CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Transcription

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

2 Urged by whom does the mind fly towards its objects? Kena Upaniṣad, I. 1 1

3 CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION Mind is one of the greatest mysteries of all times. Nature of mind and its mode of functioning has always been a matter of concern throughout the history of mankind. Search for methodologies to explore the infinite possibilities of mind can be traced from the primitive tribal life of man. The belief in the occult powers of mind existed even in the early social life of human beings and thereby an enquiry concerning mind shall go a long way in understanding man itself, or man as such. The word Manuṣyah ( the Sanskrit term for man is derived from the root form man ( ) which means to think 1. Yaska, the renowned ancient etymologist defines the word manuṣyah as one who stitches thought with action 2.Another definition for mind is which again means Mind-because it thinks. The Śatapatha Brāhmana observes that mind was born when the Self wished to think- 3 Man and mind shares the common root man which cannot be taken as accidental in a highly developed language like Sanskrit. It can be suggested that the thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. 2

4 Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of mind and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of mind have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. All art forms are in a sense penetrations into the wonderful world of human minds. What is the contribution of the studies on mind in the field of science? Mind is the frontier of science; it is also the foundation of science. Without mind, science does not exist, although the universe that science studies does. Empirical science is based on experience and observation, scientific theories are products of intellect, scientific research is a purposive human enterprise, an expression of our capacity to wonder, our aspiration to know, our urge to control. One cannot properly analyse the structural science without examining the nature of human mind. Conversely, systematic investigation of mind must include an account for the presuppositions of science. 4 Mind has been analysed and understood variously in East and West. The proposed study concentrates on the oriental approach on mind confining the inquiry to the Principal Upaniṣads. A student who attempts to understand the reflections concerning mind gets plenty of philosophical literature that discusses Western theories of mind. The availability and the active presence of Western theories in the academic arena naturally make most of the scholars wrongly think that, studies on mind is not done much seriously in India. This situation turns to 3

5 be an inspiration to inquire into the discussions on mind in Indian philosophical literature. Mind in the Indian philosophical systems is unique, though variously conceived. Fundamental and serious epistemological differences can be traced between the oriental and occidental studies on mind. There are several shades of conception on mind in different schools of Indian philosophy. The debates and discussions on the nature, role and possibilities of mind appear in the Indian philosophical literature in the form of logical arguments or mystical insights. In spite of this rich philosophical tradition of thoughts on mind, the psychologists as well as scholars hardly pursue in this way. The diverse ideas and their seeming contradictions, and above all the language in which all thoughts and views are expressed, namely Sanskrit, create difficulties for a research student in appreciating these views. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upaniṣads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on mind also are dense and deep in the Upaniṣads. To dwell upon the entire Upaniṣadic revelations on mind-study would make this thesis voluminous. Hence the present study is limited within the areas of the ten principal Upaniṣads, popularly known as Daś opaniṣads. The relevant references on mind from all the 10 Upaniṣads are collected analysed and synthesized. 4

6 Studies of mind in the West The body mind problem in Western Philosophy is as old as its origin. The West in their tradition of philosophy has developed a concept of mind which could be traced back to the philosophy of Plato. The ancient and the medieval philosophy of the West equated the soul and the mind. All Semitic religions share the same notion, according to which the soul and the mind are identical. The body is material and impermanent; when a person dies, the composite body decomposes and returns to its component materials. On the contrary, the soul is immaterial; it survives death, and subsequent to the Day of Final Judgment, it dwells in heaven in eternal bliss, or in hell in eternal damnation. The Semitic religions do not have the idea of the rebirth of the soul. They also hold that only human beings have souls and that non-human living organisms (animals, plants, micro organisms) are soulless. The Greek philosopher Plato and the Christian philosophers like St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas believed in the identity of the soul and the mind and the complete division between mind and matter. Even Rene Descartes, the so-called father of modern Western philosophy and psychology, had a similar view. Along with the concept of the mind-soul identity was the accompanying notion of the dichotomy of mind and the body. The material body was held to be distinct from the immaterial mind. A human body consists of two substances namely the material body and the immaterial mind. All states of consciousness are ascribed to the mind and physical or spatio-temporal 5

7 properties are ascribed to the body. This view is called dualism in modern Western philosophy. Dualism is present in Plato or even in pre-platonic thoughts. Later, in Descartes, the idea of dualism develops further. The works of Berkeley, Spinoza, Locke, Kant etc. also discuss the problem of mind in detail. Berkeley introduces yet another concept of mind, the divine mind through his theory of "Esse-Est-Percipii". Dualism finally finds a strong adversary in Gilbert Ryle, the 20 th century British Philosopher. Norman Malcolm and Daniel C Dennet subsequently join Ryle. In modern western philosophy Descartes has emphasized the difference between body and mind. Descartes, in his dualistic thesis, has raised certain fundamental problems in the relationship between mind and body. Though organic in nature body is mechanical in its functions and is determined by the law of mechanics. Mind, according to Descartes, is without the extension characteristic of bodies. His two-substance theory is not compatible with interactionism. Since they (material body and immaterial mind) are totally different, it is difficult to substantiate any interaction or close relationship between them. In order to avoid some of the problems in parallelism, successors of Descartes have proposed various theories. According to Spinoza, mind and matter are not distinct substances; they are different attributes of one infinite substance. Hence thought and extension are attributes of the same substance. Some philosophers such as Malebranche have postulated God to correlate the relation between a physical event (body) and a 6

8 psychological event (mind). A variant of occasionalism has been proposed by Leibnitz. His theory is known as pre-established harmony. Since the supporters of these theories have postulated supernatural beings to give an account of the relationship between physical and psychological events, it is difficult either to substantiate or comprehend these theories. This classical picture of body versus mind or soul was very much distorted with the appearance of British empiricism. John Locke ( ) conceived the mind at birth as a tabula rasa or a blank slate. From this, one may infer that, in Locke s view, there is no mind at the time of birth. In this empiricism, matter generates mind. He recognizes the existence of the external world. In contrast, the empiricism of George Berkeley ( ) rejects the existence of the external world, and asserts that mind generates matter. Berkeley was a subjective idealist. God, minds of human beings and experiences are real for him. He contends that human minds are finite whereas God s mind is infinite. David Hume ( ), another British empiricist, denied the existence of God; he denied the existence of minds or souls; he was also sceptical of the existence of matter. He believed in experiences only which were real for him. Thus Hume s psychology was the first one which did not accept the existence of mind. 5 For Hume, reality lies in the knowledge of necessary connection where there is indubitability and certainty. What is not certain, indubitable are only matters of fact and beliefs, but not knowledge. This makes Hume a sceptic, and Hume fails to go beyond sense-object-contact perceptions or impressions. Hume becomes very confident and clear about personal 7

9 identity, questions concerning self, mind etc. In Lock though he assigns a third person s role to mind of making synthesis of different perceptions, mind still remains a separate entity. It is only Bishop George Berkeley who treats mind somewhat differently. A thing in order to exist must be perceived by the mind according to Berkeley. Berkeley claims that all things of the world are the ideas of the divine mind. Berkeley speaks about a Divine perception, but that again was his attempt to escape from two contradictory convictions he happen to appreciate, one his belief in the existence of God and two - his accepting empiricism as an epistemology. In contemporary philosophy, P.F. Strawson, has introduced the concept of a person to whom our mental states are ascribed. The concept of a person is the concept of an embodied subject. It is something to which we ascribe both these states of consciousness and physical characteristics. Since this concept is primitive it cannot be explained in terms of the traditional concepts of mind and body. Strawson claims that his view avoids the problems of both the Cartesian doctrine and the no-ownership theory proposed by Wittgenstien and Schlick. 6 Gilbert Ryle, in his book The Concept of Mind criticizes the Cartesian concept of Descartes severely. I shall often speak of it, with deliberate abusiveness, as the dogma of the Ghost in the Machine. I hope to prove that it is entirely false, and false not in detail but in principle. It is not merely an assemblage of particular mistakes. It is one big mistake and a mistake of a special kind. It is namely, a category-mistake. 7 8

10 According to the double aspect theory mental and physical events are merely two different aspects of the same underlying principle of substance. Epiphenomenalism, proposes that the mind is nothing but an Epiphenomenon of the body. Hobbes s approach to consciousness ascribes both mental and physical properties to bodies. Hence, unlike Descartes, he does not accept any spiritual substance. According to him The universe, that is a whole mass of things that are, is corporeal, that is to say body. 8 But here in all these viewpoints no discussions have been made to search what constitutes the minds stuff and what are the laws that determine mind to its own function. In this context it is interesting to know the history of psychology, a branch of science dedicated in exploring the mental process. When we turn to psychological studies in the West, we can sense a gradual but tremendous change in the meaning and scope of studies on mind. The term psychology comprises of two Greek words, namely Psyche and Logos. Psyche refers to Soul and Logos means Study. Thus the term psychology literally means study of the Soul. Later as the word came to possess religious and metaphysical significance, psychology was referred to as the study of mind. Since the term mind was also something abstract, the definition of psychology underwent further modifications replacing its subject matter from soul to mind and then to behaviour. Thus Psychology 9

11 came to be redefined as the scientific study of behaviour and cognitive process. In 1879, psychology was established as an independent experimental science by Wilhelm M. Wundt ( ) who was born in Germany, received his original degree in medicine, became a philosopher, and finally turned to be a psychologist. In 1900 Sigmund Freud published his popular and famous book The Interpretations of Dreams. The introduction of the concept of unconscious mind was a breakthrough and marked the beginning of a new epoch in the field of psychology. The impact of psychoanalysis of Freud and its emphasis upon unconscious forces is still persuasive. J.B. Watson, ( ), who founded a psychological school known as behaviourism in 1913, denied the existence of mind. He rejected the idea of mind or consciousness to be the subject-matter of psychology. In 1929, Watson defined psychology as the division of natural science which studies human behaviour. B.F. Skinner ( ), a behavioural psychologist too, named his psychology as radical behaviourism. Behaviourism, whether Watsonian or Skinnerian, rejects the existence of mind and all un-observables with reference to mind. 9 Neuroscientists claim that mental events can be correlated with patterns of nerve impulses in the brain. Another recent theory is the identity theory. Identity theory claims that psychological states are identical with brain states. Identity theorists are concerns with both type-type identity and token-token identity. According to the former a type of mental state is 10

12 identical with a type of brain state, while occurring to the later; a particular mental state is identical with a particular brain state. 10 Today psychology has outgrown the various schools or systems. Analyzing the modern trends in psychology it can be said that psychology is moving to be an interdisciplinary science. The studies of mind in Indian philosophical literature In Indian tradition also, mind was conceived as a meaningful area of study, related to philosophy. It is conventional in India to trace all the indigenous ideas and concepts to the Vedas, which are the first literary works of our ancestors, faithfully passed on in a continuous oral tradition without much distortion. The philosophical concepts on mind are elaborately discussed in the Upaniṣads. As the topic of research indicates, it is exclusively elaborated in the coming chapters. In the Vedic literature, the concerns on mind are explicit. To explain to Indra, that the mind is not the Self, because the Self continues to exist without the mind, Prajāpati wished his disciple to analyse the state of deep sleep. And Indra, who had identified the mind with the Self through ignorance, discovered that he had not known the Self; for mind is almost annihilated in dreamless sleep. It is a conclusion similar to that of Western rationalists like Bradley, Locke and Berkeley. But these philosophers failed to inquire further, and remained satisfied with their conclusion To say that the mind exists without thinking is a contradiction, nonsense, nothing

13 A hermeneutics of mind never stopped with Vedas and Upaniṣads. We see texts like Yogavasistam subsequently. We see much revealing studies on mind in the Āyurveda tradition. Among the ṣaḍ Darśanas (six systems in Indian Philosophy) Sāmkhya-Yoga does a lot of work on mind that becomes a predecessor of Āyurveda. The Sāmkhya and the Yoga systems consider the mind as a product evolved from the insentient Prakṛti, a direct product from Ahaṃkāra (the ego-principle) and hence made up of the three gunas, such as sattva, rajas and tamas. It is also, therefore, jaḍa or insentient but can reflect the consciousness of the puruṣa or the ātman (the soul). TheNyāya-Vaiśeṣika schools consider mind as one of the dravyas, (fundamental or basic realities) out of which the world is eventually created. It acts as a link between the soul and the sense-organs by which the external objects are known. As regards the size of the mind, some systems like Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika hold it as anu (atomic) while others (eg. Advaita Vedanta) consider it as vibhu (all-pervading). Mind, according to Vedanta, is an object of knowledge. Just as we perceive an external object, similarly, we can also observe your own mind. 12 Vedanta studies the mind, particularly, as the seat of impressions. Impressions are impacts created on the mind through varying thoughts and activities and the impressions last. Impressions do not die out with the extinction of physical body but are carried on endlessly till one attains jñāna (self realisation). The theory of transmigration of impressions which 12

14 we see in the Upaniṣads can be seen reflected in the Buddhist theory of Pradityasamutpada. These impressions are left on the mind, not only by the perceptions of objects, but also through our activities. Our experiences and our activities are constantly leaving impressions upon the mind. The mind is a very big storehouse for all these impressions. Not a single impression is eliminated; they are all stored there. When the mind is free from activity or functioning, it vanishes and the Self is revealed. This state has been described by the commentator Saṇkara as Aparokṣanubhūti or super sensuous state. 13 Certain sects of Saivism and Saktaism (the tantriks, for example) advocate the theory that mind is a limitation or a modification of pure consciousness. As a matter of fact, all systems in Indian philosophy, both orthodox and heterodox (though the ground of classification as orthodox and heterodox remains a matter of dispute) including Cārvāka discuss the concept of mind in spite of the fact that Cārvāka argues against its existence. The Cārvākas speak of mind as the consciousness in its knowing function, which is in no way separate from the body. The Jaina do not accept mind as a sense organ. They call it as anindriya. The Buddhists put forward a different theory of mind and their studies of mind become deeper with the later Buddhist scholars. Swami Vivekananda explains the concept of mind in Indian Philosophy. Mind is like a lake, and every thought is like a wave upon that lake. 13

15 Just as in the lake waves rise, and then fall down and disappear, so these thought-waves are continually rising in the mind-stuff, and then disappearing, but they do not disappear forever. They become finer and finer, but they are all there, ready to start up at another time, when called upon to do so. 14 In Nyāya philosophy manas is regarded as a Dravya or Substance which is distinct from Ātman or Soul. ( Tarkasamgraha 3). The Nyāya philosophy also classifies ordinary perception in to two Bāhya (external) and Mānasa (internal). In Mānasa (the internal perception) the mind which is the internal organ comes in to contact with the physical states and process like cognition, affection, aversion, conation, desire, pain, pleasure etc. In Yogavāsiṣṭha it is said; (Yo.Va. First Part ) The vibration of life principle (Prāna) becomes the vibration of mind, and the vibration of mind becomes the vibration of life principle. When mind is the chariot, life principle is the charioteer and when life principle becomes the chariot, mind becomes the charioteer. According to Yogavāsiṣṭha mind is called so because of its capacity to imagine, think and recognise

16 In Bhagavad Gitā Śrikṛṣṇa says among the senses I am the mind. B.G.X:22) In chapter 6 Arjuna Says to Śrikṛṣṇa : (B.G.VI,34) Verily, the mind, O Kṛṣṇa, is restless, turbulent, strong, and unyielding; I regard it quite as hard to achieve its control, as that of the wind. Śrikṛṣṇa, in his reply, prescribes regular practice and renunciation to get mastery over the mind. (B.G.VI,35) Without doubt, O mighty-armed, the mind is restless and difficult to control; but through practice and renunciation, O son of Kunti, it may be governed. The Mahopaniṣad, Ramāyana, Mahābhāratha, Bhāgavatha Purāna, Yogasūthras, Sānkya Kārika, Tarka Saṃgraha, Charaka Saṃhita, Astāngahridaya, Vivekachodāmani are some among many of the text which contains meaningful discussions on mind. 15

17 Relevant Studies The term Indian psychology was used by Sri. Aurobindo in one of his writings on education in 1910 (Chakraborthy 1991). Only a few studies are there on the concept of mind in Indian Philosophical Literature. Nonetheless, there are some successful attempts which should be mentioned here with due reverence. Perhaps, the first published work on this subject is the first of three volumes by Jadunath Sinha named Indian Psychology: Cognition in Following this was Mrs.Rhys Davids 1936 volume titled The Birth of Indian Psychology and Its Development in Buddhism. Prior to this, Davids published Buddihist Psychology in 1914, but no known published work seems to have existed explicitly with a title on Indian psychology prior to her work. However, there were other publications also in the West to compare modern psychology and Indian psychological thought. That include Western Psychotherapy and Hindu Sadhana (Jacobs, 1961) and Yoga and Western Psychology: A Comparison (Coster, 1934). Following this some Indians also authored a few books, most notable among them are Hindu Psychology: It s Meaning for the West and Mental Health and Hindu Psychology (Swami Akhilananda, 1948, 1952) and Jadunath Sinha s two volumes on Indian Psychology, Vol. 2 Emotion and Will (1961) and Indian Psychology, Vol. 3 Epistemology of Perception (1969). 17 Indian Psychology - a Critical and Historical Analysis of Psychological Speculations in Indian Philosophical Literature by Safaya R, Development 16

18 of Psychological thoughts in India by S.K.R.Rao, Concept of Mind in Indian Philosophy by S.Chennakeshavan and Mind and Supermind Vol.I and II by N.C.Panda are other valuable studies in this field. The present study has drawn its inspiration immensely from The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, The Greater Psychology of SriAurabindo (Edited by S.K.Dalal), Mind and Super Mind, Vol.I & II of N.C.Panda, the translation of Upaniṣads by Valerio J.Roebuck, the translation of Upaniṣad with the commentary of Saṇkaracharya by Gambhirananda, the Upaniṣad series published by Puranattukara Sri Ramakrishna Asrama Trissur, Mind According to Vedanta by Swami Satprakashananda and Bharatiya Sastrachinta Pustakam 4 Manovijnaneeyam by C.Krishnan Namboothiri. There have hardly been significant studies on the concept of mind which are based on the Upaniṣadic literature. With all its strength and limitations, the present study is a sincere attempt in this direction. Hardships were numerous because of the lack of prior ventures in this specific area. Indian concept of mind A search for something Indian in mind studies will put the inquirer in difficulty. First of all studies of mind in India do not exist as an independent branch. It should be extracted from the philosophical literature. Another barrier is that of the language. Yet another thing to know is that the Seers in ancient India seem not to have considered the studies on mind worth pursuits as an independent area apart from the spiritual presumes. This point is made clear by S. Chinnakeshavan (1980) as follows. The 17

19 purpose of Upaniṣad is to reveal Brahman, the supreme Self, and a distinct warning is sounded to be a seeker of truth, not to be carried away by Manas (mind) and its attributes, but to try to know the thinker. It is stressed often that Prajna which is the Self or Ātman is responsible for the activities of manas which means mind, therefore plays only a secondary role in knowledge. 17 Sri. S.K. Kiran Kumar in his essay Indian Thought and Tradition a Psycho Historical Perspective points out that There was enough psychologising and our ancients in their attempts to solve the philosophical problems necessarily addressed psychological topics such as consciousness, experience, perception, illusion, will, desires, emotions and others. Enquiries concerning those psychological processes did not occur in a single context or as a connected account. 18 Sri. S.K. Rao rightly reviews this difficult situation in eliciting the thoughts on mind from Indian philosophical literature. The field of philosophical enquiry was structured into numerous interests orthodox and heterodox - and the implication of relevant reflections of all of them concerning a specific problem was almost impossible. Further, Indian works are written in multiplicity of languages. Vedas are in archaic Sanskrit; the Upaniṣads and later scholastic works are in classical Sanskrit; the early Buddhist texts are in Pali and the Jaina texts are in Ardhamāgadhi and mixed-sanskrit. A competent presentation of Indian psychological thought, requires knowledge of Sanskrit, Pali and Ardhamāgadhi (all three languages are almost dead now); acquaintance 18

20 with Indian Philosophy and allied branches of study, and academic training in modern psychology 19 The thoughts on mind comprise a major part in Indian systems of philosophy both orthodox and heterodox. As S. Radhakrishanan observes the special nomenclature of Indian Philosophy which cannot be easily rendered into English accounts for the apparent strangeness of the intellectual landscape. If the outer difficulties are overcome, we feel the kindred throb of the human heart, which becomes human, is neither Indian nor European. 20 Significance of study The study of mind in its restricted sense is not accepted in modern psychological studies. Yet the rich tradition of Indian Philosophy is not applied in the field of psychology. One of the main reasons can be that, the discussions on mind are not formulated for fragment studies. Even though mental diseases are dealt with in Āyurveda (Indian Medical System) such investigations are out of scope in Indian philosophical systems. The whole effort of the Seers was in analysing the nature and function of the normal healthy mind and doing experiments on it, to unravel the infinite capacity of mind, a firm conviction prevalent throughout the Indian philosophy. Profound experiments in observing, transcending and stopping the mind make Indian philosophical tradition a strange laboratory for the analysis and exploration of mind. 19

21 A study on the concept of mind based on the core philosophical texts of Indian Philosophy will not only be interesting but also useful in one s personal life of spiritual evolution. Moreover a shift or change in approach in the concept of mind can give impetus to new discoveries and creative enquires in the field of psychological thoughts. Any study on the Upaniṣads cannot ignore the Vedas. Upaniṣads are considered the essence of Vedic philosophical thoughts. The Vedas Vedas are taken as the source of Indian culture and different systems of knowledge in India. Veda is derived from the root Vid ( to know). Written in ancient Sanskrit, the sacred language of India, Vedas form the primary scripture of Hinduism. Vedas, being revelations are considered as Sruthi, literally that which is heard. Not being the product of human intellection, the revelation or discoveries of existent truths in super sensual meditative states, they are said to be Apauruṣeya (not man-made). They are called Apauruṣeya also because they do not project any personality (Puruṣa) but eternal principles (tattva) only which are universal and do not change with time, place and persons. Swami Vivekananda in his Paper on Hinduism read at the world s parliament of religions at Chicago states that The Hindus have received their religion through revelation, the Vedas. They hold that the 20

22 Vedas are without beginning and without end. But by Vedas no books are meant. They mean the accumulated spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times 21 As S.N.Das Gupta rightly observes in his book The History of Indian Philosophy, Veda in its wider sense is not the name of any particular book, but literature of a particular epoch extending over a long period, say 2000 years or so. 22 Conventionally Vedas are said to be anādi (without beginning) There are Four Vedas; Ŗg Veda, Yajur Veda, Sāma Veda and Adharva Veda. The oldest is the Ŗg Veda. Based on the subject matter (vishaya), the purpose (prayojana), and eligibility of the student (adhikari), the Vedic corpus is divided into parts called Karmakānda and Jñānakānda. Two distinct and different philosophical systems developed out of this division Purvamimamsa (Jaimini) or the Karmakānda and Utharamīmamsa (Badarayana) on the Jñānakanda 23. There is another kind of classification for Vedas. The Vedic literature from the points of view of age, language and subject matter, can be classified into Samhitās, Brahmanās, Āranyakas and Upaniṣads.But the division is very broad because Upaniṣads like Prasna, Mundaka and Māndukya belongs to Brahmanās (Gopatha Brāhmanās) and Isavasya Upaniṣad belongs to Samhitā portion (of Sukla Yajur Veda), which goes contradictory to such divisions. According to Yāska, the eminent Vedic etymologist and Āpastamba, the 21

23 renowned lawgiver, there are only two divisions of the Vedas the Samhitās and Brahmanās. 24 The Samhitās are collections of sacred hymns in different metres and are mostly addressed to various deities. The Vedic deities are usually enumerated as Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, Indra and Prajāpati. These deities are assigned to three regions that is, the earth (prithvi), heavens (dyau) and intermediatory space (antariksha). Though they appear like personifications of forces of nature, they are all actually facets of Brahman, the supreme truth. statement, The mantra in which the well-known (ekam sat viprah bahudha vadanti - Truth is one, sages call it by various names) Ŗg Veda 1:164:46 occurs, is proof enough to the fact. List of Samhitās extend now 25 1 Rigveda i Sakala Samhitā 2 Rigveda ii Asvalayana Samhitā 3. Sukla Yajur Veda i Madhyandina Samhitā 4. Sukla Yajur Veda ii Kanva Samhitā 5. Krishna-Yajur Veda i Taittirīya Samhitā 6. Krishna Yajur Veda ii Kaṭhaka Samhitā 7. Krishna Yajur Veda iii Maitrayani Samhitā 8. Krishna Yajur Veda iv Kapisthala Samhitā 9. Sāma Veda i Kauthuma Samhitā 10. Sāma Veda ii Jaimintya Samhitā 11. Sāma Veda iii Ranayantya Samhitā 12 Atharvaveda i Saunaka Samhitā 13. Atharvaveda ii Paippalada Samhitā 22

24 The Brahmanās offer explanations whether exegetical, mythological or polemical of the ritual prescriptions List of Brahmanās Extant Now 26 Rigveda Sakala Śākha 1 AitareyaBrahmanās Samkhyayana Śākha 2 Kausitaki or Samkhyayana Brahmanās Sukla Yajur Veda Madhyandina Śākha 3 Satapatha-Madhyandina Brahmanās Kanva Śākha Satapatha-Kanva Brahmanās (has minor difference with Madhyandina Brahmanās) Krishna Yajur Veda (Taittirīya Samhitā ) Taittirīya Śākha TaittirīyaBrahmanās KaṭhaBrahmanās Maitrayani Brahmanās Satyayani Brahmanās Bhallaka Brahmanās Sāma Veda (997 Śākhas are lost) Jaiminiya Śākha 9 Jaiminiya/or Talavakara Brahmanās (includes Kenopanisad as its integral part) Jaiminiya Śākha 10 Arseya Brahmanās (part of Jaiminiya or Talavakara Brahmanās) Kauthuma & Ranayaniya 11 Tandya/or Praudha/ or Pancavimsa/ or Maha Brahmanās 12 Sadvimsa Brahmanās considered as an appendix to pancavimsa) 5 th prapathaka is Adbhuta Brahmanās 23

25 Kauthuma Śākha 13 Chāndogya / or Mantra/ or UpaniṣadBrahmanās 14 Samavidhana Brahmanās 15 Devatadhyaya Brahmanās 16 Samhitopanishad Brahmanās 17. Vamsa Brahmanās Atharvaveda Paippalada Śākha 18 Gopatha Brahmanās (the only extant Brahmanās) Āranyakas means forest texts. It is here that we find, says S.N. Das Gupta that the ritualistic ideas began to give way and philosophic speculations above the nature of truth became gradually substituted in their place 27. List of Āranyakas Extant Now Rigveda Aitareya Āranyaka 2. Rigveda Samkyayana Āranyaka 3 Sukla Yajur Veda Satapatha Araynaka 4. Sukla Yajur Veda Bṛhadāranyaka 5. Krishna Yajur Veda Taittariya Āranyaka 6. Krishna Yajur Veda Maitrayani Āranyaka 7. Sāma Veda (Jaiminiya Śākha) Jaiminiya or Talavakara Arayanaka Atharvaveda No Āranyaka 24

26 Upaniṣads represent the culmination of Indian philosophical thought which is to be discussed in details. Upaniṣads Sri. Aurobindo introduces the Upaniṣads as follows; The Upaniṣads are the supreme work of the Indian mind, and that it should be so, that the highest Self-expression of its genius, its sublimest poetry, its greatest creation of the thought and word should be not a literary or poetical masterpiece of the ordinary kind, but a large flood of spiritual revelation of this direct and profound character, is a significant fact, evident of a unique mentality and unusual turn of spirit. The Upaniṣads are at once profound religious scriptures for they are a record of deepest spiritual experiences, - document revelatory and intuitive philosophy of an inexhaustible light, power and largeness and, whether written in verse or condensed prose, spiritual poems of an absolute, an unfailing inspiration inevitable in phrase, wonderful rhythm and expression 29. Upaniṣads are called Vedanta, Uttara Mimamsa or the end of Veda which suggestively means that they contain the highest wisdom of the Vedic teaching. Etymologically the word Upaniṣad means sitting near a stage below. (Upa-near, Ni-down, Sad-to sit). This means sitting down near, at the feet of an illumined teacher in an intimate session of spiritual instruction. The word Upaniṣad is also derived from the root Sad which prefixes Upa and Ni. The root Sad has three meanings destruction, 25

27 knowledge and attainment 30. Max Muller says that the word originally meant the act of sitting down near a teacher and submissively listening to him 31. Deussen points out that the word means secret or secret instruction. Most of the Upaniṣads are in the form of dialogues. Even though Upaniṣads have an essential homogeneity, they are not alike in all respects. They differ in their length, language, and method of narration. Some of them are too short while others are very long. Some are in verse with prescribed chandas (metre) were as some are prose, and some others combine verse and prose. In The Introduction to Vedanta P. Nagaraja Rao narrates the richness of diversities in Upaniṣadic literature. In style and manner, they differ widely. Some time we have simple concrete narrative, sometimes abstract metaphysical speculation. We have long argumentative dialogues. The tone of Upaniṣads also fluctuates. Some passages show high seriousness and others homely humour and yet others innumerable analogies 32. Dates of Upaniṣads No one knows when these Upaniṣads were composed or who composed them. We cannot assign any exact date to them. The accepted dates for the early Upaniṣads are 1000 BC to 300 BC 33.S.N. Das Gupta holds the view that Upaniṣads happened around 700 BC 600 BC 34. Certain other 26

28 scholars hold the view that most of the Upaniṣads are pre-buddhist and they roughly belong to the 6 th century BC 35. Number of Upaniṣads In Mukthika Upaniṣad it is said that each Veda Śākha (Vedic school) has an Upaniṣad attached with it. It is said that the number of Śākhas for each Vedas are said as follows, Ŗg Veda-21, Yajur Veda-109, Sāma Veda , Adharva Veda According to this view there should be 1159 Upaniṣads. The Mukthika Upaniṣad gives a list of 108 Upaniṣads. The collection of Upaniṣads translated by Dara Shiko, Aurangzeb s brother, contained 50 Upaniṣads. In 1917, 112 Upaniṣads were published by the Nirnaya Saga Press, Bombay. At present around 250 Upaniṣads have been published.among them fully 108 Upaniṣads are considered and recognized. Subject matter of Upaniṣads Swami Vivekananda proclaims that the one central idea throughout all the Upaniṣads is that of realization 37. The Upaniṣads are the culmination of the philosophical enquiry of the whole mankind and at the same time it is considered as in the philosophical revolt against the extreme ritualism. S. Radhakrishnan acknowledges this view in his Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1. The Upaniṣads while in one sense a continuation of Vedic worship, and in another,a protest against the religion of Brahmanās

29 Relevance of Upaniṣads Upaniṣads form the foundation of all philosophical quests in India. Bloomfield in his book, The religion of the Veda says there is no important form of Hindu thought, heterodox Buddhism included, which is not rooted in the Upaniṣads. 39 All systems of Indian Philosophy, except, of course, the Charvaka School owe their indebtedness to the Upaniṣads. From the Upaniṣads Jainism derives its idealism and theory of Karma, Buddhism, its concepts of idealism, absolutism and momentariness along with the doctrine of Karma, ignorance as bondage and Nirvana. Sāmkhya gleams its doctrine of Puruṣa and Prakṛti, the theory of Linga Sarira, the concept of Gunas and inter-relationship of body, mind and soul from the Upaniṣads such as Chāndogya, Prasna, Kaṭha and Svetasvatara. Yoga borrows six of its eightfold scheme from Svetasvatara and Kaṭha. Mimamsa looks upon Isa for its doctrine of superiority of Karma to Jñāna. As to the Upaniṣads perse, the truths embodied in them cohere and constitute the system of Upaniṣadic philosophy that goes by the name Vedanta, the terms signifying the end and goal of the Vedas. 40 Sri Aurobindo observes Upaniṣads as the expression of a mind in which philosophy and religion and poetry are made one 41. Evaluating the influence of Vedas and Upaniṣads Sri.Aurobindo continues, One might almost say that ancient Upaniṣads and that the visions of inspired seers 28

30 made a people. That sublime poetry with its revelation of godhead and the joy and power of life and truth and immortality or its revelation of the secrets of the Self and the powers of its manifestations in man, and the universe and of man s return to Self knowledge got in to the very blood and mind and life of the race and made itself the fountain head of all that has been its distinguishing gift and cultural motive. S.Radhakrishnan rightly observes that the Upaniṣads contain the mental back ground of the whole of the subsequent thought of the country. 42 Max Mullar sees the Upaniṣadic literature as the source of Vedanta Philosophy and he confirms it as a system in which human speculation seems to have reached it very acme. The concern of this research work is confined to the discussions on mind in the Indian Philosophy. The most relevant feature of the Upaniṣadsis that they took a turn unparalleled in the history of Indian Philosophical literature - It focussed on the most powerful instrument of perception-the mind. Daśopaniṣads Of the one hundred and eight extend Upaniṣads, sixteen were recognised by Sri.Saṇkara as authentic and authoritative. On ten of these he wrote elaborate commentaries, which included quotations from the other six, and it is these ten which have come to be regarded as the Principal Upaniṣads 43. Isha, Kena, Kaṭha, Prasna, Mundaka, Māndukya, 29

31 Taittirīya, Aitareya, Chāndogya, Bṛhadāranyaka are traditionally known as Daśopaniṣads (Desa means ten). Muktika Upaniṣad names the Daśopaniṣads in a verse while introducing the 108 Upaniṣads. 44 Here in this study Desopanishad are taken as Principal Upaniṣads. Classification of Daśopaniṣads according to Vedas Ŗg Veda Aitareya Upaniṣad Yajur Veda Isavasya Upaniṣad Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad Sāma Veda Adharva Veda TaittirīyaUpaniṣad KaṭhaUpaniṣad ChāndogyaUpaniṣad KenaUpaniṣad PrasnaUpaniṣad MundakaUpaniṣad MāndukyaUpaniṣad Methodology In Vedic literature words are not used in their conventional meanings, words in Vedas and Upaniṣads occur as complex symbols which itself unfold into unequivocal meanings and extraordinary 30

32 experience. It is said that words in Vedic literature are considered as sound energy forms which have even the power to produce certain effects or experiences if their intonation is right. Even though we overlook such claims, we have to accept the fact that the Vedic and Upaniṣadic language is highly poetical so that its spirit may get lost in a horizontal reading. So a research student cannot show justice to his work if he tries to do the work only with translations. To avoid this handicap this study has made maximum effort to appreciate the ideas of Upaniṣads, going through the original texts in Devanāgari considering almost all relevant interpretations. The mantras as it is in Devanāgari (Sanskrit script) are quoted where ever it is necessary. Translations used in this work are mostly from The Upaniṣads of Valerio J Roebuck. The translations of Swami Gambhirananda, Prabhavananda, and Eakanath Easwaran are also used severally. The work is divided into six chapters. Chapter one, which is the introduction, draws a distinction between the concept of mind in Indian and western philosophy. Relevant concepts on mind of Western Philosopher s are discussed along with Indian concepts. Chapterization is done on the basis of the four Vedas. Among the Upaniṣads, Principal Upaniṣads are selected for study and the Principal Upaniṣads belonging to each Veda is discussed under separate chapters. 31

33 Among the Daśopaniṣads only one Upaniṣad belong to Ŗg Veda, the Aithereyopanishad. The second chapter discusses the concept of mind in Aitereya Upaniṣad. Mantras, significant to the concept of mind of this Upaniṣad is picked up and analysed. Isavasya, Bṛhadāranyaka, Thaittiriya and Kaṭha are the four Upaniṣads of the Yajur Veda. In the third chapter, mantras in these Upaniṣads are analysed to bring out the concept of mind. Chāndogya and Kena are the Upaniṣads of Samaveda. The mantras in these Upaniṣads are analysed in the fourth chapter. Mundaka, Māndukya and Prasna Upaniṣads come under Atharva Veda. They are studied in the fifth chapter. The sixth chapter concludes with thoughts on mind discussed in the Daśopaniṣads. The chapter makes an attempt to travel through the intricacies of the concepts of mind both in Indian and Western Philosophies. The salient features of the concept of mind in the Upaniṣads are discussed in this chapter. 32

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