KAY 492 Turkish Administrative History. Week 6 Konu: Ottoman Territorial System Ortaylı, 2007, pp

Transcription

1 KAY 492 Turkish Administrative History Week 6 Konu: Ottoman Territorial System Ortaylı, 2007, pp

2 The Anatolian Seljuk Empire

3 Ottoman Empire: An Overview Replaced the Seljukids Seljuks became the vassal of Iranian Ilkhanid Mongol Empire after the Kösedağ War (1243) Benefited from freedom of the border areas First extended its terrritories in the Balkans A social, economic and cultural unity reminiscent of Romans, East Romans and Abbasids

4 Ottoman Empire at Its Height

5 Ottoman Empire: An Overview Strongest/brightest period Between the 15th and 17 th Centuries Pax Ottomana (Ottoman Peace) Its power began to decline starting from the 18th Century It left its place to many (how many?) nation states

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7 Why the Ottoman Principality? Sprit of Gaza Holy war, military campaign in the name of Islam Mission to advance to the West Environment of the border regions Warrior and entrepreneurial lifestyle Continuation of the state tradition by Seljuk Empire bureaucrats

8 Why the Ottoman Principality? Demographic factors Continuous flow of Turkic people Partial assimilation of native people East Romans occasionally resorting to Ottoman military aid Alleviation of taxes and aggravations on the conquered lands Freedom of religion for non-muslims through the zımmet system

9 Ottoman Conquests Gallipoli 1361 Edirne 1387 Thessaloniki 1396 The Battle of Niğbolu and the conquest of Bulgaria Beyazid I (Yıldırım) Period ( ) Western Anatolian principalities, Karaman & Kadi Burhaneddin principalities were conquered Fetret (Stagnation) Period Timurian invasion Other states (i.e. Iran & Mamluks) were also weakened

10 Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

11 Ottoman Conquests Varna, 1448 II. Kosovo victories Absolute dominance in the Balkans 1453 Conquest of Istanbul 1460 Mora 1468 Annexation of the Karaman Emirate 1473 Otlukbeli War - Akkoyunlular 1475 The Crimean Khanate was taken under Ottoman ptotection 1514 Çaldıran Victory 1516 Merc-i Dabık, 1517 Ridaniye againts Mamluks 1526 Mohaç Victory Domination of Hungary

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13 Religion in the Ottoman Empire-1 After the conquest of Istanbul, Gennadios, who opposed the unification of Western and Eastern churches, was declared patriarch A patriarchate was given to Armenians as well Bogomolism in Bosnia Jesus Christ was believed to be only a prophet Resisting church hierarchy, resistance to monastic feudalism Catholic Persecution After the Ottoman conquest (1463), people began to convert to Islam Similar situation in Albania

14 Religion in the Ottoman Empire-2 Ottoman Empire adopted a Sunni mission during Selim I and Suleyman I periods Interest in the Renaissance during the Mehmet the Conqueror period His son Beyazid II restored Ottoman institutions according to Sharia Shari'a order gained strength within the state The power of religious bureaucrats has increased In 1517, the Governor of Mecca delivered the signs of caliphate to Selim I Ottomans used the competition between Habsburgs and France + Protestants

15 Timar System-1 Similar to the system in Sasanid, Eastern Roman, Arab Empire and Seljukid periods Two main social groups The distinction between administrators (controllers) and the administered (producers, obeyers, reaya) All or some of the tax revenues of one location are given in return for service A system with financial, administrative and military purposes Not only land income, but other taxable items are used for timar Exceptional regimes have been applied in some parts of the country

16 Timar System-2 Why use the Timar System? Inadequacy of the bureaucracy in size & function Tax collection was difficult Failure to switch to a monetary economy Difficulties in transportation, communication & record keeping As the empire grew, all the conquered lands were not distributed to combatants but retained for the state Miri land

17 Timar System-3 Immediately after the conquest, tahrir process was applied The estimated income of the land, and the decision to whom the timar/yield will be given Becomes valid with the the sultan s approval Timar was given to Christian soldiers as well

18 Land Types in the Ottoman Empire 1. Miri Land Has For the Sultan and the high officials As a rule, it was not inherited to the administrators sons, but in practice it was Zeamet (20,000 akce and more) Sipahi dirlik, which could be inherited Timar (3,000-20,000 akce) 2. Foundation Lands 3. Private ownership, emlak (real estate) lands

19 Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-1 1. Şer'i Taxes Zekat Öşür Land tax from Muslims Between ½ & 1/10 Collected by the sipahi of that timar Haraç Land tax from Christians Cizye Head tax It depends on the financial situation It is taken to the treasure Its collection was left to non-muslim community leaders after the Tanzimat

20 Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-2 2. Traditional Taxes With Sultan s Ordinance (Ferman) Qualities and quantities vary by region Regulated by every sancak's own laws Dirlik owners collect it as money or service Ex: the head tax from Christians: İspençe 3. Other taxes that evolved over time Ex: Land register duty (tapu resmi) Increased over time, causing corruption and irregularities 4. Emergency (Avarız) Taxes It has become continuous over time Constantly increased when the timar system deteriorated, removed with Tanzimat Some exemptions for strategic service and substance producers

21 Social Classes in the Ottoman Empire Administrators and the administered Administrators, exempt from tax Military Class Palace officials Divan Central government officials Beylerbeyi, sancakbeyi and their households Ulema (Religious bureaucrats) Administered City tradesman Agricultural producers in rural areas They are forbidden from carrying weapons and participating in administration

22 Rural Life in the Ottoman Empire Conflicts between East Romans & Iranians & Arabs, Mongol Ilkhani occupation It ruined the village life and the villages Anarchy has increased, people have withdrawn from public & commercial life Roads became unsafe Colonization of Anatolia Settling of nomadic people Sipahi corruption Rebellions of Turkmen nomads and peasants Ex: Jalali rebellions Foundations and zaviye villagers Spiritual feudalism Villages left to monasteries administration

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24 17th Century and Beyond Development of firearms Shift of trade routes Silver money inflation End of the 15th century Expansion of the iltizam system From the 16th century onwards, villagers were forced to pay tax in cash Formation of local influential groups A strong bourgeois group did not emerge because the agricultural wealth did not increase Absentee landlords The effects of the Atlantic economy Trade-prohibited raw materials started to leave the country The country started to buy cheap produce