UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

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1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ISL 508: Sokoto Caliphate (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Prof. Ahmed Hammawa Song Page 1 of 100

2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: ISL 508: Sokoto Caliphate Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success Page 2 of 100

3 depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (S AQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Page 3 of 100

4 Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. Page 4 of 100

5 b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. Page 5 of 100

6 e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e- tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Page 6 of 100

7 Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. Page 7 of 100

8 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING DEPERTMENT OF ARABIC AND ISLAMIC STUDIES ISL 508: SOKOTO CALIPHATE (2 UNITS) By PROF. AHMED HAMMAWA SONG 2016 Page 8 of 100

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10 INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE: Sokoto Caliphate is suitable for anyone who is interested in understanding more about Sokoto Caliphate. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the Course is all about, what you are expected to know in each session, what Course Materials you will be using and how you can work your way through these Materials. It also emphasizes the need for Tutor Marked Assignments. There are periodic Tutorial Classes that are linked to the Course. Page 10 of 100

11 COURSE OBJECTIVES: At the end of this course, you should be able to: Give comprehensive biography of Uthman Bin Fodio Understand his contribution in Islamization process in Nigeria Identify materials written by Uthman bin Fodio Identify scholars produced by Sokoto Caliphate Identify and analyse written literatures by Sokoto Scholars Identify emirates under Sokoto Caliphate The impact of sokoto Caliphate literature in Hausa land Factors responsible for the collapse of Sokoto Calipate Page 11 of 100

12 TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDY SESSIONS 1: biography of Uthman Bin Fodio 2: the role of Sokoto Caliphate in Islamization process in Nigeria 3: scholars of Sokoto Caliphate 4: emirate under Sokoto Caliphate 5: factors responsible for collapse of Sokoto Caliphate Page 12 of 100

13 STUDY SESSION 1 BIOGRAPHY OF UTHMAN BIN FODIO INTRODUCTION Shaihu Usman dan Fodio, born Usuman ɓii Foduye, (also referred to as Shaikh Usman Ibn Fodio, Shehu Uthman Dan Fuduye, Shehu Usman dan Fodio or Shaikh Uthman Ibn Fodio) (1754, Gobir 1817, Sokoto) was a religious teacher, writer and Islamic promoter, and the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate. Dan Fodio was one of a class of urbanized ethnic Fulani living in the Hausa States in what is today northern Nigeria. He was a leader who followed the Sunni Maliki school of Jurisprudence and the Qadiri branch of Sufism. [5] A teacher of the Maliki school of law, he lived in the city-state of Gobir until 1802 when, motivated by his reformist ideas and suffering increasing repression by local authorities, he led his followers into exile. This exile began a political and social revolution which spread from Gobir throughout modern Nigeria and Cameroon, and was echoed in a jihad movement led by the Fula ethnic group across West Africa. Dan Fodio declined much of the pomp of ruler ship, and while developing contacts with religious reformists and jihad leaders across Africa, he soon passed actual leadership of the Sokoto state to his son, Muhammed Bello. Dan Fodio wrote more than a hundred books concerning religion, government, culture, and society. He developed a critique of existing African Muslim elites for what he saw as their greed, paganism, violation of the standards of Sharia law, and use of heavy taxation. He encouraged literacy and scholarship, for women as well as men, and several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers. His writings and sayings continue to be much quoted today, and are often affectionately referred to as Shehu in Nigeria. Some followers consider dan Fodio to have been a mujaddid, a divinely inspired "reformer of Islam". [6] Page 13 of 100

14 Dan Fodio's uprising was a major episode of a movement described as the Fulani hegemonies in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. [7] It followed the jihads successfully waged in Futa Bundu, Futa Tooro, and Fouta Djallon between 1650 and 1750, which led to the creation of those three Islamic states. In his turn, Shehu inspired a number of later West African jihads, including those of Seku Amadu, founder of the Masina Empire, El Hadj Umar Tall, founder of the Toucouleur Empire (who married one of dan Fodio's granddaughters), and Modibo Adama, founder of the Adamawa Emirate. Dan Fodio was of Fulani descent. [8] He was well educated in classical Islamic science, philosophy, and theology. He also became a revered religious thinker. His teacher, Jibril ibn 'Umar, argued that it was the duty and within the power of religious movements to establish an ideal society free from oppression and vice. Jibril was a North African Muslim alim who gave his apprentice a broader perspective of Muslim reformist ideas in other parts of the Muslim world. Dan Fodio used his influence to secure approval for creating a religious community in his hometown of Degel that would, dan Fodio hoped, be a model town. He stayed there for twenty years, writing, teaching, and preaching. In 1802, Yunfa, the ruler of Gobir and one of dan Fodio's students, turned against him, revoking Degel's autonomy and attempting to assassinate dan Fodio. Dan Fodio and his followers fled into the western grasslands of Gudu, where they turned for help to the local Fulani nomads. In his book Tanbih al-ikhwan ala ahwal al-sudan ( Concerning the Government of Our Country and Neighboring Countries in the Sudan ) Usman wrote: The government of a country is the government of its king without question. If the king is a Muslim, his land is Muslim; if he is an unbeliever, his land is a land of unbelievers. In these circumstances it is obligatory for anyone to leave it for another country. [9] Usman did exactly this when he left Gobir in Yunfa then turned for aid to the other leaders of the Hausa states, warning them that dan Fodio could trigger a widespread jihad. [10] Page 14 of 100

15 LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR SESSION 1 At the end of this session, you should be able to: Give biography of Uthman Bin Fodio Understand the origin of Uthman Fodio Teachers of Uthman Bin Fodio and their impact on his movement Identify the method adopted by Uthman Bin Fodio in Islamization process Outline the achievement of his preaching 1.1 The Fulani War Sokoto Caliphate, 19th century Usman dan Fodio was proclaimed Amir al-muminin or Commander of the Faithful in Gudu. This made him a political as well as religious leader, giving him the authority to declare and pursue a jihad, raise an army and become its commander. A widespread uprising began in Hausaland. This uprising was largely composed of the Fulani, who held a powerful military advantage with their cavalry. It was also widely supported by the Hausa peasantry, who felt over-taxed and oppressed by their rulers. Usuman started the jihad against Gobir in At the time of the war Fulani communications were carried along trade routes and rivers draining into the Niger-Benue valley, as well as the delta and the lagoons. The call for jihad reached not only other Hausa states such as Kano, Daura, Katsina, and Zaria, but also Borno, Page 15 of 100

16 Gombe, Adamawa, Nupe, and Ilorin. These were all places with major or minor groups of Fulani alims. After only a few years of the Fulani War, dan Fodio found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. His son Muhammed Bello and his brother Abdullahi carried on the jihad and took care of the administration. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic law. After 1811, Usman retired and continued writing about the righteous conduct of the Muslim religion. After his death in 1817, his son, Muhammed Bello, succeeded his as amir al-mu minin and became the ruler of the Sokoto Caliphate, which was the biggest state south of the Sahara at that time. Usman s brother Abdullahi was given the title Emir of Gwandu and was placed in charge of the Western Emirates, Nupe and Ilorin. Thus all Hausa states, parts of Nupe and Ilorin, and Fulani outposts in Bauchi and Adamawa were all ruled by a single politico-religious system. From the time of Usman dan Fodio to the British conquest at the beginning of the twentieth century there were twelve caliphs. Usman dan Fodio was described as well past 6 feet, being lean, light-skinned and for looking very much like his mother Sayda Hauwa. His brother Abdullahi dan Fodio ( ) was described as looking more like their father Muhammad Fodio, being also well past 6 feet, having a darker skin hue, and for becoming portly later in his life. Activity Identify the method adopted by Uthman Bin Fodio in Islamization process Page 16 of 100

17 1.2. FAMILY OF UTHMAN BIN FODIO In Rawd al-janaan (The Meadows of Paradise), Waziri Gidado dan Laima ( ) listed Dan Fodio's wives as: His first cousin Maymuna with whom he had 11 children, among whom: Aliyu (1770s-1790s) And the twins Hasan (1793- November 1817) and Nana Asma'u ( ). Maymuna died sometime after the birth of her youngest children. Aisha dan Muhammad Sa'd. She was also known as "Gaabdo" (Joy in Fulfulde) and as "Iyya Garka" (Hausa for Lady of the House/Compound). Iyya Garka was famed for her Islamic knowledge and as being the matriarch of the family. She outlived her husband by many decades. Among others, she was the mother of: Muhammad Sa'd (1777 -before 1804). Eldest surviving son of Shehu dan Fodio, he was noted for his intellectual pursuits and his early death. Khadija (c ). Preceptor to her sister Asma u and Aisha al-kammu, wife to her brother Muhammad Bello.. She was married to the scholarly Mustafa (c ), the chief secretary to Shaykh Usman dan Fodio. By him, she was the mother of the Sheikh Abdul Qadir dan Tafa ( ), a Sufi, Islamic cleric and historian Muhammad Sambo (c ). A Qadiri Sufi Scholar, Sambo was the first to pledge allegiance to his younger brother Bello when the latter became Caliph in Muhammad Buhari ( ). Buhari was a scholar and a lieutenant to the Sultans of Sokoto. He was Sarkin of the ribat of Tambuwal, and was famous for his campaigns in Nupe and Yorubaland along with the Emirs of Gwandu. Muhammad Buhari is the great-grandfather of Sultan Ibrahim Dasuki. Page 17 of 100

18 Hauwa, known also as "Inna Garka" (Mother of the House in Hausa) and Bikaraga. She was described as being prone to asceticism. Among her children were Muhammad Bello ( ), the second Sultan of Sokoto. Author of a chronicle of the Fulani Jihad (Infaq al-maysur) and a notable scholar. Abu Bakr Atiku ( ), the third Sultan of Sokoto. Atiku was known for having inherited many of his father's esoteric secrets. He ruled between 1837 and 1842 and died following the failed siege of Tsibiri Fatima ( ), also known as "Mo 'Inna" (Inna's child, to distinguish her from another Fatima). She was married to Sarkin Yaki Aliyu Jedo, generalissimo of the Sokoto armies. Hajjo, by whom he was the father of: Abdul Qadir ( ) who was known as one of the best poets of Sokoto. Abdul Qadir died from battle wounds during Sultan Bello's last campaign, in Zamfara. He was buried at Baraya Zaki Shatura, by whom he was the father of: Ahmadu Rufai ( ). Rufai was Sarkin of Silame and later became Sultan of Sokoto ( ). By his unique concubine Mariyatu, Sheykh Dan Fodio was father to: Amina. Ibrahim Dasuki Hajara Uwar Deji Mariyam (c fl. 1880s). Mariyam dan Shehu was a scholar like her sister Khadija, Fatima and Asma'u. Following the latter's death, she led the Yan Taru Page 18 of 100

19 movement which promoted women education. She was first married to Muhammad Adde dan Waziri Gidado, by whom, she had two daughter. Following the latter's early death, she was married to the Emir of Kano ibrahim Dabo (r ). She did not have issue, in her second union. Mariyam wielded much influence following her return to Sokoto in the later 1840s. She was an influential counselor to her nephews who became Sultans, and often served as liaison in their dealings with Kano. In the 1880s during the rule of Sultan Umar dan Ali dan Bello (r ), she penned a letter to her stepson Emir Muhammad Bello (r ) of Kano, rebuking the pretensions of her grand-nephew Hayatu dan Sai'd dan Sultan Bello ( ), who was promoting mass emigration to Adamawa, as "amil" of the Sudanese Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad. Mallam 'Isa (1817-c.1870), who was Shaykh Dan Fodio's youngest and posthumous child. Along with Asma'u, he translated in Hausa and Arabic, many of his father's works that were written in Fulfulde. Mallam 'Isa was also named Sarkin Yamma by his brother Sultan Bello. He died sometime during the rule of Sultan Rufa'i ( ) RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL IMPACT OF UTHMAN BIN FODIO The Foundations of Justice for Legal Guardians, Governors, Princes, Meritorious Rulers, and Kings (Usman dan Fodio) Many of the Fulani led by Usman dan Fodio were unhappy that the rulers of the Hausa states were mingling Islam with aspects of the traditional regional religion. Usman created a theocratic state with a stricter interpretation of Islam. In Tanbih al-ikhwan ala ahwal al- Sudan, he wrote: As for the sultans, they are undoubtedly unbelievers, even though they may profess the religion of Islam, because they practice polytheistic rituals and turn people Page 19 of 100

20 away from the path of God and raise the flag of a worldly kingdom above the banner of Islam. All this is unbelief according to the consensus of opinions. [11] In Islam outside the Arab World, David Westerlund wrote: The jihad resulted in a federal theocratic state, with extensive autonomy for emirates, recognizing the spiritual authority of the caliph or the sultan of Sokoto. [12] Usman addressed in his books what he saw as the flaws and demerits of the African non- Muslim or nominally Muslim rulers. Some of the accusations he made were corruption at various levels of the administration and neglect of the rights of ordinary people. Usman also criticized heavy taxation and obstruction of the business and trade of the Hausa states by the legal system. WRITINGS OF UTHMAN BIN FODIO Usman dan Fodio wrote about 480 poems in Arabic, Fulfulde, and Hausa. [13] Activity 1 Mention three of the family members of uthman Dan Fodio SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION 1 In this study session, you have learnt: 1. The biography of Uthman Bin Fodio 2. Identify some books witten by Uthman Bin Fodio 3. Emirate under Sokoto Caliphate. 4. factors that leads to the collapse of Sokoto Caliphate Page 20 of 100

21 I.T.Q: when you have completed this session you will be able to answer this question: what are the accusations made by Uthmanu Dan fodio to the Hausa state? I.T.A: Some of the accusations he made were corruption at various levels of the administration and neglect of the rights of ordinary people. Usman also criticized heavy taxation and obstruction of the business and trade of the Hausa states by the legal system. SELF -ASSESSMENT QUETIONS FOR SESSION 1 When you have completed this session, you can test your achievement of learning outcomes by answering these questions: 1. Write short note on the biography of Uthman Bin Fodio 2. Who are the Teachers of Uthman Bin Fodio. 3. Identify the method adopted by Uthman Bin Fodio in Islamization process. REFERENCES / FURTHER READING Jackson, Sherman A. (2009). Islam and the Problem of Black Suffering. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center: "An Interview on Uthman dan Fodio" by Shireen Ahmed June 22, 1995 Page 21 of 100

22 John O. Hunwick. African And Islamic Revival in Sudanic Africa: A Journal of Historical Sources (1995). 5. Suret-Canale, Jean. "The Social and Historical Significance of the Fulɓe Hegemonies in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries." In Essays on African History: From the Slave Trade to Neocolonialism." translated from the French by Christopher Hurst. C. Hurst & Co., London., pp ". Retrieved 8 October Britannica Encyclopedia: "Usman dan Fodio" retrieved May 15, 2014 Usman dan Fodio: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The Islamic Slave Revolts of Bahia, Brazil: A Continuity of the 19th Century Jihaad Movements of Western Sudan?, by Abu Alfa Muhammed Shareef bin Farid, Sankore' Institute of Islamic African Studies, Also see Lovejoy (20 07), below, on this. "Salaam Knowledge". Retrieved 8 October Christopher Steed and David Westerlund. Nigeria in David Westerlund, Ingvar Svanberg (eds). Islam Outside t he Arab World. London: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN Yahaya, Ibrahim Yaro (1988). "The Development of Hausa Literature. in Yemi Ogunbiyi, ed. Perspectives on Nigerian Literature: Lagos: Guardian Books" (PDF). Obafemi, Olu "50 Years of Nigerian Literature: Prospects and Problems" Keynote Page 22 of 100

23 STUDY SESSION 2 INTRODUCTION In this session we will discuss the writings and the method adopted by sheikh Uthman Bin Fodio as well as the impact of his teachers on his movement. LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR SESSION 2 When you complete this session, you should be able to: 1. Writings of Uthman bin Fodio 2. The method he adopted in his preachings 3. The impact of uthman Bin Fodio in Hausa land 2.1 LIFE AND WORKS UTHMAN DAN FODIO Early life and education. Uthman Dan Fodio was born at Marata in December 1754 (Balogun, 1981p. 27). He lived in the city-state of Gobir until 1802 when motivated by his reformist ideas he led his followers out of the state. His father was a learned man. Uthman first studied with him. He was educated according to traditional system. After finishing at home his basic education of reading and writing Arabic, memorization and translation of the Qur an, some knowledge of hadith and jurisprudence, grammar and arithmetic, the Shehu obtained the advanced knowledge of Shari`ah sciences from specialized professors of the subjects. His teachers include Shaykh Abd al-rahman b. Hammadah, his maternal uncle Uthman Biddrui, Muhammad Sambo, Muhammad b. Rajab, and Jibril b. Umar. It is not reported whether Uthman Dan Fodio himself ever traveled to Hijaz. But most of his teachers were Madinah trained; some of them were students of al- Sindi (Sulaiman, 1986, pp ). Thus his educational line tree coincides with that of Shaykh Muhammad b. Abd al-wahhab and Shah Page 23 of 100

24 Wali-Allah al-dihlawi. He was much influenced by his teacher Jibril b. Umar. The latter had twice visited the holy places of Islam, Makkah and Madinah (ibid. pp ). It was the time when especially Madinah assumed the center of Muslim world s most renowned scholars who called their students to return to the original sources of Islam the Qur an and the Sunnah. Two parts of his life. Shehu Uthman Dan Fadio s life may be divided into two parts. The first part, which falls in the eighteen century, is characterized by teaching, writing, preaching, reforming and renovating. This concerns with our topic and we shall deal with this part only. The second part of his life, which started in 1802 is related to his migration and struggle against the unjust and tyrant rules of North Africa and his characteristic as the founder of the 19th century empire of the Sokoto caliphate in what is today northern Nigeria and surrounding areas. This part is briefly introduced here. Its detailed study is left to a researcher who wants to investigate the nineteenth century Muslim situations. Activity 1 Discuss the early life and education of Uthman Bin Fodio? 2.2 REFORMATIVE ENDEAVORS At the young age of twenty, in 1188/1774 at his home town Degel, the Shehu started his career as a wandering teacher. He instructed people on the proper practice of Islam. During 1790s, the emphasis of his teaching and writing gradually shifted from personal instruction to a broader concern with social and political questions (Dallal, 1993, p. 50). Shehu was worried about the rigidity and the blind adherence of ulama to a particular school of jurisprudence, Page 24 of 100

25 The abuses of Sufism, and ignorance among the common people their exploitation by authorities. The Shehu directed his reform to these issues. In the opinion of Sulaiman (1986, p. 19), the Shehu s methods of revising the generation that brought about the transformation of central Sudan encompasses, the three areas: the intellectual, the spiritual and the profound training in tasawwuf. The Shehu himself was follower of Qadiriyah order. So he was not against sufism per se. He opposed the abuses and practices that were in variance to Shari`ah. He criticized ulama who supported authorities to protect their vested interest and tolerated all kinds of corruptions. In most of his books he addressed such ulama. He received from them severe persecution and scandalous attacks. Finally he emerged victorious over his adversaries. The Shehu paid special attention to education and training of his people. According to Sulaiman (1986, p. 22), the imparting of the idea of tajdid, or revolution, in his students and involving them in the process of tajdid as a necessary part of education was perhaps, Shehu Usman s greatest contribution in Hausaland. The Shehu asserted that any ruling in fiqh, opposed to the Qur an, sunnah and ijma` must be rejected. For popularization of knowledge he authored wathiqat al-ikhwan. Along with the intellectual training, he paid attention to spiritual development of the students. This is the subject of his work Umdat al- Ubbad (Sulaiman, 1986, p. 24). Internal purification and spiritual training was aimed by practice of tasawwuf. The Shehu s brother Abdullahi reports about the Shehu that he called people to the revival of the Faith, and to Islam, and good works, and to abandon customs contrary to them (Shagari and Boyd, 1978, p. 12). While the Shehu used his literary works specially written in Arabic language to reform ulama, he addressed masses of common people in his Friday sermons and speeches and taught them fundamental and original teachings of Islam. For this purpose he used local Page 25 of 100

26 languages Hausa and Fulani. He was a gifted poet and used this effective medium to approach the common people. He also traveled to other cities to teach and preach among the wider circles of people. Both men and women were attracted to those meetings. For women separate sitting arrangement was made (Balogun, 1981, p. 34). According to Sulaiman (1986, pp. xvi-xviii), The Shehu divided the people of Hausa land into three ideological groups. The first believed sincerely in Islam, the second were idolaters who worshipped stones, trees or the like and the third comprised the syncretism those who practiced the outward show of Islam alongside pagan rites. To the Shehu the last group constituted the main problem because it included the bulk of the leadership. 2.3 HIJRAH, JIHAD AND ESTABLISHMENT OF SOKOTO CALIPHATE. For thirty years the base of the Shehu s academic and calling activities was his home town Degel. His personal life and his family s conduct inspired people (Shagari and Boyd, 1978, pp. 17, 19). The Shehu had cordial relations with the Sarakuna, the rulers. However, when number of the Shehu s follower enlarged and his fame increased, the Sarakuna became afraid of him and his followers and began to harass them5. The Sarakuna s men also attempted to assassinate him. These hostile actions against the Shehu and his follower led them to take up arms to defend themselves. This was in In this jihad the Shehu s follower won the battle and established caliphate in 1225/ His son Muhammad Bello and brother Abdullah looked the state affairs. The Shehu engaged himself in scholarly pursuits. He expired in 1233/1817. In his work Infaq al-maysur, Muhammad Bellow remarked about the Shehu: He possessed pleasing qualities. He revived the sunnah and put an end to heresy. (quoted by Sulaiman, 1986, p. 17). Page 26 of 100

27 2.4. WORKS OF SHEHU UTHMAN BIN FODIO It is said that the Shehu wrote more than one hundred books concerning his thoughts about religion, government, culture and society. Balogun (1981, PP ) has compiled a list of 115 works through various sources. In fact most of those titles are essays or chapters of some other works. For example, his work Bayan al-bid`ah al-shaytaniyah is largely identical with the bid`ah section of his work Ihya al-sunnah wa Ikhmad al-bid`ah (ibid. P. 49n). There are some repetitions also. The major works are only few. 1. According to Balogun (1981, p. x), Ihya al-sunnah wa Ikhmad al-bid`ah (The revival of the Prophetic practice and obliteration of false innovation) is the Shehu s magnum opus. After exposition of the two terms - Sunnah and Bid`ah - the book emphasizes the need for adherence to the Sunnah and avoidance of the bid`ah (pagan innovation). Then it discusses the nature and requirements of faith (iman). After this the major portion of the book is assigned to jurisprudential matters. The subject of mysticism has also been discussed before an effective conclusion. As the title shows the objective of the book is to present the true prophetic teachings on matter of the faith, jurisprudence and mysticism and warn against pagan practices on those issues. Sulaiman (1986, p. 64) considers this work as a textbook of tajdid [revival]. Shehu s some other works are as follows: 2. Bayan Wujub al-hijrah `ala l-`ibad7 (description of the obligation of migration for People). 3. Siraj al-ikhwan (Lamp for the Brothers) 4. Kitab al-farq (Book of the Difference) 5. Bayan Bid`ah al-shaytaniyah (Description of the Satanic innovations) 6. Najm al-ikhwan (Star of the Brothers) 7. Nur al-ibad (Light of the Slaves) Page 27 of 100

28 8. Usul al-`adl (Principles of Justice) 9. al-amr bi l-ma`ruf wa l-nahy ani l-munkar (enjoining the good and forbidding the evil) As against the two other revivalists of 18th century - Shah Wali-Allah and Muhammad b. Abd al-wahhab the Shehu s works largely remained unpublished. Activity Mention four of the Uthman Bin Fodio`s work IMPACT OF SHEHU UTHMAN BIN FODIO Stating the impact of Uthman Dan Fodio, Sulaiman (1986, pp. vii -viii) observes that the revolution of Uthman Dan Fodio was the most spectacular and far- reaching of all revolutions seen in Africa in recent centuries. It brought the various peoples that made up Hausaland into one single polity, unprecedented in scope and complexity, and gave them the security, stability and justice they lacked under the warring Hausa State. In the call of Uthman Dan Fodio there was hardly a new thing. What was new was that the social and moral values were being put into practice and dedication to establish a better and superior social order (ibid. p. 46). According to Shagari and Boyd (1978, p. x), Over the last century and a half the influence of Shehu Dan Fodio and his companions had reigned supreme in this area and beyond. They further say: His teachings and his examples have inspired millions of Muslims throughout the length and breadth of Hausaland in particular and the Western Sudan in general; his influence continues to guide the action, hopes and inspirations of many religious leaders, scholars, administrators and statesmen in the newly independent states of West Africa to this day (ibid, p. xi). Page 28 of 100

29 Observing over the entire struggle of Uthman dan Fodio, Shagari and Boyd (1978, p. xi) Remark: He was both pious and ascetic. He assumed leadership of a movement but never ruled. For thirty years from 1774 to 1804 the Shehu carried his message to the people of the Sudan, telling them to return to the Way of the Prophet Muhammad.. Gradually he won over most of his opponents through reason, persuasion and an exceptional display of the sincerity, honesty and piety. His home in Degel became a centre of scholarship and a rallying place of Mallams (Arabic mu`allim = teachers) from allover the Sudan, who came in quest of knowledge and spiritual guidance. It was a mini university (Shagari and Boyd, 1978, p. 5). A distinguishing feature of the Shehu s reform was his due attention to the training of womenfolk. He responded convincingly to objections raised against this (ibid. pp ). He paid full attention to the education of women. He equally educated and taught his sons and his daughters who carried on his mission after him. Several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers.8 Especially his daughter Nana Asma u translated some of her father s work into local languages. The Shehu criticized ulama for neglecting half of human beings and leaving them abandoned like beasts (Nur al-albab, p. 10, quoted by Shagari & Boyd, 1978, p. 39). Dan Fodio's uprising inspired a number of later West African jihads, including those of Massina Empire founder Seku Amadu, Toucouleur Empire founder El Hadj Umar Tall (who married one of dan Fodio's granddaughters), Wassoulou Empire founder Samori Ture, and Adamawa Emirate founder Modibo Adama. Activity What are the new things in the Uthman Bin Fodio`s Teachings? Page 29 of 100

30 2.6. ECONOMIC IDEAS SOKOTO CALIPHATE Opposition to economic evils. The Shehu strongly criticized the Hausa ruling elite for their heavy taxation and violation of the Muslim Law. He condemned oppression, all unfairness, the giving and acceptance of bribes, the imposition of unfair taxes, the seizing of land by force, unauthorized grazing of other people s crops, extraction of money from the poor, imprisonment on false charges and all other injustices (Shagari and Boyd, 1978, p. 15). Once the sultan of Gobir invited all ulama including Uthman and presented them gifts, Uthman requested freedom of dawah (calling people to Allah), removal of hindrance in practicing the religion, respect to religious people, lessening the burden of taxation. The Sultan conceded to his request (Balogun, 1981, p. 35). This enhanced the prestige of Uthman Dan Fodio. The Shehu s followers were required not to remain idle. They were encouraged to learn a craft in order to earn a living. It was considered improper to eat what one had not earned by one s own efforts 10. They engaged in various handcrafts to produce necessities of life (Shagari and Boyd, 1978,. p. 18). al-siyasah al-shar`iyah (The Shar`iyah Governance). On the pattern of Ibn Taymiyah, the Shehu wrote a treatise on al-amr bi l-ma`ruf wa l-nahy ani l- munkar (enjoining the good and forbidding the bad) in which he proposed basic guidelines to discharge this obligation. The Shehu s brother Abdullahi and son Muhammad Bello, who were also his students, wrote books on the pattern of al- Siyasah al-shar`iyah. Abdullhi s work is entitled Diya al-hukkam and the title of Muhammad Bello s work is al-ghayth al-wabil fi Sirat al-imam al-`adil. In these two works, their authors have elaborated principles of good governance and highlighted the socio-economic role of the state. Most probably they represented the views of their teacher and mentor Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio. The state established by the Shehu had no written constitution. The Shari ah was its manual for rule. Shagari and Boyd (1978, p. 47) write that after establishment of the Caliphate the Page 30 of 100

31 foundations of the New Society in Sokoto were based on the Qur an, the Sunnah and ijma` the consensus of learned opinion. The sources of government revenues were the same as prescribed by the Shari ah zakah, sadaqat, ghanimah and kharaj (Shagari & Boyd, 1978, pp ). Economic issues attracted the attention of Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio. But he was not a philosopher or theoretician. His career had been that of as Islamic reviver and renovator. The same role is reflected in economic matters. He argued for revival of just Islamic economic institutions such as al-hisbah, hima, bayt al-mal, zakah, waqf, etc. Mostly his economic ideas are found in his work Bayan Wujub al-hijrah `ala -Ibad. Other works in which some economic ideas are found are Kitab al-farq, Siraj al-ikhwan, Bayan Bid`ah al- Shaytaniyah, Najm al-ikhwan and Nur al-ibad. Value based economic system. The Shehu advocates foundation of an economic system based on values such as justice, sincerity, moderation, modesty, honesty, etc. According to him justice is the key for progress while injustice leads to decadence. A just government can last even with unbelief but it cannot endure with injustice11 (Dan Fodio, 1978, p. 142). On the other hand he warned against the unhealthy practices such as fraud, adulteration and extravagance and their bad consequences in the economy (Dan Fodio, 1978, p. 142). He exalted labour and hard work, and rejected begging. He encouraged his follower to engage in earning livelihood even through an ordinary occupation (Kani, 1984, pp ). Division of labour and cooperation occupy a very high place in his economic thought (Balogun, 1985, p. 30, quoted by Sule Ahmed Gusau, 1989). Property earned through fraudulent means would be confiscated on behalf of public treasury. 12 The Shehu was very emphatic on fair market functioning. In his work Bayan al- Bid`ah al- Shaytaniyah (On Satanic Innovations) he forbade ignorant persons from dealing in market, as such people may indulge in prohibited actions (Siraj al- Wahhaj quoted by Gusau, p. 150n). This is reminiscent of caliph Umar s saying that only faqih (a Shariah knowledgeable person) Page 31 of 100

32 should deal in the market13. It is for the sake of fairness in dealing in the market that he emphasized revival of the hisbah institutions whose functions include checking the prices, quality of goods, correct weights and measures, prevention of fraud and usurious practices, removal of monopolization of products, etc. (The Shehu s work al -Bid`ah al-shaytaniyah, quoted by Kani, p. 65). Economic role of the state. There is sufficient discussion in works of Uthman Dan Fodio on economic role of the state, its sources of revenue and heads of expenditure. Perhaps he foresaw the need for such topics in the prospective caliphate that would emerge in the wake of his call for revival. To achieve welfare and prosperity a state must be based on values like `adl and ihsan (Balogun, 1985). The Shehu considers the state responsible for the betterment of people s mundane and religious life. The government should remove obstacles lying in their way of progress. That the people enjoy peace and prosperity is more ensuring for the security of the country and strength of the government than maintaining huge army (Dan Fodio, 1978, pp ). From this Gusau infers that the Shehu saw the government as a guarantor of minimum livelihood for all subjects in need of such assistance. Also the government was to ensure the provision of public utilities such as roads, bridges, mosques, city walls that ensure comfort and a life of piety for the citizens (Gusau, 1989, p. 143). Public Finance. The Shehu considers the rule of rightly guided caliphs (al -khulafa al- Rashidun) as a true model for any government. Based on this he prescribes that the rulers should take only the ordinary man s share as their salary from the public treasury and live a simple life (ibid, p. 150). He considers the public treasury in the hand of the ruler as property of an orphan in the hand of a caretaker. Thus he says that it is preferable for the rulers to take only the ordinary man s share as their salary (ibid. p. 131). This is perhaps with reference to a Page 32 of 100

33 verse in the Qur'an (4:6) which says that "If the guardian [of an orphan] is well-off, let him claim no remuneration. But if he is poor, let him have for himself what is just and reasonable". Thus, if the rulers have sufficient means to satisfy their basic needs, they should not take anything from the bayt al-mal (Gusau, 1989, p. 150). The recipient from the bayt almal should get only that much which is necessary and sufficient for the year (ibid). This is also based on the Prophet s tradition who used to give his wives sustenance for a year (Abu Dawud, vol. 3, p.140, Hadith no. 2964). He forbade revenue officers to accept gifts from the subjects (ibid). There is famous report that the Prophet, be peace upon him, asked his collector to surrender everything collected revenue and gifts and when the collector resisted, he said why he had not sit in his mother s house and received gift (ibid. 3:135, Hadith no. 2946). Thus, it is clear that all these provisions are based on the Qur an, Sunnah and practices of the rightly guided caliph. The Shehu endeavoured to inculcate them among his followers. The Shehu enumerated the sources of income for the Islamic state. They include one fifth of the spoil of war (al -khumus), land tax (kharaj), poll tax (jizyah), booty (fay = enemy s property obtained without actual combat), tithe (ushr), heirless property and lost found whose owner is not traceable (Dan Fodio, 1978, p. 123). Zakah, with its specified beneficiaries formed a separate category, distinguished from the other sources of public revenue. In his book Usul al-adl he also mentions the custom duties (ushur) as a source of public revenue. If there is shortage of fund, the ruler may ask people to contribute as additional levy. But it should be according to the paying capacity of the person. Like Ibn Khaldun her is against heavy taxation. A lower tax would provide incentive for economic activity and result into prosperity. Page 33 of 100

34 Public expenditure. As far public expenditure is concerned, the Shehu based his ideas on Ibn al-juza iy (d.741/1340) and al -Ghazali (d ). With reference to Ibn al-juza iy he says that the practice of just imams concerning fay and khumus is to begin by securing the dangerous places and frontier posts, by preparing armaments and by paying solders. If there remains anything, it goes to the judges, state officials, for the building of mosques and bridges and then it is divided among the poor. If any still remains, the imam has the option of either giving it to the rich or keeping it (in the bayt al-mal) to deal with disasters which may occur to Islam (ibid. p. 131, quoted by Gusau, 1989, pp ). In his Usul al-`adl which is summary of a work of al-ghazali, the Shehu mentions heads of expenditure of bayt al-mal as fortification of Muslim cities, teachers salaries, judges salaries, mu azzins salaries, all those who work for Islam and the poor. If anything in left after all these heads, the surplus is to be kept in bayt al-mal for the emergencies. The fund may also be used for building mosques, free Muslim captives, freeing debtors, and can be used for helping those without means to marry or those without means to go for hajj, etc. (Gusau, 1989, p. 151). The Shehu reiterated that the zakah revenue will be spent on those heads prescribed in the Qur an. It will be spent in the same region from where it is collected, as ordained in the hadith.14 According to the Shehu, the zakat al-fitr (poor due at the fast breaking) would be spent on the poor and the needy only. Bayt al-mal s other income is not exclusively for the poor. Nor is it necessary to spend equally on all heads of expenditure (Gusau, 1989, pp ). Land management. Land management also attracted the attention of Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio. In this regard he followed the provisions found in books of jurisprudence. First he divides lands into two categories ma`mur (useable and inhabited) and mawat (dead land, uninhabited and uncultivated). Depending on whether such lands were captured by force, by Page 34 of 100

35 peace treaty or their owner embraced Islam, they have different rules for distribution, allocation, grants, endowment, or enclosure (hima) (Gusau, 1989, pp ). As in case of other aspects of religion and life, the Shehu intended to correct economic corruption prevalent in the society by presenting the Islamic teaching in economic matters. As is clear from the preceding pages, he mainly targeted market, public finance, and land management, as these were the most affected areas of the economy. He reaffirms Islamic teachings on these topics without taking into Activity How did the Shehu enumerated the sources of income for the Islamic state? SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION 2 In this session you have learned: The Writings of Uthman bin Fodio, the method he adopted in his preachings and the impact of uthman Bin Fodio in Hausa land. I.T.Q: when you have completed this session you will be able to answer this question: state five of the writings of Uthman Bin Fodio. I.T.A: five of his writings are: 1. Siraj al-ikhwan (Lamp for the Brothers) 2. Kitab al-farq (Book of the Difference) 3. Bayan Bid`ah al-shaytaniyah (Description of the Satanic innovations) 4. Najm al-ikhwan (Star of the Brothers) Page 35 of 100

36 5. Nur al-ibad (Light of the Slaves) SELF -ASSESSMENT QUETIONS FOR SESSION 2 When you have completed this session, you can test your achievement of learning outcomes by answering these questions: 1. Mention eight writings of Uthman bin Fodio 2. What is the impact of uthman Bin Fodio in Hausa land REFERENCES Balogun, I.A.B. (1985), The Economic Ideas of Sokoto Jihad Leaders paper presented at the International Seminar on Islamic Economics, Sokoto, University of Sokoto, Balogun, I.A.B. ( 1988), Economic Policy of the Sokoto Jehad, Hamdard Islamicus, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp Balogun, I.A.B. (1981), The life and works of Uthman Dan Fodio : The Muslim Reformer of West Africa, Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau Faluyi, Kehinde (1991), The Economics of the Sokoto Jehad, Hamdard Islamicus, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp Fodio, Sheikh Usman Dan (1978), Bayan Wujub al-hijrah `ala l-`ibad (stateme nt about the obligation of migration for People), (ed. &tr. By F.H.el-Masri) Khartoum, Oxford University Press. Gusau, Sule Ahmed, 1989, Economic Ideas of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio, JIMMA, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp al-hajj, M. A. (1974/77), The Writings of Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio, Kano Studies (1:2), Nigeria. Hiskett, Mervyn (1973), The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio. Northwestern Univ Pr; 1973, Reprint edition Ibn Taymiyah (1976), al-hisbah fi'l-islam, Cairo: Dar al-sha`b. Kani, Muhammad Ahmad (1984), The intellectual origin of Sokoto jihad, Ibadan, Imam Publication. al-sabiq, Sayyid, (1971), Fiqh al-sunnah, Beirut, Dar al-kitab al-arabi Page 36 of 100