LICEO ARTISTICO IDONEITA' ALLA CLASSE V INGLESE

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1 LICEO ARTISTICO IDONEITA' ALLA CLASSE V INGLESE - The Augustan Age ( ) - -The Restauration and the 18th Century - Alexander Pope - Jonathan Swift - The Sonnet - William Shakespeare - Elizabethan Theatre - The Restoration ( ) - The Augustan Age ( ) Future Continuous and Future Perfect Le if clauses Meet the Celts Henry II The Birth of Parliament The Act of Supremacy James I The origin of Thanskgiving Day William Shakespeare The English Civil War The Puritans The Scientific Revolution

2 THE RESTORATION AND THE 18th CENTURY The Augustans and the Age of Reason The Restoration refers to the restoration of the monarchy when Charles II was restored to the throne of England following an eleven-year Commonwealth period during which the country was governed by Parliament under the direction of the Puritan General Oliver Cromwell. This political event coincides with (and to some extent is responsible for) changes in the literary, scientific, and cultural life of Britain. During this time, a premium was placed on the importance of human reason and on an empirical philosophy that held that knowledge about the world was through the senses and by applying reason to what we take in through our senses. Reason was an unchanging, uniquely human characteristic that served as a guide for man. Thus this time is often also called the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. Characteristics of this period included observing human nature and nature itself which were considered unchanging and constant. The age is also known as the Neoclassical period. Writers of the time placed great emphasis on the original writings produced by classical Greek and Roman literature. The literature of this period imitated that of the age of Caesar Augustus, writers such as Horace and Virgil, with classical influences appearing prevalent in poetry with the use of rhyming, and in prose with its satirical form. The Augustans deemed classical literature as natural, that these works were the idealized models for writing. The Neoclassical ideals of order, logic, restraint, accuracy, correctness, decorum,... would enable the practitioners of various arts to imitate or reproduce the structures or themes of Greek or Roman originals (Victorian Web). Alexander Pope furthers this idea as he says Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem; To copy Nature is to copy them (Essay on Criticism). The way to study nature is to study the ancients; the styles and rules of classical literature. Closely allied with the emphasis placed on the classics and the unchanging rules of nature was the belief that reason was an unchanging and unique human quality that served as a guide for man. An Age of Satire Literature during this period was often considered a tool for the advancement of knowledge. Writers were often found observing nature in their attempts to express their

3 beliefs. Human nature was considered a constant that observation and reason could be applied to for the advancement of knowledge. Within these circumstances, the Age of Satire was born. Satire was the most popular literary tool that was utilized by writers of the time. With the help of satire, writers were better able to educate the public through literature. Its function was to acknowledge a problem in society and attempt to reform the problem in a comical manner while still educating the public. Its effectiveness can be seen in literary pieces by Jonathan Swift such as A Modest Proposal where he addresses and criticizes the problem of a growing famine in Ireland. Playwrights of the time were also known to incorporate satire in their plays. Through the use of satire, they were able to expose and critique social injustices. Over the thirty years of its triumphs, Restoration comedy, in an astounding fugue of excesses and depravities, laid bare the turbulence and toxins of this culture (Longman). Satire was a highly successful literary tool that worked to promote social awareness through literature, the theater and periodicals of the time. Timeline 1660: Restoration Charles II, Stuart monarchy 1662: Royal Society established 1685: James, Duke of York, succeeds his brother Charles II 1688: Glorious Revolution James II deposed, William and Mary share the English throne 1689: Bill of Rights limits crown, affirms supremacy of Parliament 1689: Toleration Act religious freedom for dissenters 1690: John Locke s Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1707: Act of Union England and Scotland for Great Britain 1745: Last Jacobite uprising

4 ALEXANDER POPE The English poet Alexander Pope is regarded as one of the finest poets and satirists (people who use wit or sarcasm to point out and devalue sin or silliness) of the Augustan (mid-seventeenth to mid-eighteenth century English literature) period and one of the major influences on English literature in this time and after. Early years Alexander Pope was born on May 21, 1688, in London, England, to Alexander and Edith Pope. His Roman Catholic father was a linen merchant. His family moved out of London and settled in Binfield in Windsor Forest around Pope had little formal schooling. He educated himself through extensive studying and reading, especially poetry. Although Pope was healthy and plump in his infancy, he became severely ill later in his childhood, which resulted in a slightly disfigured body he never grew taller than 4 feet 6 inches. He suffered from curvature of the spine, which required him to wear a stiff canvas brace. He had constant headaches. His physical appearance, frequently ridiculed by his enemies, undoubtedly gave an edge to Pope's satire (humor aimed at human weaknesses), but he was always warmhearted and generous in his affection for his many friends. Early poems Pope was precocious (showed the characteristics of an older person at a young age) as a child and attracted the notice of a noted bookseller who published his Pastorals (1709). By this time Pope was already at work on his more ambitious Essay on Criticism (1711) designed to create a rebirth of the contemporary literary scene. The Rape of the Lock (1712) immediately made Pope famous as a poet. It was a long humorous poem in the classical style (likeness to ancient Greek and Roman writing). Instead of treating the subject of heroic deeds, though, the poem was about the attempt of a young man to get a lock of hair from his beloved's head. It was based on a true event that happened to people he knew. Several other poems were published by 1717, the date of the first collected edition of Pope's works.

5 Translations of Homer Pope also engaged in poetic imitations and translations. His Messiah (1712) was an imitation of Virgil (70 19 B.C.E. ). He also did a version of Geoffrey Chaucer's ( ) poetry in the English of Pope's day. But it was Pope's versions of Homer (c. 700 B.C.E. ) that were his greatest achievement as a translator. Pope undertook the translation of Homer's Iliad because he needed money. The interest earned from his father's annuities (money from investments) had dropped sharply. The translation occupied him until It was a great financial success, making Pope independent of the customary forms of literary patronage (support from wealthy people), and it was highly praised by critics. From the time parts of Iliad began to appear, Pope became the victim of numerous pamphlet attacks on his person, politics, and religion. In 1716 an increased land tax on Roman Catholics forced the Popes to sell their place at Binfield and to settle at Chiswick. The next year Pope's father died, and in 1719 the poet's increased wealth enabled him to move with his mother to Twickenham. From 1725 to 1726 Pope was engaged in a version of Odyssey. He worked with two other translators, William Broome and Elijah Fenton. They completed half of the translation between them. It was Pope's name, however, that sold the work, and he naturally received the lion's share (biggest part) of the profits. Editorial work Pope also undertook several editorial projects. Parnell's Poems (1721) was followed by an edition of the late Duke of Buckingham's Works (1723). Then, in 1725, Pope's six volumes on the works of William Shakespeare ( ) were published. Pope's edits and explanatory notes were notoriously capricious (impulsive and not scholarly). His edition was attacked by Lewis Theobald in Shakespeare Restored (1726), a work that revealed a superior knowledge of editorial technique. This upset Pope, who then made Theobald the original hero of Dunciad. The Dunciad In 1726 and 1727 the writer Jonathan Swift ( ) was in England and a guest of Pope. Together they published three volumes of poetry. Renewed contact with Swift must have given a driving force to Pope's poem on "Dulness," which appeared as the three-book Dunciad (1728). Theobald was the prime dunce, and the next year the poem was enlarged by a burlesque (broad comedy) on commentators and textual critics.

6 Clearly Pope used Dunciad as personal satire to pay off many old scores. But it was also prompted by his distaste for that whole process by which worthless writers gained undeserved literary prominence (fame). The parody (comic imitation) of the classical epic (heroic poem) was accompanied by further mock-heroic elements, including the intervention of a goddess, the epic games of the second book, and the visit to the underworld and the vision of future "glories." Indeed, despite its devastating satire, Dunciad was essentially a phantasmagoric (created by the imagination) treatment by a great comic genius. In 1742 Pope published a fourth book to Dunciad separately, and his last published work was the four-volume Dunciad in An Essay on Man Pope's friendship with the former statesman Henry St. John Bolingbroke, who had settled a few miles from Twickenham, stimulated his interest in philosophy and led to the composition of An Essay on Man. Some ideas expressed in it were probably suggested by Bolingbroke. For example, the notion that earthly happiness is enough to justify the ways of God to man was consistent with Bolingbroke's thinking. In essence, the Essay is not philosophy (the study of knowledge) but a poet's belief of unity despite differences, of an order embracing the whole multifaceted (many-sided) creation. Pope's sources were ideas that had a long history in Western thought. The most central of these was the doctrine of plenitude, which Pope expressed through the metaphors (a figure of speech in which words or phrases are used to find similarities in things that are not comparable) of a "chain" or "scale" of being. He also asserted that the discordant (not harmonious) parts of life are bound harmoniously together. Later years Pope wrote Imitations of Horace from 1733 to (Horace was a Roman poet who lived from 65 to 8 B.C.E. ) He also wrote many "epistles" (letters to friends) and defenses of his use of personal and political satire. As Pope grew older he became more ill. He described his life as a "long disease," and asthma increased his sufferings in his later years. At times during the last month of his life he became delirious. Pope died on May 30, 1744, and was buried in Twickenham Church. Alexander Pope used language with genuine inventiveness. His qualities of imagination are seen in the originality with which he handled traditional forms, in his satiric vision of the contemporary world, and in his inspired use of classical models.

7 JONATHAN SWIFT Anglo-Irish poet, satirist, essayist, and political pamphleteer Jonathan Swift was born in 1667 in Dublin, Ireland. He spent much of his early adult life in England before returning to Dublin to serve as Dean of St. Patrick s Cathedral, Dublin for the last 30 years of his life. It was this later stage when he would write most of his greatest works. Best known as the author of A Tale Of A Tub (1704), Gulliver s Travels (1726), and A Modest Proposal (1729), Swift is widely acknowledged as the greatest prose satirist in the history of English literature. Swift s father died months before Jonathan was born, and his mother returned to England shortly after giving birth, leaving Jonathan in the care of his uncle in Dublin. Swift's extended family had several interesting literary connections: his grandmother, Elizabeth (Dryden) Swift, was the niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, grandfather of the poet John Dryden. The same grandmother's aunt, Katherine (Throckmorton) Dryden, was a first cousin of Elizabeth, wife of Sir Walter Raleigh. His great-great grandmother, Margaret (Godwin) Swift, was the sister of Francis Godwin, author of The Man in the Moone which influenced parts of Swift's Gulliver's Travels. His uncle, Thomas Swift, married a daughter of the poet and playwright Sir William Davenant, a godson of William Shakespeare. Swift s uncle served as Jonathan s benefactor, sending him to Trinity College Dublin, where he earned his BA and befriended writer William Congreve. Swift also studied toward his MA before the Glorious Revolution of 1688 forced Jonathan to move to England, where he would work as a secretary to a diplomat. He would earn an MA from Hart Hall, Oxford University, in 1692, and eventually a Doctor in Divinity degree from Trinity College Dublin in Swift s poetry has a relationship either by interconnections with, or by reactions against, the poetry of his contemporaries and predecessors. He was probably influenced, in particular, by the Restoration writers John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester and Samuel Butler (who shared Swift s penchant for octosyllabic verse). He may have picked up pointers from the Renaissance poets John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. Beside these minor borrowings of his contemporaries, his debts are almost negligible. In the Augustan Age,

8 an era which did not necessarily value originality above other virtues, his poetic contribution was strikingly original. In reading Swift s poems, one is first impressed with their apparent spareness of allusion and poetic device. Anyone can tell that a particular poem is powerful or tender or vital or fierce, but literary criticism seems inadequate to explain why. A few recent critics have carefully studied his use of allusion and image, but with only partial success. It still seems justified to conclude that Swift s straightforward poetic style seldom calls for close analysis, his allusions seldom bring a whole literary past back to life, and his images are not very interesting in themselves. In general, Swift s verses read faster than John Dryden s or Alexander Pope s, with much less ornamentation and masked wit. He apparently intends to sweep the reader along by the logic of the argument to the several conclusions he puts forth. He seems to expect that the reader will appreciate the implications of the argument as a whole, after one full and rapid reading. For Swift s readers, the couplet will not revolve slowly upon itself, exhibiting intricate patterns and fixing complex relationships between fictive worlds and contemporary life. The poems are not always to spare in reality as Swift would have his readers believe, but he seems deliberately to induce in them an unwillingness to look closely at the poems for evidence of technical expertise. He does this in part by working rather obviously against some poetic conventions, in part by saying openly that he rejects poetic cant, and in part by presenting himself in many of his poems as a perfectly straightforward man, incapable of a poet s deviousness. By these strategies, he directs attention away from his handling of imagery and meter, even in those instances where he has been technically ingenious. For the most part, however, the impression of spareness is quite correct; and if judged by the sole criterion of technical density, then he would have to be judged an insignificant poet. But technical density is a poetic virtue only as it simulates and accompanies subtlety of thought. One could argue that Swift s poems create a density of another kind: that The Day of Judgement (1731?), for example, initiates a subtle process of thought that takes place after, rather than during, the reading of the poem, at a time when the mind is more or less detached from the printed page. One could argue as well that Swift makes up in power what he lacks in density: that the strength of the impression created by his directness gives an impetus to prolonged meditation of a very high quality. On these grounds, valuing Swift for what he really is and does, one must judge him a major figure in poetry as well as prose. Swift suffered a stroke in 1742, leaving him unable to speak. He died three years later, and was buried at St. Patrick s Cathedral, Dublin.

9 THE SONNET Poetic Form From the Italian sonetto, which means a little sound or song," the sonnet is a popular classical form that has compelled poets for centuries. Traditionally, the sonnet is a fourteen-line poem written in iambic pentameter, which employ one of several rhyme schemes and adhere to a tightly structured thematic organization. Two sonnet forms provide the models from which all other sonnets are formed: the Petrarchan and the Shakespearean. Petrarchan Sonnet The first and most common sonnet is the Petrarchan, or Italian. Named after one of its greatest practitioners, the Italian poet Petrarch, the Petrarchan sonnet is divided into two stanzas, the octave (the first eight lines) followed by the answering sestet (the final six lines). The tightly woven rhyme scheme, abba, abba, cdecde or cdcdcd, is suited for the rhyme-rich Italian language, though there are many fine examples in English. Since the Petrarchan presents an argument, observation, question, or some other answerable charge in the octave, a turn, or volta, occurs between the eighth and ninth lines. This turn marks a shift in the direction of the foregoing argument or narrative, turning the sestet into the vehicle for the counterargument, clarification, or whatever answer the octave demands. Sir Thomas Wyatt introduced the Petrarchan sonnet to England in the early sixteenth century. His famed translations of Petrarch s sonnets, as well as his own sonnets, drew fast attention to the form. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, a contemporary of Wyatt s, whose own translations of Petrarch are considered more faithful to the original though less fine to the ear, modified the Petrarchan, thus establishing the structure that became

10 known as the Shakespearean sonnet. This structure has been noted to lend itself much better to the comparatively rhyme-poor English language. Shakespearean Sonnet The second major type of sonnet, the Shakespearean, or English sonnet, follows a different set of rules. Here, three quatrains and a couplet follow this rhyme scheme: abab, cdcd, efef, gg. The couplet plays a pivotal role, usually arriving in the form of a conclusion, amplification, or even refutation of the previous three stanzas, often creating an epiphanic quality to the end. In Sonnet 130 of William Shakespeare s epic sonnet cycle, the first twelve lines compare the speaker s mistress unfavorably with nature s beauties. But the concluding couplet swerves in a surprising direction: My mistress eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun; If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. I love to hear her speak, yet well I know That music hath a far more pleasing sound; I grant I never saw a goddess go; My mistress when she walks treads on the ground. And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare. Sonnet Variations Though Shakespeare s sonnets were perhaps the finest examples of the English sonnet, John Milton s Italian-patterned sonnets (later known as Miltonic sonnets) added several important refinements to the form. Milton freed the sonnet from its typical incarnation in a sequence of sonnets, writing the occasional sonnet that often expressed interior, self-directed concerns. He also took liberties with the turn, allowing the octave to run into the sestet as needed. Both of these qualities can be seen in When I Consider How My Light is Spent. The Spenserian sonnet, invented by sixteenth century English poet Edmund Spenser, cribs its structure from the Shakespearean three quatrains and a couplet but employs

11 a series of couplet links between quatrains, as revealed in the rhyme scheme: abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee. The Spenserian sonnet, through the interweaving of the quatrains, implicitly reorganized the Shakespearean sonnet into couplets, reminiscent of the Petrarchan. One reason was to reduce the often excessive final couplet of the Shakespearean sonnet, putting less pressure on it to resolve the foregoing argument, observation, or question. Sonnet Sequences There are several types of sonnet groupings, including the sonnet sequence, which is a series of linked sonnets dealing with a unified subject. Examples include Elizabeth Barrett Browning s Sonnets from the Portuguese and Lady Mary Wroth s The Countess of Montgomery s Urania, published in 1621, the first sonnet sequence by an English woman. Within the sonnet sequence, several formal constraints have been employed by various poets, including the corona (crown) and sonnet redoublé. In the corona, the last line of the initial sonnet acts as the first line of the next, and the ultimate sonnet s final line repeats the first line of the initial sonnet. La Corona by John Donne is comprised of seven sonnets structured this way. The sonnet redoublé is formed of 15 sonnets, the first 14 forming a perfect corona, followed by the final sonnet, which is comprised of the 14 linking lines in order. Modern Sonnets The sonnet has continued to engage the modern poet, many of whom also took up the sonnet sequence, notably Rainer Maria Rilke, Robert Lowell, and John Berryman. Stretched and teased formally and thematically, today s sonnet can often only be identified by the ghost imprint that haunts it, recognizable by the presence of 14 lines or even by name only. Recent practitioners of this so-called American sonnet include Gerald Stern, Wanda Coleman, Ted Berrigan, and Karen Volkman. Hundreds of modern sonnets, as well as those representing the long history of the form, are collected in the anthology The Penguin Book of the Sonnet: 500 Years of a Classic Tradition in English (Penguin Books, 2001), edited by Phillis Levin.

12 WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon. The son of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden, he was probably educated at the King Edward VI Grammar School in Stratford, where he learned Latin and a little Greek and read the Roman dramatists. At eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman seven or eight years his senior. Together they raised two daughters: Susanna, who was born in 1583, and Judith (whose twin brother died in boyhood), born in Little is known about Shakespeare s activities between 1585 and Robert Greene s A Groatsworth of Wit alludes to him as an actor and playwright. Shakespeare may have taught at school during this period, but it seems more probable that shortly after 1585 he went to London to begin his apprenticeship as an actor. Due to the plague, the London theaters were often closed between June 1592 and April During that period, Shakespeare probably had some income from his patron, Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his first two poems, Venus and Adonis (1593) and The Rape of Lucrece (1594). The former was a long narrative poem depicting the rejection of Venus by Adonis, his death, and the consequent disappearance of beauty from the world. Despite conservative objections to the poem s glorification of sensuality, it was immensely popular and was reprinted six times during the nine years following its publication. In 1594, Shakespeare joined the Lord Chamberlain s company of actors, the most popular of the companies acting at Court. In 1599 Shakespeare joined a group of Chamberlain s Men that would form a syndicate to build and operate a new playhouse: the Globe, which became the most famous theater of its time. With his share of the

13 income from the Globe, Shakespeare was able to purchase New Place, his home in Stratford. While Shakespeare was regarded as the foremost dramatist of his time, evidence indicates that both he and his contemporaries looked to poetry, not playwriting, for enduring fame. Shakespeare s sonnets were composed between 1593 and 1601, though not published until That edition, The Sonnets of Shakespeare, consists of 154 sonnets, all written in the form of three quatrains and a couplet that is now recognized as Shakespearean. The sonnets fall into two groups: sonnets 1-126, addressed to a beloved friend, a handsome and noble young man, and sonnets , to a malignant but fascinating Dark Lady," who the poet loves in spite of himself. Nearly all of Shakespeare s sonnets examine the inevitable decay of time, and the immortalization of beauty and love in poetry. In his poems and plays, Shakespeare invented thousands of words, often combining or contorting Latin, French, and native roots. His impressive expansion of the English language, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, includes such words as: archvillain, birthplace, bloodsucking, courtship, dewdrop, downstairs, fanged, heartsore, hunchbacked, leapfrog, misquote, pageantry, radiance, schoolboy, stillborn, watchdog, and zany. Shakespeare wrote more than thirty plays. These are usually divided into four categories: histories, comedies, tragedies, and romances. His earliest plays were primarily comedies and histories such as Henry VI and The Comedy of Errors, but in 1596, Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet, his second tragedy, and over the next dozen years he would return to the form, writing the plays for which he is now best known: Julius Caesar, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, and Antony and Cleopatra. In his final years, Shakespeare turned to the romantic with Cymbeline, A Winter s Tale, and The Tempest. Only eighteen of Shakespeare s plays were published separately in quarto editions during his lifetime; a complete collection of his works did not appear until the publication of the First Folio in 1623, several years after his death. Nonetheless, his contemporaries recognized Shakespeare s achievements. Francis Meres cited honeytongued Shakespeare for his plays and poems in 1598, and the Chamberlain s Men rose to become the leading dramatic company in London, installed as members of the royal household in Sometime after 1612, Shakespeare retired from the stage and returned to his home in Stratford. He drew up his will in January of 1616, which included his famous bequest to

14 his wife of his second best bed. He died on April 23, 1616, and was buried two days later at Stratford Church. ELIZABETHAN THEATRE Elizabethan drama was the dominant art form that flourished during and a little after the reign of Elizabeth I, who was Queen of England from 1558 to Before, drama consisted of simple morality plays and interludes, which were skits performed at the banquets of the Queen s father Henry VIII or at public schools at Eton. The Elizabethan era saw the birth of plays that were far more morally complex, vital and diverse. As with the interludes, the earliest Elizabethan plays were put on for university students. They were modelled after the comedies of the Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence and the tragedies of Seneca. The First Playhouses and First Playwrights In 1576, James Burbage, an actor and theatre-builder, built the first successful English playhouse in London on land he had leased in Shoreditch. It was simply called The Theatre and was supported by young playwrights from Cambridge and Oxford Universities. These young men became known as the University Wits and included Thomas Kyd, Robert Green, John Lyly, Thomas Nash and George Peele. The play The Spanish Tragedy, written by Kyd, was the template for the gory tragedy of blood, plays that became wildly popular. Another theatre called The Curtain had to be built to accommodate the overflow audiences. The technical name for such as theatre was an easer.

15 Burbage also had a house in Blackfriars which had a roof. Because of this, it was used for plays during the winter. Burbage s son Richard was an even more famous actor and performed just about every major role in William Shakespeare s plays. He was lauded for his roles in the tragedies. The only thing that stopped the plays was the plague, and the theatres were dark from June, 1592 to April, The Audience and Actors Elizabethan theatre itself was notoriously raucous. People, most of whom stood throughout the play, talked back to the actors as if they were real people. Hints of this can be discerned even in Shakespeare s plays. It is true that adolescent boy actors played female roles, and the performances were held in the afternoon because there was no artificial light. There was also no scenery to speak of, and the costumes let the audience know the social status of the characters. Because sumptuary laws restricted what a person could wear according to their class, actors were licensed to wear clothing above their station. Shakespeare More and more theatres grew up around London and eventually attracted Shakespeare, who wrote some of the greatest plays in world literature. His plays continue to cast a shadow over all other plays of the era and quite possibly all other plays that came after his. But Shakespeare was not the first great playwright of the Elizabethan age. That would be Christopher Marlowe. Many scholars believe that Marlowe might have rivalled Shakespeare had he not been murdered when he was 29 years old in a fight over a tavern bill in He was the first to change the conventions of the early Elizabethan plays with his tales of overreachers like the title character of Tamburlaine the Great, Dr. Faustus and Barabas in The Jew of Malta, men whose will to power provided the engines for the plays. Marlowe used blank, or unrhymed verse in a new, dynamic way that changed the very psychology of dramaturgy. In the meantime, Peele and Lyly were writing light comedies and fantasies such as Endymion. These plays were performed at court, which were not only patrons but protected the companies from the wrath of the Puritans, who found theatre sinful. One of the companies who performed at court, the Lord Chamberlain s Men, had Shakespeare as a member.

16 This company became the King s Men under the patronage of James I. The Globe Theatre The Puritan reaction against the stage was such that the players had to set up theatres outside the London city limits on the south side of the Thames, but attending plays remained popular among non-puritans. The most famous of these theatres, which became the Lord Chamberlain s Men home, was the Globe Theatre. It was established in 1599 and was actually a new iteration of The Theatre, which Richard Burbage and his brother Cuthbert had moved and reassembled. In between the closing of The Theatre and the opening of The Globe, the Chamberlain s Men performed at The Curtain. The Globe premiered some of Shakespeare s greatest plays, including Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and King Lear. It s very design influenced the design of other theatres, but unfortunately The Globe was destroyed in a fire during a performance of Shakespeare s Henry VIII, which was his final play and of such inferior quality that some scholars don t believe it was written by him at all. The Globe was rebuilt in 1614 and remained standing until 1644 when it was demolished to make room for housing. The Armada Historians believe that the flowering of Elizabethan drama was due in part to the burst of patriotic confidence and national identity that erupted after England s victory over the Spanish Armada in This was a fleet of ships assembled by Philip II of Spain to conquer England. The conquest failed through a combination of hubris, bad weather, English ingenuity and some help from the Dutch. It might not be a coincidence that Shakespeare began to contribute in earnest to Elizabethan dramaturgy around 1588, when he was 24, though he d arrived in London from his home in Stratford on Avon around 1585 to seek work as an actor. As a playwright, he gave Marlowe s blank verse more range, flexibility and subtlety. He responded to the patriotic mood of the country with his History plays. Besides these plays, of course, were his magnificent comedies and tragedies.

17 Late Elizabethan Drama Ben Jonson was a friend of Shakespeare and considered his chief rival after the death of Marlowe. However, Jonson followed the strict classical form that was a hallmark of ancient Latin drama. His plays include Vulpine, or the Fox and The Alchemist. Other dramatists of the late Elizabethan period, which continued after her death, included John Webster, Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. Richard Burbage also acted in the plays of Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher as well as Shakespeare. By 1600, three years before Elizabeth died, the robustness of Elizabethan drama began to fade. After Shakespeare s retirement after 1612 and his death in 1616, Elizabethan drama was no more. THE RESTORATION ( ) The Restoration marked the end of the period of fanaticism belonged to the Stuart House. The first protagonist was Charles II that was considered a very immoral king because he represented all the bad behaviours and reflected them in his court. He came back in England after a long period of exile in France where he knew the policy of Luis XIV and his absolute power. In the first period of his monarchy there was the bubonic plague, in the second there was a great fire that destroyed London in 1666 and it was rebuilt by Christopher Wren (an important architect of the age). The puritans believed that these two catastrophes were caused by the immorality of the king as a divine punishment. In 1673 the convention of parliament named the king Cavalier Parliament and imposed him to sign the Text Act that didn t give him the opportunity to introduce Catholics in public offices. In this period the Parliament was divided into Whigs and Tories. The former derived their name from cattle drivers and they were the descendants of the Parliamentarians; they didn t believe in the absolute power of the king and of the Church and thought they had the right to remove the king if it was proved his misgovernment. The Tories instead of derived their name from the Irish name tory that translated means outlaw, they were the descendants of the Royalists and supported the cause of the Church of England,

18 the crown and the landed gentlemen. They held (sostenevano) the view that kings ruled by divine right, which is the will of God. When Charles II died, his brother James II took his place, he was so immoral as him, and he wanted to impose the Catholicism in England again. He changed the rights of the Church and of the state, and put himself against Tories and Whigs. But his son in law William of Orange, that saw his land in danger, decided to move to London in 1688 helped by the Tories and the Whigs and put in exile the king and his family without firing a single shot. He was named king of England and became William III. He with his wife Mary II created a combination between Church, Parliament and Crown and there was a important change in the politic structure in fact the crown wasn t hereditary but was a choice of Parliament; his power was established by the Bill of Rights of 1639 (in this document the king cannot impose taxes, martial law in peace time o keep an army without the consent of the Parliament). In this period there was another important document: the Toleration Act that gave all the power to the Protestants but the Catholics were no more persecuted. The reign of William III and Mary II was a period of economic progress until he was succeeded by his sister in law (cognata), Anne. She was a obstinate woman, her reign was marked by English intervention against the France in the war of Spanish Succession. It ended with the signing of the Treaties of Utrecht in which England was recognized as the biggest navy fleet of the nations. LITERATURE The Restoration was characterized by a break with the past and it introduced innovations. The most representative poet was Ben Johnson who put the bases of the artistic movement of Neo Classicism. The true spirit of Restoration was satiric; the theatre had a renovation, also the actors roles were defined; in fact the male characters were played by men and female roles by women. A new character was created: the fop who was brilliant and elegant, witty (arguto) and cynical, great and simple; the hero child. The best literary expression was the Comedy of Manners (Commedia delle Maniere). The words were more familiar without heroic setting and other realistic elements were the introduction of the sex and money in the representation. Ben Johnson with his Comedy of Manners and specifically with Comedy of Humours represented his themes in comedy and contemporary some elements from Molière and the Italian Commedia dell Arte.

19 The sign of Newton was important for the literary production. THE FEATURES The word comedy comes from the Greek comodìa, probably meanings Dinonysiac feast song, generally linked to village feasts. Its features are: The characters are represented in amusing way, the comedy begins with a misfortune (sventura) but doesn t end with the dead of the principal character It represent the falls of the society It was developed the comic character that have a principal role The argument is mainly a love matter We can distinguish different types of comedies such as: Romantic, that was developed in Shakespeare times (Romeo and Juliet) Satiric, that have a moralizing corpus and represents the human vices In the Comedy of Manners the characters belonged to the upper class and the public was selected and was composed all by intellectual audience because it was used a formal language. The techniques were ironic and satiric and there was the use of a witty prose language, capable of describing in usual terms a particular social behaviour.

20 THE AUGUSTAN AGE ( ) This age was called Augustan Age because it established a parallel between the literary production during Augustus empire and after the civil wars in Rome and the literary production with the return of Charles II after the English civil war. It shows some differences from Renaissance and Puritan Age, in fact the model in this period as literary genre acquired a great importance. There was a new house that substitute the Stuart s House: the Hannover. Anne was the last queen of the Stuart and when she died, her nearest relative was George of Hannover that became George I. This provoked a change in the court because the king didn t love England : he preferred Germany. Because he was more interested to German Affairs than English ones, he could no speak English. The Parliament intervened and imposed his supremacy in the court. When in 1715 a Jacobite rebellion (Jacobites, from Jacobus the Latin for James, were the supporters of the Catholic James II) broke out in Scotland, the Parliament had a big role to ht it. The Tory part was weakened by this and the Whigs power grow up; in fact it was the period in which the Parliament created some cabinet of ministers that decided about social and political business. At first the cabinets ministers were all similar but later some minister becoming to govern and born the first Prime Minister: Robert Walpole. He was in power for twenty years, and increased the trading outside; it gave a period of richness to the country. The trade was stimulated by the removal of customs duties on exports and on imports of raw materials. It create the possibility to put down the taxes of the population and in the same time with the taxation of coffee, chocolate and tea both checked smuggling and increased government revenue. It was also the most important period for industrial field. Walpole organized this that became one of the

21 most important economic period for England. Then there was the second Jacobite revolt guided by Charles Edward, a descendant of the Stuart family, that was stopped because either Whigs and Tories didn t want a return of Catholicism in England not only for the richness but also because they didn t want to go under the dominion of the catholic France or to make alliance with it, that was their great trade rival. When Walpole died the second Prime Minister was William Pitt, who wanted that Great Britain became economically strong in the world to compete with the other industrial nations. His mercantilist policy led to a new way of living and to the establishment of the new values of power, wealth and prestige embodied in the middle classes. The new bourgeois man seeking his profits all over the world was reflected in the literary character of the time, Robinson Crusoe (by Daniel Defoe) *. In 1756 the Seven Years War broke out against the France: it was fought all over the world and concerned with maintaining the balance of power in Europe. The England won and conquered other lands such us India, Quebec, a part of Africa and the Islands of Guadeloupe. It increased trading of sugar, wood, fish and also slaves. It s important to say that the middle class was more important; they were merchants who created new power in society. This social class was called Bath Society: bath was the most fashionable spa in the 18 th century: people went there to take the waters as a remedy for gout or indigestion, but especially for social intercourse. So Bath Society became the symbol of the coalition between wealthy and gentry. In this period there was a high mortality for children because the middle class wasn t so rich (it was composed by artisans, merchants, bankers and miners) and their children had to work 12 hours to day. There was the mob that was very poor and the whose children can t study: if they don t died from six - seven years old yet began to work. The miner have a great role because we have the introduction of the gold. England opened its doors to literate people that had the possibility to give men way to discuss: the Coffee House became a new place of communication, based on the meeting of the persons. Therefore we have the birth of journalism. But this place was only for men and this situation was very important to underline the female discrimination in the period; the women could only married, they cannot go to the university and they had no power in the family. This is the motive because the female novel acquired a great value to identify their role in the society. In the second half of the century an enthusiasm for the genteel education of young girls swept through the middle classes, from the upper regions of affluence and position to the

22 working classes. The kind of education these young ladies received soon came under heavy attack from preachers and moralists, who argued that instruction in ethics and domestic usefulness, which were the basis of good motherhood and happy, ordered homes, was sacrificed for the acquisition of superficial, genteel accomplishments, like painting, music, foreign languages, and elocution. Toward the end of the century the previous point of view changed. Woman was a being who can reason and reflect, and feel, and judge, and act; one who can assist her man in his affairs, lighten his cares, strengthen his principles and educate his children. The ure of the fallen woman was gradually turned into the sentimental picture of Magdalen in literature who complemented the Madonna. These two ures were to enjoy great popularity during the Romantic Age and the Victorian Age. The 18 th century presented itself to the critic in two main blocks: one represented by Neoclassicism, the other as a gradual reaction to the neoclassical contrasts in the form of Early Romanticism. On the whole however the new century marked some of the characteristics of the Restoration, like the cynical attitude towards love in society. The democratic wave following the bloody revolution of 1688 and the great political and economic power acquired by the middle class, the new notion of the gentleman created new conditions for the literature of the century: Limitation of nature The three major aspects of nature: the good, the beautiful and the true that are one Art and literature are meant to educate as well as to entertain Simplicity must be used to a careful balancing of all elements

23 It was an age of wise traditionalism, of elegance and wit, but also a distinctive moment in the making of modern England. It was a materialist society; worldly, pragmatic, responsive to economic pressure. The state did not deal in abstractions such as social justice, equality or fraternity, though it was to protect legal rights. Respect for rights, however, would not tolerate interference in private property. It was in many ways an extraordinarily free and open age. Enlightened thinkers, from the philosopher Locke to popularizers such as Addison and Goldsmith, rejected the Calvinist theology of original sin and depravity of man. Optimism encouraged faith in progress and human perfectibility, and made people eager to try new ways trusting their own powers: reason, which made them different from the beast, and, in case of doubt when making a choice or a decision, common sense. Nature also extended to the universe beyond the earth. It was seen as the complex system or set of principles divinely ordained and manifested in the Creation. Man should conform to this system, whose interpreters were the moralist and the poet. LITERATURE The literature of the Augustan Age was characterized by remarkable output in a variety of genres, which reflected the economic and intellectual progress of the period, and an increasing popular interest in reading. In the country, farmers and labourers were quite illiterate, while in the towns semi-literacy was commoner than total illiteracy. There were few schools and the attendance at these schools was usually too short and irregular. Children of the lower classes used to leave school when they were six or seven to start work in factories or in fields. Another factor which limited the reading public was economic consideration: books were very expensive. For those of the lower classes there were cheaper forms of printed material. Many of newspapers published short stories and novels in serial form. By far the largest category of books published in the 18 th century, as in previous ages, was religious. The poetry of the age was by no means a secondary genre. Breaking with the tradition of Metaphysical poetry it continued the poetic trend of the Restoration: the poet s function was to provide social poetry, that is to say models of refined behaviour presented in a classical pattern. As for drama, at the beginning of the 18 th century, the public expanded as a result of the altering structure of society. At first the performances were limited in scope, but soon a story was told silently by means of gestures and expressive movement: that

24 was the beginning of pantomime, a form of theatrical representation which owed much to the activities of various French and Italian troupes which from season to season entertained London audiences. Another popular kind of play was melodrama, where vice was always punished, sinners reclaimed, distressed maidens saved, generosity rewarded. Thrills and laughter mingled and the language was emotional and extravagant. The Restoration Comedy of Manners was replaced by the Sentimental Comedy a type of play dealing with everyday problems of family and marriage in clear simple language, which aimed at showing virtue triumphant over vice. The absolute leader of English poetry in the first half of the century was Alexander Pope ( ). Pope was born by catholic parents and in the period in which Catholicism was persecuted. His religion debarred him from university education and public office. He made personal studies thanks to the help of his friends. His knowledge of classical language offered him the possibility to become the translator of Omero s Iliad and Odyssey. The first newspaper in the modern sense was The Review by Daniel Defoe, in which it was supported the cause of the Whigs. It contained political and economic articles too. Another important journal for the literary point of vie was the periodical Essay which attained in the publication of the Spectator by Richard Steele, who also published for six month The Guardian that contained moral and politic matters, and Joseph Addison. The Spectator is the best of all periodical Essays, in it Addison and Steele created a number of characters belonging to the spectator Club; the most famous of theme were: the Templar (the student of law), the Clergy man, Sir Andrew Freeport (the new city merchant) and Sir Roger de Coverley (the tory country squire). They were representatives of the social classes of this time; so the purpose of this periodical was to instruct and to improve private and public moral but also private and public manners. There was a criticism of Restoration in morality but one of the ideas main proposed was to establish a model of behaviour for the new emerging social that did not accept the models of the aristocracy and hadn t a own one. Then the Essay had a extraordinary importance and influence to elevate the moral links and to improve the social behaviour of the middle class. THE RISE OF THE NOVEL Defoe and Richardson are generally regarded as the fathers of the English novel, though they did not constitute a literary school. It is possible, however, to state that some features are common to all their novels. The 18 th century novelist was the spokesman of the middle classes and he was mainly directed to a bourgeois public.

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