course of history. Furthermore, if Jesus the Christ had nothing to do with the socio-political situation of his time, then it would be difficult to explain his crucifixion. Nevertheless, the present state of affairs in some Christian countries, which demonstrate a separation between religion and politics, stems more from excesses of religious authorities and institutions in the Middle Ages than from the very nature and teachings of Christianity. 6. Occidentalism and the view of the Islamic East towards the West Generally speaking in "the East" and among the Islamic nations one can discern three different views towards the Western culture and civilization. 1. A view of total approval and confirmation, indicating some sort of extreme westernization and westoxication! 2. A view of total denial and rejection, indicating some sort of westphobia and extreme enmity towards the West. 3. A view of coexistence and mutual understanding and cooperation, obviously confirming many material and scientific advances of 89

10 the West along with disapproval of some of the excesses and disorders. On the first view, i.e. that of total approval, one can say that, in the light of many material as well as temporal backwardness's of the East, some of the Eastern/Muslim scholars have come to the conclusion that the Eastern nations, in order to join the rank and files of the modern world and industrially developed countries, have embraced the Western values and customs and have become totally Westerners! Such people are found amongst the academicians, politicians, intellectuals, and even the leaders of Eastern countries, sometimes gaining some popular support, while most of the time being in minority because of their extreme views and rejecting all indigenous local traditions. On the second view, i.e. that of total denial and rejection, it can be said that although those supporting it have been more successful in mobilizing the masses, especially the less-educated and more ignorant people, than the first group, their success has been limited and short term too, and the majority of people in Muslim countries and especially the elite, the entrepreneurs, and the like have soon realized that you can not run a country and develop its economy and reach to a level of sustainable development only be mobilizing the people against an imaginary enemy with empty slogans. But the third view, that of promoting mutual understanding, respect, and interaction, because of having solid rational and Quranic foundations, is well accepted by most of the religious "ulama" (clergy), elite and intellectuals, statesmen, and others. The holy Quran, in a universal view towards the whole mankind, clearly states that human beings are all equal and brothers, having been created 90

11 from a single father and mother, and that the most respected and dear of them near God is their most pious one. In another verse, the holy Quran invites all people of the Book or "Ahl al-kitab" to come to the common "Word" between all believes, which is worshipping the same God and associating no partners with Him. In another verse, Quran says that amongst all the People of the Book, the Christians are closest to the Muslims. It should also be mentioned that the presence of hundreds of verses in the holy Quran in respect and praise of Jesus the Christ and the blessed Mary, and mentioning the names of the Gospel and Torah and King David Psalms on the side of the holy Quran, all demonstrate Islam and Quran's deep respect for the preceding Prophets and their sacred Books. Indeed Quran clearly states that one can not be a true believer and a real Muslim, without believing in all the past Prophets and Books. 7. Summary and Conclusion Today the mankind, with a backlog of thousands of years of culture and civilization and two recent world wars in which millions of people were killed, is more than tired of all these enmities, greedy competitions, and useless blood shedding. Today the whole humanity is crying loud for peace and tranquility, mutual understanding and cooperation, and happy and healthy interaction not only between the West and the East, but also between the Western science and technology, research and development, and business and trade, with their Eastern counterparts; and the last, but not the least, between the Western and Eastern cultures and religious traditions. 91