HIST 1207 D a w n o f M o d e r n E u r o p e

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1 What is History? One of the original humanities, the rules and method for its study, as we have it today, began in the Renaissance.!"#$%&' (historia)-- Greek for a finding out referred, in ancient Greek, to the discovery of causes. (!"#$% [histor] -- as a noun, means a wise man or one who understands how cause and effect operate, particularly in human affairs.) Over time, natural history was separated from human history and became part of what we now call science. Today it refers to the study of causes, or change, in human society, culture, thought, and events through time. To all other disciplines, history has the potential to add the human side, and the perspective of time. HIST 1207 D a w n o f M o d e r n E u r o p e History is not about Facts (that would be boring) History, as a discipline, consists of: EVIDENCE INTERPRETATION The two must not be confused. History is About: Humanity Identity Perspective History is not about dead people -- it is about us. Education From educere -- to draw out. Education is about opening minds, not filling them with facts. The facts and information in this class are but the hardware of critical thinking. The goal is critical thinking. The Syllabus

2 The Medieval Background to Our Era: 1. The Fall of Rome and the rise of Christendom The Webpage: 2. Medieval Politics and Society -- Feudalism and Manorialism homepage.mac.com/hermetic1/ 3. Types of Medieval Culture: the Three Classes Byzantium The Fall of Rome and the Barbarians In the course of time from the fourth to the sixth centuries, the political structure which dominated Europe, the Roman Empire, collapsed. Among other factors was the movement of Germanic tribes which raided and settled in Roman territories: The Barbarian Invasions. Some qualifications to the stereotype of the Invasions: 1. The Germanization of the Western part of the Empire began with the openening of citizenship and hiring of German mercenaries It was complicated by the inherent political instability of Rome. The Characterization does not apply to the Eastern Half of the Empire. Today pay attention to the connections between the topics, more than the details of what happened when. The Emperor Constantine had moved the capital of the Empire East to a new city named after himself, Constantinople. After Constantine s death, particularly, the fates of the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire were no longer united. In the East, Rome didn t fall but it did transform and shrink into itself: the Roman Empire was succeeded by the Byzantine Empire. From the collapse of Rome, Western Europe is undeniably Germanic in its dominant social structures and culture. Byzantium In the West The Barbarian Invasions were accompanied by complete political collapse, and widespread destruction. The power vacuum here was soon filled by the Christian Church, particularly under Pope Gregory I. ( ) Eventually, after the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 c.e., there was a division between earthly and spiritual authority in the West, but the line between the two was a matter of bitter dispute.

3 The rise of Christendom : In both East and West the Christian Religion spread throughout Europe over the course of the fourth through twelfth centuries. Generally in the West, the territory of the former Roman Empire was rapidly converted first, with territories outside the old boundaries converting more slowly. Christianity effectively supplanted all pagan religions in all but the most remote locations in Europe. The result was that all of Europe was effectively unified by the Christian religion and was coextensive with the political body, the Holy Roman Empire. Hence, Christendom: realm of Christians. Feudalism and Manorialism: Taken together these two separate social structures came to dominate all of Western Europe. Firmly established by 900, they spread outward from the Frankish lands Dominate until cities and a powerful merchant class develop and begin to challenge this social order -- around Invasions of the Ninth Century Vikings -- Germanic tribes from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark: seek to recover political and economic losses at home through outreach. Magyars (ca. 896) displaced tribes of the Russian Steppes: swept through Slavic lands and into eastern Reaches of Frankish Kingdoms. Feudalism develops as a political/military response to continued violence. Feudalism refers to an elaborate hierarchy of protection and service adapted from the Germanic tribal system. Feudalism -- the political structure A hierarchy of protection and service created by the act of a lesser noble acknowledging the superiority, or lordship of a greater noble, and swearing an oath of service in exchange for the protection of being attached to a larger political/military reality. Lesser noble = vassal ; greater noble = lord Oath sworn was known as the oath of fealty, and was highly ritualized. Service was principally the promise of military service in time of war. One had to be at least a freeholder (a free individual owning or holding land) in order to make such an oath. Hence Feudalism is best understood as an arrangement among nobles. Contract was essentially oral. (Although it was often recorded in writing later.) Hence the importance in the West of giving one s word. Feudalism, the basis of the Political pyramid: King Major Lords Minor Lords Knights/minor nobility Nobility/Feudal hierarchy = roughly 10% of the population Social Order -- the Three Medieval classes or orders: Those who: Work (Peasantry) Fight (Nobility) Pray (Clergy and Monastics) (Agrarian Society) The classes were hierarchical and static

4 Manorialism: the economic structure Best understood as the relationship between nobility and peasantry. Peasantry receives protection in return for produce and labor. System was partly inherited from the old Roman Villa farming system. The noble or lord held the land, while the peasants worked it. The exact relationships varied widely across Europe. The Estate or Manor Lord s reserved lands or demesne Manor house (sometimes a fort, castle or cathedral) Peasant lands Village The Peasant Life All worked in the fields as needed. Generally, women tended to the affairs of the house: making clothes, preparing meals, raising children, tending household animals. Generally, men worked farther afield, tending crops, communal herds, and working on the lord s lands. Those who Work: Types of Peasants 1. Slave: no freedom, bought and sold as chattel. (Increasingly uncommon.) 2. Serf: bound to the land; cannot be bought or sold; afforded some rights; expected to give a share of produce to the noble in addition to working 3 days per week on the lord s demesne. (more at planting and harvest. 3. Freeman or Free person: not bound to the land. During times of peace and stability the numbers of freemen went up: lords were expanding their estates, labor was at a premium, and peasants could negotiate the terms of their freedom. Freemen often went back to serf status during periods of adversity. A bit more on life for the peasant: Boundaries of the manor were the boundaries of the world. Households were mostly nuclear families living in a single-room house, often with their animals. Marriages were usually between people of similar age and occurred at the beginning of adulthood in the late teens to the mid-twenties (with men averaging from to five years older than their wives, depending on location) Food was regular and nutritious, with the exception of famine years. Life expectancy was 40 or 50 years but this is misleading: life expectancy extended to the sixties and seventies, if a person survived the first four years of childhood. Those who Fight: Noblemen raised/commanded troops Also held court over the land controlled. Inherited land = Patrimony Primogeniture the principle of the first son inheriting. Life expectancy was slightly lower than for the peasant class. The noble lived behind the walls of the manor house with servants and staff. There was not much meat for anyone, mostly a diet of bread, vegetables, and some cheese. Status (place in society) was inherited from generation to generation.

5 The Nobleman: Boys: could become knights or clergy. At age 7 went to live in a foster home and learn Lordly/knightly skills. Age could take vows of knighthood followed by 2-3 years of travel and acquisition. Not an adult until selfsufficient. War or marriage led to a knight s fortune. The Noblewoman: Girls: could get married or enter a monastery. Marriage required a dowry and usually occurred in the mid-teens. Marriages were more the result of parental planning, and less the consent of the partners, as one goes up the social scale. Once established as the wife of a noble, a woman was second only to her husband in power over the estate (and often a close second.) Entrance to a monastery could require a dowry as well, if the girl was to be well-established there. The Role of the Church: The Church was the center of all religion and social life. It was the hub of the culture. There was a Church at the center of every village. There was a prominent chapel in most manor houses. (Each had its own priest, if the noble could afford it) Monasteries were special places of spiritual activity as well as the centers of learning in the countryside. Church rituals, times for prayer, and sacred days and seasons focused and regulated all of life. Christianity, and its rules, were taken very seriously by all classes (whether Christianity was understood or not) Those who pray (Ecclesiastics): MONKS ARE NOT THE SAME AS PRIESTS. Monks and clergy were the educated elite (though as we move from early to high middle ages the nobility were more associated with education as well.) Male monastics could be drawn into courtly service for a noble. Church orders were open to nobility and peasantry alike, but usually the positions and offices were striated along class lines (class barriers were generally impermeable.) Often a fast career track for younger brothers and sisters in noble families. Did offer the only real possibility of social advancement for the peasant classes as well (though this was uncommon.) The Development of the Middle (Merchant) class: The end of invasions of Europe in the 10th c. allowed the gradual rise of long distance trade and towns. In time, with this continual urbanization and the solidifying of trade networks, a new class developed in between the other classes: Those who sell the merchant class. Merchant class characteristics: Not static. One could rise through wealth. Focus on the individual and Merit: through work and ability one could change one s lot in life. Urban: cities are (again) the focus of life. Symbols of wealth: clothing, houses, and entertainment were all chosen to display and celebrate the success of the new class. Practical people, who would pay for practical education, and real world answers.

6 The Plague! hit! Europe! Began in Asia! Imported by! Trading! The Problem: yersinia pestis bacteria, (in fleas on rats.)! Bubonic Plague: spread through flea bites! Black Spots -- hence Black Plague! Swollen lymph glands buboes -- hence, bubonic plague! (Septicemic -- plague in blood)! Pneumonic -- plague in lungs, spread through coughing. The Plague: Its effects and how it was seen. Killed 1/3 of the population of Europe Deaths were unevenly w distributed: Some w communities wiped-out, w others spared. Widely seen as the w Judgment of God, but this w raised big questions: Why are good people dying? Why do the wicked survive? What are we to do now? (morally, and to survive) Effects of the Plague on: Religion: forced a reexamination of comfortable assumptions. Economics: ended the population boom and increased the standard of living (ended famine conditions). Art and Culture: The theme of untimely and arbitrary death gains force in the rise in death as a theme -- consider images such as the Grim Reaper and the Dance of Death. Peasant Revolts Not as common as the textbook makes them sound. (p. 399) Largely confined to the 14th c. they occurred for very specific reasons wherever they did occur. This is not surprising, given the well-understood difference in the balance of power between classes. There were significant problems with getting a peasant revolt moving in the medieval period: There was a native sense of loyalty to the manor. Military arms, prowess, and alliances were the business of the nobility. Attacking your own lord was a bad economic move. The success of the peasants in day to day life was tied to the success of the manor. There was a real sense in which peasants and nobility recognized that they shared the same fortunes. The two major revolts which did occur in our time period are all the more remarkable (and worth studying), because, the phenomenon was really not common before the 14th c. France: the Jacquerie 1358 The final straw: taxation to ransom the release of King John and other lords captured by the English (in the 100 Years War.) Previous straws: Plague, famine, losses in the war. Named after a folk-hero peasant Jaques Bonhomme. Mercilessly put down by those who knew how to fight -- the nobility and their retainers. Note: This revolt as well as those which followed in France, can be directly connected negatives: particularly to the rotten state of existence produced by the 100 Years War. England, 1381: Differences and Similarities England also lost economically in the 100 Years War. However, in 1381 life was very good for the workers and merchants in England. Note the crisis of rising expectations. (p. 402) The tremendous success of the merchant and laboring classes produced an upward mobility which threatened the traditional social role of the nobles. The nobles resisted legislatively, and expressed their resentment, but usually (reluctantly) granted in practice what they believed should be denied the peasantry in theory. Propaganda, particularly that of John Ball, inflamed the smoldering sentiments of the peasantry. The final straw: taxation again, but not taxation which was beyond the ability of the people to pay (in this case.)

7 Dante and the World of the Inferno A look at the Late Medieval Worldview Dante Alighieri Born, 1265, Florence, son of a merchant class family. Highly educated as the wealth of his family allowed, he became a gifted scholar and writer. Active in the political intrigues of the city, which led to his self-imposed exile, and official banishment (in 1302) under threat of burning if he returned to Florence. Used his writing as a political forum even after his exile. Denouncing all previous political parties he resolved to make a party by himself. Wrote the Divine Comedy (among other works) during this exile, and finished it only shortly before his death died in exile, after moving from court to court for 19 years. The Inferno First part of the Divine Comedy Comedy, in the medieval era, signi!ed a story of "a happy escape from misery.# The!rst part of the story, which relates Dante$s imaginative journey through "hell# is the!rst stage in his release from a condition of earthly misery. After passing through purgatory, in the next part of the Comedy, Dante eventually arrives in the joyful presence of the Christian God in paradise. The journey is allegorical %and typically medieval& '' it$s purpose is to o(er allegorical symbols for the struggle of medieval people through life. The journey is also set in a "Cosmos# which is an extremely accurate portrayal of a typical medieval understanding of the universe. We will be using the Inferno here as an historical document more than "literature# '' it is a window into the medieval mind and worldview. Points to bear in mind while reading: 1. Dante s first person character is an Everyman -- his journey represents the common experience of all medieval people. 2. Be aware of the allegorical nature of the work -- everything is symbolic. 3. The Inferno is the part of the Comedy which deals with the pitfalls and traps of life. 4. Hell, for Dante, is the place where earthly evil is revealed for what it is (rather than disguised by the illusion of good.) 5. The symbolism will not be readily apparent until we analyze it -- read to get a feel for the flow of the story. Pay attention to the details, even if you don t know what they mean. The Kosmos: Spiritual realm Invisible Heavens The Sublunar realm of Change and the four elements Earth Spheres of The visible Heavens Realm of The 5th Element.

8 Cosmology The Heavens were perfect. The sublunar realm was changeable. The earth was inhabited not only by physical creatures but also by a host of greater and lesser spirits. At the very pit of the earthly sphere was hell (according to the common cosmology which Dante would use.) There were two levels of knowledge, heavenly or spiritual, and earthly, even as there were two levels of all creation -- that which is above and that which is below The Universe was hierarchical, with all authority flowing downward from God. Aquinas Hierarchies Intelligences Physical orders God Ranks of Angels Man Animal Life Plant Life, including fish, sometimes Inanimate Creatures Lesser Life forms God Celestial powers Earth spirits nobleman butcher baker dog fish wheat cow Human rulership or authority: Kingdom of the Left Political ranks: Nobility Freemen Other Peasants Emperor/King God Pope Kingdom of the Right Ecclesiastical ranks: Bishops Priests/Abbots(esses) Deacons Minor orders and Monastics General Laity Everyone had a place. It was their duty to maintain it.

9 Also part of the human was the Spirit -- the governing principle: that which infuses all and holds everything in place. Soul Struggle Psychomachia: Intellect/Reason The human Soul is the arena of spiritual warfare. Emotions/Will Victory comes through mastery and balance. Body Dante s World Symbolic Retribution The governing principle of who goes where in Dante s hell. The punishment matches the crime (sin). The choices made in earthly life determine the nature of one s eternal existence. While on earth, all people can repent and be forgiven. Once in hell, repentance is no longer possible. Shut-off from the mercy and love of God, what remains is His Justice and His Judgment against sin. As God is just, the punishment is always appropriate. Also part of the human was the Spirit -- the governing principle: that which infuses all and holds everything in place. Soul Struggle The human Soul is the arena of spiritual warfare. Victory comes through mastery and balance. Psychomachia: Intellect/Reason Body Emotions/Will Dante: Final Considerations The past is a foreign country -- it has a different culture, with different values, expectations and explanations. You have been introduced to some of them through a writer who, in the Divine Comedy at least, typifies the medieval worldview. You have also seen some of the similarities between Dante s views and many of the assumptions and perspectives current in our own day. What are the similarities and differences?