Research Question#1: How did the Mongol Empires gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?

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1 Name The Mongol Empire Research Question#1: How did the Mongol Empires gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires? Documents Document 1 In the 13th century, nomadic Mongol horsemen in Central Asia united under a great leader named Genghis Khan. He led his fierce warriors on a wave of conquests that lasted for 20 years. Russia and portions of the Muslim Empire fell to the Mongols. The conquests continued after Genghis Khan died in Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, became the Mongol emperor in 1260 and conquered the Song in Notes

2 Document 2 The Mongols had developed a composite bow made out of sinew and horn and were skilled at shooting it while riding, which gave them the upper hand against ordinary foot soldiers. With a range of more than 350 yards, the bow was superior to the contemporaneous [co-existing] English longbow, whose range was only 250 yards. A wood-and-leather saddle, which was rubbed with sheep s fat to prevent cracking and shrinkage, allowed the horses to bear the weight of their riders for long periods and also permitted the riders to retain a firm seat. Their saddlebags contained cooking pots, dried meat, yogurt, water bottles, and other essentials for lengthy expeditions. Finally, a sturdy stirrup enabled horsemen to be steadier and thus more accurate in shooting when mounted. A Chinese chronicler recognized the horse s value to the Mongols, observing that by nature they [the Mongols] are good at riding and shooting. Therefore they took possession of the world through this advantage of bow and horse. Source: Morris Rossabi, All the Khan s Horses, Natural History, October 1994 from NYS Global History and Geography Regents Exam, June Document 3 If it is necessary to write to rebels or send messages to them they shall not be intimidated by an excessive display of confidence on our part or by the size of our army, but they shall merely be told: if you submit you will find peace and benevolence [goodness]. But if you continue to resist what then do we know [about your future]? Only God knows what then shall become of you - Genghis Khan Source: Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Syriacum, qtd. in Spuler Document 4 All Mongols were fighters, but Chinggis [Genghis] made a reorganized army the core of the society and the carrier of many of his reforms. Under him and his successors, the Mongol army had the following characteristics: All males served in the army, all as cavalry. The army s 95 units of 10,000 soldiers were subdivided into units of 1,000, 100, and 10. Soldiers were promoted based on merit [their ability] not based on their family s status in society. Members of different tribes were mixed together in units of every size to ensure loyalty to the army above loyalty to the tribe. Allies and levies [military men] from conquered territories were also integrated into the fighting force, the latter usually being placed in the front ranks. Absolute obedience to orders from superiors was enforced. Officers had tight control over their troops actions (plunder only with permission, no one allowed to transfer out of their unit). No one in the army was paid, though all shared to varying degrees in the booty. Source: Adapted from Mongol Empire Builders: Fiends from Hell or Culture Brokers? ( CE). World History for Us All A project of San Diego State University in collaboration with the National Center for History in the Schools (UCLA)

3 Document 5...Kublai Khan [ruler of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol run empire in China] was a vigorous and capable ruler. He carried on large warlike hunts to show that he kept Mongol tradition, but he also showed some appreciation for Chinese culture. He acted to restore some of the devastation in North China. He began a vast renovation of the Grand Canal, which was so important to the wealth and unity of the country. He directed the building of water-control projects, such as dams and dikes, along the Yellow River.... Source: Dorothy Hoobler et al., China, Globe Book from NYS Global History and Geography Regents Exam, January Document 6 Once conquest was completed, the Mongols were not oppressive rulers. Often, they allowed conquered people to live much as they had before-as long as they regularly paid tribute [a tax paid to prevent invasion and ensure protection] to the Mongols. Genghis Khan had set an example for his successors by ruling conquered lands with toleration and justice. Although the Mongol warrior had no use for city life, he respected scholars, artists, and artisans. he listened to the ideas of Confucians, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Jews, and Zoroastrians. Source: Prentice Hall World History (2007), Ellis and Esler, p 377. Document 7 An Excerpt from The Travels of Marco Polo Now you must know that from this city of Cambaluc [Mongol capital in China, now Beijing] proceed many roads and highways leading to a variety of provinces...the messengers of the Emperor in travelling from Cambaluc...will, find at every twenty-five miles of the journey a station which they call Yamb, or, as we should say, the Horse-Post-House..You must know that by the Great Kaan s orders there has been established between those post houses, at every interval of three miles, a little fort with some forty houses round about it, in which dwell the people who act as the Emperor s foot-runners. Everyone of those runners wears a great wide belt, set all over with bells, so that as they run the three miles from post to post their bells are heard jingling a long way off. And thus on reaching the post the runner finds another man similarly equipt, and all ready to take his place, who instantly takes over whatsoever he has in charge...so the new man sets off and runs his three miles. At the next station he finds his relief ready in like manner; and so the post proceeds, with a change at every three miles. And in this way the Emperor...receives despatches with news from places ten days journey off in one day and night; or, if need be, news from a hundred days off in ten days and nights; and that is no small matter! Moreover, there are also at those stations other men...who are employed for expresses when there is a call for great haste in sending despatches to any governor of a province...and these men travel a good two hundred or two hundred and fifty miles in the day, and as much in the night... They take a horse from those at the station which are standing ready saddled, all fresh and in wind, and mount and go at full speed, as hard as they can ride in fact. And when those at the next post hear the bells they get ready another horse and a man equipt in the same way, and he takes over the letter or whatever it be, and is off full-speed to the third station, where

4 again a fresh horse is found all ready, and so the despatch speeds along from post to post, always at full gallop, with regular change of horses. And the speed at which they go is marvellous. Excerpt from The Book of Ser Marco Polo: The Venetian Concerning Kingdoms and Marvels of the East Volume 1, translated and edited by Colonel Sir Henry Yule (London: John Murray, 1903). Documents Document 1 Research Question #2: What impact did the Mongol Empire have on world history? Notes "... he destroy those who oppose him, but these Tatars [Mongols] spared none, slaying women and men and children, ripping open pregnant women and killing unborn babes.these Tatars conquered most of the habitable globe, and the best, the most flourishing and most populous part thereof, and that whereof the inhabitants were the most advanced in character and conduct, in about a year; nor did any country escape their devastations which did not fearfully expect them and dread their arrival. "...it is said that a single one of them would enter a village or a quarter wherein were many people, and would continue to slay them one after another, none daring to stretch forth his hand against this horseman. And I have heard that one of them took a man captive, but had not with him any weapon wherewith to kill him; and he said to his prisoner, "Lay your head on the ground and do not move," and he did so, and the Tatar went and fetched his sword and slew him therewith. Source: Ibn al-atir, , Muslim historian found in Document 2 The following excerpt came from a Muslim warrior who lived during the time that Genghis Khan ruled the Mongol Empire. Under the reign of Genghis Khan, all the countries... enjoyed such peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of the sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone. Source: Ghazi, Muslim chronicler, Recorded in Martin, H.D. The Rise of Chinggis Khan. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, Document 3

5 Document 4 Life in China under Mongol Rule: Religion An important legacy of the Mongols' reign in China was their support of many religions. Islam, for example, was well supported, and the Mongols built quite a number of mosques in China. The Mongols also recruited and employed Islamic financial administrators a move that led to good relations with the Islamic world beyond China, in particular with Persia and West Asia. The Mongols were also captivated by Buddhism [ ] and they recruited a number of Tibetan monks to help them rule China and promote the interests of Buddhism. The most important of these monks was the Tibetan

6 'Phags-pa Lama. This policy resulted in an astonishing increase in the number of Buddhist monasteries in China, as well as in the translation of Buddhist texts. Even [...] Christianity was promoted by the Mongols, partly because Khubilai Khan's own mother was an adherent of that faith. There was one religion, however, that did not have Mongol support: Daoism. Daoism was at that time embroiled in a struggle with Buddhism that often flared into actual pitched battles between the monks of the two religions. The Mongols, siding with the Buddhists, did not look favorably upon the Daoists. Source: Asia for Educators, Columbia University, Asian Topics in World History: The Mongols in China. Document 5 Trade and Knowledge Among the most significant legacies of the Mongols was their concern with trade and their respect for knowledge. From the beginnings of the Mongol Empire, the Mongol Khans fostered trade and sponsored numerous caravans. The very size of the Mongol Empire encouraged the wider dissemination of goods and ideas throughout Eurasia, as merchants and others could now travel from one end of the empire to another with greater security, guaranteed by the Pax Mongolica. [...]Yet as the Mongol Empire and its successors continued to disintegrate, the Pax Mongolica which was never completely peaceful collapsed. This led to the trade routes becoming insecure once more. In turn, this led to an increase of prices due to tariffs [taxes] and the cost of protection. The rise of the Ottoman Empire also impacted Italian merchants conducting business in the Black Sea and Eastern Mediterranean. With these restrictions, western desire for the luxury goods and spices of the east grew, encouraging an Age of Exploration. Beginning with Christopher Columbus, westerners began searching for new routes to China and India, particularly to the court of the Khan, even though a Mongol Khan had not sat on the throne since Thus, the Mongols indirectly led to European exploration and the intrusion of Europeans into Asia. Source: The Mongol Empire in World History by Timothy May from North Georgia College and State University on World History Document 6 Francis Bacon was an English philosopher. In this excerpt he is commenting on Chinese inventions introduced to Europe during the early 15th century. It is well to observe the force and virtue and consequence of discoveries. These are to be seen nowhere more clearly than those three which were unknown to the ancients [the Greeks], and of which the origin, though recent, is obscure and inglorious; namely printing, gunpowder, and the magnet. For these three have changed the whole face and stage of things throughout the world, the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes; insomuch that no empire, no sect, no

7 star, seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these three mechanical discoveries. Source: Francis Bacon found in Document 7 The Black Plague was a disease that spread across Asia and Europe in the 14th century killing an estimated 75 million people including almost one-third of the population of Europe.

8 Document 8 Mongol s Legacy Positive 1. The Mongols really did reinvigorate cross- Eurasian trade. The Silk Road trading routes that had existed for about 1000 years by the time the Mongols made the scene had fallen into disuse, but the Mongols valued trade because they could tax it, and they did a great job of keeping their empire safe. 2. The Mongols increased communication throughout Eurasia by developing this pony express-like system of weigh stations with horses and riders that could quickly relay information. It was called the yam system and also included these amazing bronze passports, which facilitated travel. 3. Another thing that travelled along the Mongol trade routes was cuisine. For example, it was because of the Mongols that rice became a staple of the Persian diet. 4. The Mongols forcibly relocated people who were useful to them, like artists and musicians and, especially administrators. As you can imagine, the Mongols were not much for administrative tasks like keeping records so they found people were good at that stuff and just moved them around the empire. 5.The Mongols were almost unprecedentedly tolerant of different religions[...][you could find Muslims and Buddhists and Christians and people of any other religion you can think of prospering throughout the Mongol empire. Negative 1.Here is Genghis Khan s definition of happiness: The greatest happiness is to vanquish your enemies, to chase them before you, to rob them of their wealth, to see those dear to them bathed in tears, to clasp to your bosom their wives and daughters." 2. Is an extension of one. The Mongols were seriously brutal conquerors. I mean, not uniquely brutal, but still: The Mongols destroyed entire cities, and most historians estimate the numbers they killed to be in the millions. 3. Their empire didn t last. Within 80 years they d left China and been replaced by a new dynasty, the Ming. And in Persia they blended in so completely that by the 15th century they were totally unrecognizable. I mean, they d even taken up agriculture! 4. They also weren t particularly interested in artistic patronage or architecture. 5. The Mongols were probably responsible for the Black Death. By opening up trade they also opened up vectors for disease to travel, in the case of the Plague via fleas infected with Yersinia pestis [the bacteria that causes the Plague]...it was the fleas on the rats in the holds of Black Sea ships that were trading with Europe [that spread the Plague]. But that trade only existed because of the Mongols.