治 大. International Master s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies College of Social Sciences National Chengchi University.

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1 Internatonal Master s Program n Asa-Pacfc Studes College of Socal Scences Natonal Unversty Master s Thess : The Dplomatc Relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna from 1942 to 2012: Hstory, Challenges, and Perspectves Natonal Unversty Student : Landry Védrenne Advsor : Chou-sengTou, Ph.D June 2012

2 : The dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna from 1942 to 2012: Hstory, challenges and perspectves : Student : Landry Védrenne : Advsor : Chou-sengTou, Ph.D. Natonal Unversty A Thess Submtted to Internatonal Master s Program n Asa-Pacfc Studes Natonal Unversty In partal fulfllment of the Requrement For the degree of Master n Chna Studes June 2012

3 À mon père ben amé, Natonal Unversty

4 Through ts presence n the nternatonal communty the Holy See seeks to defend the very structure of human rghts, ncludng the fundamental rght to relgous freedom, to foster an ever greater awareness of the moral and ethcal oblgatons of poltcal, socal and economc power, and to remnd the nternatonal communty of the needs and sufferngs of the weak and unprotected. Blessed Pope John Paul II, 25 March Natonal Unversty

5 Acknowledgments I thank God for the gft of lfe and for hs neffable Love. He gves me so many blessngs and t s wth a heart flled wth grattude that I contemplate Hm. I am deeply grateful to my thesss drector, Dr. Chou-seng Tou, whose patence, advce and gudance from the ntal to the fnal stage enabled me to complete ths thess. Indeed, I learned a lot from Dr. Tou who s a self-drven and devoted professor. I also would lke to thank hs wfe, Dr. Mara Chu, who has been supportng me from the very frst day of my arrval n Tawan. She s an outstandng professor and her encouragements are nvaluable. I express my sncere respect and grattude to the fnal defense commttee members: Professor Davd Blundell and Professor Chen Fang-chung. They provded me many concrete and constructve Natonal suggestons that helped me consderably. I am thankful to Professor Png-Yn Kuan, the IMAS drector, all the professors, the Staff members and my classmates. They made my academc journey n Tawan Unversty enjoyable and so nsprng. Moreover, I had the opportunty to go to Italy for an exchange program and I thank the Pontfcal Unversty of the Holy Cross n Rome (PUSC) for ts remarkable formaton. I sncerely thank H.E. Ambassador Larry Yu-yuan Wang who welcomed me so many tmes at the R.O.C Embassy to the Holy See n Rome and explaned me so well the challenges of Sno-Vatcan relatons. He shared wth me hs precous tme to answer my multtude of questons and provded me wth useful research materal. He s an exceptonal person and I wll always remember hs kndness toward me.

6 I owe many thanks to the MEP Fathers and especally to my confreres n Hualen for ther brotherhood and support. I am thankful to numerous ecclesastcs and academcs who encouraged me n my research and helped me to dentfy the man problems n the trangular relatons ROC-Vatcan-PRC. I acknowledge my confrere Reverend Jean Charbonner, mep who spent hours to help me to understand the Hstory of the Church n Chna. I gve my thanks to Reverend Angelo Lazzaroto, pme and Reverend Wlhem Müller, svd for ther advces. I thank Commendator Dr Peter Chang, dstngushed professor at Fujen Catholc Unversty and journalst at Rado Vatcan. Hs gudance and help durng my stay n Rome are prceless. In Tape, the Xaveran Fathers welcomed me n ther house and made me feel at home among them. I am deeply touched by ther kndness and generosty. They Natonal are great mssonares and such a wonderful source of nspraton for me. I express them all my grattude but also admraton. Thank you to the French Pontfcal Major Semnary and the Pontfcal Insttute of Foregn Mssons who offered me hosptalty when I was n Rome for my research. Unversty Very specal thanks to Dr. Alce Wedemann and Professor Thérèse Lu of the U.S. department of Educaton for ther contnuous support. I am honored to have receved so much from ther expertse and am so grateful for all ther encouragements. Indeed, I have benefted a lot from ther great knowledge and wsdom. Thank you to Mr. Paul Slag who was so knd to edt my thess. Hs frendshp and patence mean a lot to me. v

7 Fnally, I dedcate ths research to my beloved famly who supports me so much and always prays for me. The love of my famly s my greatest reward. May God bless and protect each of them always. Natonal Unversty v

8 Abstract Dplomatc relatons between the Republc of Chna (ROC) and the Holy See were establshed n However, after a devastatng cvl war, the Chnese Communsts ganed control of Manland Chna n 1949 and establshed the Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) n Bejng. As a consequence, the Natonalst government of the ROC was forced to move from Nankng to Tape, Tawan. The Papal representatve contnued to reman at hs post but the Communst government expelled hm n In the followng year, the Holy See decded to relocate ts ApostolcNuncature to Tape and mantan ts tes wth the ROC. The tensons n the Strat between the two Chnese governments have put the Sno-Vatcan relatons to several tests. Indeed, the Vatcan desres to normalze ts relatons wth the PRC but s also confronted wth two major ssues mposed by Bejng whch requests the drecton of the Catholc Natonal Church n Chna and the end of the Holy Sees recognton of Tape. It would strke a serous blow to Tape f the Supreme government of the Catholc Church decdes to break off dplomatc relatons. It wll also create a fragle poston for Tawan on the nternatonal dplomatc stage snce the Holy See, at present, s the only Unversty European ally to offcally recognze the ROC government. The relatons of the Holy See wth Tawan are characterzed by a mutually productve and cooperatve partnershp, especally n the promoton of human rghts, culture, world peace and advocacy of relgous freedom and allevaton of global poverty. Ths thess ams to clarfy the trangular stuaton between the Vatcan, the ROC and the PRC and to show the challenges as well as the dlemmas the Holy See s confronted wth n order to normalze ts relatons wth Chna. Frst, ths study explans the nternatonal status of the Holy See and ts specfc msson. Then, through a dachronc analyss, ths thess traces the evoluton of Sno-Vatcan relatons to later on dentfy the v

9 dffcultes the Holy See has to face across the Tawan Strat. Then, t wll analyze the efforts of Pope Benedct XVI to ntate a rapprochement wth Chna and all the ssues that have to be solved before negotatng any dplomatc tes. Based on ths analyss, ths thess wll show that the PRC and the Holy See are stll at a stalemate and that the Vatcan wont move ts Nuncature from Tape n the foreseeable future. Key-words: Republc of Chna, Holy See, Peoples Republc of Chna, Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons, ApostolcNuncature, relgous freedom, challenges, dlemmas, stalemate. Natonal Unversty v

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments... Abstract... v 1. Introducton Purpose of the Research Lterature Revew Theoretcal Framework and Thess Outlne Methodology and Procedure The Internatonal Status of the Holy See Introducton Natonal 2.2. The Legal Status of the Holy See n Publc Internatonal Law The Papal States and the Roman Queston The Holy See and ts Internatonal Personalty The Holy See and the Foundng of the Vatcan Cty State The Vatcan Cty State: a Vassal State Soveregnty and Independence of the Holy See The Holy See: a Su Geners Entty Unversty 2.4. The Msson and Interests of the Holy See A Dplomacy at the Servce of Peace A Dplomacy at the Servce of Relgous Freedom A Dplomacy at the Servce of Humanknd Concluson Hstorcal Evoluton of Sno-Vatcan Relatons Introducton v

11 3.2. From the Apostolc Delegaton to the Apostolc Nuncature n Chna Archbshop Celso Costantn, Frst Apostolc Delegate to Chna The Holy See and the Manchukuo Archbshop Antono Rber, Frst Internunco of the Holy See to Chna Holy Sees Polcy n Chna from Pope Pus XII to Pope Benedct XVI Pope Pus XII Pope John XXIII Pope Paul VI Pope John Paul II Pope Benedct XVI The ROC and the Holy See n Ilha Formosa The Frst Arrval of the Catholc Church n Formosa The Chnese Natonalsts and the Apostolc Internunco n Tawan The Holy See, Tawan and the Entrance of the PRC at the Unted Natons Concluson The Holy See and the Cross-Strat Conundrum Natonal 4.1. Introducton The Tes and Shared Ideals between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna Human Rghts, Peace and Relgous Freedom Humantaran Cooperaton between the Holy See and Tawan Recent Agreements and cooperaton between the Holy See and Tawan Unversty 4.3. The Holy See and the Two-Chna Dlemma The Holy See and the Artcle 56 of the PRC Common Program Prudence of the Holy Sees Dplomacy n the Cross-Strat Tawans Concern by the Vatcans Rapprochement Attempts wth Chna Pax Vobscum: Cross-Strat Tensons and Papal Exhortatons to dalogue The Church of Tawan : a Brdge-Church Encouragements of the Holy See for Peace Between Chna and Tawan Concluson The Holy See and the Efforts of Rapprochement wth Chna under the Pontfcate of Pope Benedct XVI x

12 5.1. Introducton Pope Benedct XVI and hs Attempts to Dalogue wth Chna The Begnnng of a New Phase Cardnal Zen and the Vatcans New Polcy on Chna A Vatcan Prvate Top Level Meetng on Chna n January Pope Benedct XVIs Letter to Chnese Catholcs An Appeal for Cooperaton at the Servce of Humanknd An Appeal for a Unfed Chnese Catholc Church An Appeal for Relgous Freedom: the Appontment of Bshops n Chna The Aftermath of Pope Benedct XVIs Letter to the Church n Chna Reactons of the Chnese Government Reactons of the Holy See Concluson Dffcultes n Normalzng Sno-Vatcan Relatons Introducton Natonal 6.2. The Relgous Polcy of the PRC and ts Practce The Maost Ideology vs-à-vs Relgon The Maost deology and Catholcsm Deng Xaopngs Open Door polcy and ts Effects on Relgon The challenge of the PRC to the Holy See: the Two Pre-Condtons Frst Pre-condton: Relatons wth Tawan Second Pre-condton: Nomnatons of Bshops Unversty 6.4. Prospects on Negotatons: Gans, Rsks and Losses Potental Compromses on the Tawan Issue Relgous Freedom and Appontments of Bshops Concluson Scenaros on Sno-Vatcan Relatons Introducton The Model of Russa-Vatcan Relatons x

13 Perestroka and Glasnost The Vatcan and the Russan Orthodox Church Full Dplomatc Relatons Between Russa and the Holy See The Model of Vetnam-Vatcan relatons The Hstorcal Vst of Vetnams Prme Mnster to the Vatcan The Popes Non-Resdent Envoy to Vetnam Nomnatons of Bshops n Vetnam Can Sno-Vatcan Relatons Follow One of These Two Models? Dffcultes n Applyng the Russan-Vatcan Model Lmts of the Vetnam-Vatcan Model for the Chnese Case Prospects and Ways Forward Concluson Concluson Annexes Annex 1 : The Dplomatc Representatves of the Republc of Chna and the Holy See Papal Representatves Natonal Annex 2 : Tawan Catholc Church Statstcs n Annex 3 : Map of Tawan and the Tawan Strat Annex 4 : Terrtory clamed by the Republc of Chna Unversty Bblography x

14 1. Introducton 1.1. Purpose of the Research Ths year, 2012, s of great sgnfcant mportance for the Republc of Chna (Tawan) because t marks the 70 th annversary of ts dplomatc tes wth the Holy See, the 90 th annversary of the arrval of the frst ApostolcDelegate n Chna, Cardnal Costantn, and the 101 st annversary of ts foundng. The am of ths thess s to gve a clear understandng of the blateral relatons of the Holy See wth the Republc of Chna and the challenges of such tes, as well as to dentfy the perspectves on Sno-Vatcan relatons on both sdes of the Strat. Through the hstory of these relatons, ths paper wants to show the peaceful coexstence but also the ssues that can exst between Church and State wth the case study of the Republc of Chna. Indeed, the ROC-Vatcan tes have remaned frendly and stable throughout the years manly because of ther common belef n the sublme deal of Natonal respect for humanty, democracy, freedom, human rghts, world peace and also the promoton of the greater welfare for each human beng. The analyss of the 70 th year annversary of cordal tes between the ROC and the Holy See wll show the expresson of the closeness exstng between Catholcsm and Chnese culture. These Unversty dplomatc tes are defntely based on shared belefs and goals, and not on ordnary worldly nterests and advantages. Havng understood the meanng of such tes, ths research wll not only emphasze the challenges the Holy See s facng wth the PRC but also ts msson and vocaton to serve the people on both sdes of the Tawan Strat. Indeed, the Holy See wants to return to Chna, where t was expelled n 1951, n order to reach not only Chnese Catholcs but the whole naton. Many speculatons have been done about a possble relocaton of the ApostolcNuncature from Tape to Bejng. However, the Vatcan has to face many challenges and dlemmas before ths can happen. Ths thess analyzes the trangular relatonshp of 1

15 Tawan, the Vatcan and Chna and concludes that the stuaton s very complex. Because of all the unsolved problems between the Holy See and the PRC, ths study ams to show that the Holy See wont leave Tawan n the foreseeable future Lterature Revew Dplomacy s the art of creatng, among peoples, humane and reasonable relatons anmated by a hgh deal, and amng at establshng the rule of law, justce and peace n the nternatonal communty. 1 It s not dependent upon nternatonal law. On the contrary, t has evolved hstorcally accordng to ts own laws. In other words, dplomatc practce s a source of nternatonal law rather than one of ts creatons. Vatcan dplomacy s the best example of the vew that refers prmarly to dplomacy as an nsttuton. Ths s the system by whch the Holy See carres on stable, formal, and recprocal ntercourse wth other states and nternatonal Natonal organzatons, through accredted publc agents. It s the nstrument by whch the supreme authorty of the Catholc Church communcates, wthn the framework of standard nternatonal practce, wth the supreme authorty of the states, n the transacton of current or specal problems whch arse on the part of ether Church or Unversty State; for resoluton, the common accord of the ultmate authorty of both partes s requred. 2 Vatcan foregn polcy dffers from usual foregn polcy. Ths can be explaned by the fact that what the Vatcan represents s not just the cty-state, but also the unversal Church. In the narrow sense, what the Vatcan s most concerned wth are ts fathful spread n all corners of the world. In a more general sense, the Vatcan represents the Unversal Church and s concerned wth the whole human 1 Chao, J. (2000). The evoluton of Vatcan dplomacy. Tamkang Journal of Internatonal Affars, 4 (4), p Chao, J. (1997). Jurdcal, Functonal and Operatonal Factors Affectng Vatcan Dplomacy. Tamkang Journal of Internatonal Affars, 1(2), p. 20 2

16 race. () All the usual dplomatc concerns, such as natonal stature, poltcal rghts, and economc benefts, are not the thngs that the Vatcan emphaszes. It s therefore proper to say that Vatcan foregn polcy s based on a desre to assst the human race n dffusng conflcts and fomentng peaceful coexstence. 3 The ecclesastcal dplomat brngs words of understandng; he s the advocate of the just causes of the populaton; he collaborates wth the government and wth the naton n whch he s a guest. 4 The deal of ecclesastcal dplomacy s the brotherhood of men, and whether or not t succeeds n achevng ths goal t serves as a gude for cvl dplomacy whch attempts to make reason preval over force and to contrbute to the growth of ndvdual states n harmony wth all others. () Thus, the envoys of the Holy See are sent to varous countres, not just to defend the rghts of the Church, but also to defend the rght and to serve the needs of the people there. 5 Indeed, hs msson ncludes the moral, cultural and socal problems whch belong to the major Natonal nterests of manknd such as respect for human rghts, promoton of nternatonal order and development of frendly tes among all natons through peaceful co-exstence, through respect for justce and the promoton of human progress. 6 Unversty The 1911 revoluton led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qng dynasty and n 1912, the government of the Republc of Chna was establshed n Nankng, markng the brth of the frst republc n Asa. In 1922, Pope Pus XI apponted Archbshop CelsoCostantn as the frst ApostolcDelegate n Chna, an ecclesastcal 3 Shan, P. (2002). Preface.In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p. I 4 Cardnale, I. (1962). Le Sant-Sège et la dplomate. Aperçu hstorque, jurdque et pratque de la dplomate pontfcale.pars, France: Desclée, p Chao, J. (2000). The evoluton of Vatcan dplomacy, p Cardnale, I. (1976). The Holy See and the Internatonal Order.Toronto: Gerrards Cross : Smythe, p. 38 3

17 representatve of Hs Holnessthe Popewth no formal dplomatc credentals. 7 Then, t was not untl 1942 that dplomatc relatons were establshed between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna. In 1949, followng the Chnese Communst Partys (CCP) vctory n the Cvl war,the government of the Republc of Chna departed from Manland Chna.Moreover, snce the foundng of the Peoples Republc of Chna many foregn states gradually shfted dplomatc recognton to Bejng, nsstng that Tawan was part of Chna under the One-Chna Polcy.Relatons between Tawan and the Manland have been snce then turbulent and crss-flled. 8 Ths culmnated wth the Peoples Republc of Chna dsplacng Tawan at the Unted Natons, n The Vatcan remans currently the only state n Europe that recognzes the ROC. Dplomatc relatons between the PRC and the Vatcan were severed n 1951, Natonal when the PapalNunco, Archbshop A. Rber was expelled from Chna. The ApostolcNuncature moved to Tawan where t remaned ever snce, although n recent years the Nunco s represented only by a chargé daffares, a.. The move to Tawan was the only means the Holy See had of mantanng ts relatonshp wth Unversty Chnas Catholcs. 9 From 1951, thngs have become dffcult for the Vatcan snce t has had to face the challenges and dlemmas across the Tawan Strat. In order to normalze ts dplomatc relatons wth the Peoples Republc of Chna, the two matters n need of resoluton are the Vatcans relatons wth Tawan and the 7 Chan, G. (1989, December). Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons: Problems and Prospects, p Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement. Workng Papers, Current Issues n Relgon and Poltcs, Unversty of St. Andrews, the Centre for the Study of Relgon and Poltcs (CSRP), Scotland, UK. Retreved February 10, 2012, from p Coppa, J. (2006). Preface. In E. Wurth, & Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt study centre, p. xv 4

18 appontment of bshops. 10 Bejngs man concern n engagng n rapprochement wth the Vatcan s to solate Tawan.Indeed, Tawan s consstently at the top of Chnas foregn polcy agenda, and the prospect of a Vatcan concesson on ths ssue would be a large ncentve at least for further talk. 11 The severng of Tawan-Vatcan dplomatc relatons would be a natural outcome of establshng Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons. By solatng Tawan, Bejng hopes to force Tawan to the negotatng table and move towards the reunfcaton of Tawan and Chna on Bejngs terms. 12 The Holy See desres to normalze Sno-Vatcan relatons n order to be able to serve the Church n Chna and be closer to the Chnese Catholcs. In Hong Kong, The Sunday Examner of Aprl 16 th 2005 quoted Bshop Joseph Zen Ze-kun: The Holy See s thnkng of gvng up Tawan. Ths s a dffcult decson, but t has decded to do t. If the Holy See does not establsh tes wth Chna, Catholcs there wll not have real freedom. 13 Natonal Hannah Smth, a professor of the Centre for the Study of Relgon and Poltcs at St. Andrews Unversty n Scotland, UK, wrote that for Bejng, dstancng Tawan from ts only source of European recognton (the Vatcan) would be a substantal Unversty beneft for fosterng Sno-Vatcan relatons, strengthenng the One-Chna polcy and ncreasng domestc support. It s a zero-sum game. The Vatcan would also see advantages, prncpally access and (lmted) control of the number of Catholcs n Chna. Smth explaned that treatng both, the PRC and Tawan, as self-nterested actors t seems clear that the Vatcan s wllng to sacrfce dplomatc tes wth 10 Ibd. p. xx 11 Leung, B. (1998, March). The Sno-Vatcan Negotatons: Old Problems n a New Context. The Chna Quarterly, 153, p Leung, B. (2005). SnoVatcan Relatons at the Century's Turn. Journal of Contemporary Chna, 14(43), p Charbonner, J., & Polt, G. (2006). Chna-Vatcan relatons: In The Catholc Church n Chna: today and tomorrow. Leuven: Ferdnand Verbest Insttute, p

19 Tawan n order to tap nto the Chnese market whlst Bejng sees a poltcal opportunty to strengthen ts poston aganst Tawan regonally and enhance ts power n the nternatonal system. 14 The Vatcan s concerned wth ts fathful wherever they are n the world but also by the whole human race and ams to protect ther rghts, freedom and well-beng. Ths s one of the prncple reasons why the Holy See wants to establsh tes wth Chna. Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, the Vatcans Secretary for the Relatons wth the States at that tme, explaned n an ntervew wth the Chna Tmes of Tape on June 3, 1999: For the Holy See, the frst am of dplomatc relatons, wth Chna as wth other countres, s that of fosterng the lfe of the Church and of promotng peace n the nternatonal context through dalogue. 15 Laura Luehrmann, a professor at Wrght State Unversty (Dayton, Oho, USA), Natonal thnks that the Vatcan does not only have a relgous am n negotatng wth Chna but also a poltcal one. For her, the Vatcans goals surround the expanson of the freedom of worshp n the PRC as well as the desre to ncrease the number of Catholc fathful. () Yet as some have warned, the Holy See wll lose out f t s Unversty perceved to be sacrfcng moral prncples (by endng ts tes wth Tawan) for the sake of poltcal gan. 16 What are the mplcatons for the Church of Tawan that has been fathful and supported the papacy throughout these many years? Would the Holy See seem to gnore the fdelty of Catholcs and Church leaders n Tawan and appear to abandon them dplomatcally? Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement, p Ta, R. (2002). The Vatcan's Dlemma: Tape and/or Bejng?, p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September). The Red Flag and the Rng: the dances surroundng the Vatcan tes. Asan Poltcs & Polcy, 1(3), p Maheu, B. A. (2005, November 7). The Catholc Church n Chna. Amerca Press News, 193(14), p. 14 6

20 If Chna normalzes ts relatons wth the Holy See, Bejng authortes could ncur potentally sgnfcant rsks to ther hegemony by engagng n formal dplomatc tes. Wth a permanent Papal representatve n Bejng who would be requred under Canon Law 364 to send nformaton to the Vatcan about the status of the Chnese Church, authortes may struggle to fnd ways to check the flow of nformaton. 18 It s unclear as to whether or not Bejng wll be wllng to sacrfce ths element of soveregnty for other poltcal gan. Smlarly, the sze (and potental authorty) of a unted Church n Chna could prove to be a challengng force to the CCPs authorty. Not only would potental exst for clashes between the CCP and the Catholc Church but also for the Church to act as a mechansm through whch voces of dssent could be ared - the destablzng potental s evdent. 19 In 2005, Tou Chou-seng, former ambassador of ROC to the Holy See, once sad Natonal to Chrstan Todaythat Chna uses Tawan as pretext, whle the real problem s that of relgous freedom. 20 Raymond Ta, another former ROC ambassador to the Holy See, mentoned that artcle 36 of the Revsed PRC Consttuton of 1982 states that Ctzens of the PRC enjoy freedom of relgous belefno relgous affars may be Unversty domnated by any foregn country. Under such crcumstances, the Holy See can hardly normalze ts relatons wth Bejng. As Cardnal Roger Etchegaray, former Presdent of the Pontfcal Councl of Justce and Peace, sad qute openly n a recent ntervew, It s a long road from Bethlehem to Bejng, one strewn wth advances 18 Luehrmann, L. Ibd. p Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement, p Eunce, K. Y. (2005, May 19). Tawan Remans a Queston as Vatcan-Chna Relatons Progress. Chrstan Today. Retreved January 12, 2012, from vatcan.chna.relatons.progress./2922.htm 7

21 and retreats. 21 The Holy See would lke to have good relgous relatons, as well as poltcal relatons, wth both Tape and Bejng f at all possble. () The Holy See prefers not to make gestures that could be nterpreted as hostle by ether of the two sdes. 22 Indeed, Hs Holness Pope John Paul II dd not fal to express hs apprecaton for the varous ntatves and steps whch the two governments took for a better mutual understandng. 23 Cardnal Shan 24 wrote that faced wth growng relatons between the PRC and the Church, the Tawanese Catholc Church fnds tself n an awkward stuaton. On ths, Pope John Paul II had snce 1984 been sayng the same thng: He hoped that the Tawan Church could serve the role of a BrdgeChurch. That means, n ts pejoratve connotatons, that through the example set by the Tawan Catholc Church, the authortes on the other sde of the Tawan Strats could realze that a local Church Natonal wth close tes and subordnate relatonshp wth the Church n Rome could at the same tme enjoy a suffcent level of self-determnaton. On a more postve connotaton, t also means an appeal to the Tawan Church to provde assstance to the Manland Chnese Church n terms of manpower and sprtual support. Ths wll Unversty be done to allow the development of a really self-determnate local Church and to help buld normal relatons wth the Holy See. Cardnal Shan stated that just lke common ROC ctzens who wsh to see peace and harmony between the two sdes of the Tawan Strat, the Tawanese Catholc Church also wshes to see mprovement n PRC-Vatcan relatons, as well as real freedom n the Catholc Church on Manland Chna. He hopes that such mprovement can contrbute to better relatons between 21 Ta, R. (2002). The Vatcan's Dlemma: Tape and/or Bejng?, p Ibd. p Ibd. p Paul Cardnal Shan Kuo-hs, S.J.( ) Bshop Emertus of Kaohsung, Tawan 8

22 Tawan and the PRC. 25 In January 2011, on Rado Vatcan, Larry Wang, current ROC ambassador to the Holy See, sad: Yes, we fully understand the Holy Fathers concern for the stuaton, and for Chnas Catholc communtes on Manland Chna. I can report to you that the Church n Tawan has not forgotten to play the role of BrdgeChurch as she has been asked to do by the Holy Father Theoretcal Framework and Thess Outlne In order to understand the blateral tes that connect the Republc of Chna wth the Vatcan, t s frst mportant to dentfy the shape of Vatcan foregn polcy. For that, ths study must examne the nature and nternatonal status of the Holy See wth ts ams and characterstcs. The Vatcans dplomacy dffers from secular dplomacy because of ts goals and pursuts of relgous freedom, peace and human dgnty. Indeed, the Holy See, unlke other states, has a voce and nfluence n the Natonal nternatonal arena because of ts specfc and unque msson of establshng Brdges of peace between the natons and ts nterests of promotng moral prncples. How does the Supreme government of the Catholc Church use ts soft power n ts dplomacy? Why does the Holy See want to establsh tes wth the states? Unversty In ths case study of the Holy See and the Republc of Chna, t s necessary to adopt a dachronc approach to clarfy the establshment and hstory of Sno-Vatcan relatons. Ths approach wll help to understand the goals and the meanng of these tes. Because of the creaton of the Peoples Republc of Chna, the government of 25 Shan, P. (2002). Preface. In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. p. V 26 Wang, L. (2011, January 15). Tawan's Ambassador to Holy See on Pope's "state of the world" address. (R. Vatcan, Intervewer) Rome, Italy. Retreved from d-address html 9

23 the Republc of Chna moved to Tawan n 1949, followed by the ApostolcNuncature n Snce then, the Holy See has been facng challenges and dlemmas across the Tawan Strat. It s therefore mportant not only to examne the trangular relatonshp of the Holy See, the ROC and the PRC, but also the stuaton of the Vatcan wth the cross-strat conundrum. In addton, we wll analyze the polcy of the Holy See toward Chna and Tawan to determne the dffcultes and the dlemmas encountered.fnally, n order to fnd a possble soluton to the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons, ths thess wll use a heurstc approach and analyze two models of Church-state dplomatc nteractons: the Russan and the Vetnam cases.in concluson, consderng all the aspects and dffcultes of the trangular relatonshp of Tawan, the Holy See and Chna, we wll conclude to the status quo because of the complexty of the stuaton n the cross-strat and the conflct of authorty between the Vatcan and the PRC. Natonal 1.4. Methodology and Procedure Ths thess ams to hghlght the poltco-hstorcal context of the dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna untl the present tme n Unversty order to recognze a possble scenaro n favor of the normalzaton process for Sno-Vatcan relatons. Ths study goes back n tme and detals mlestones n the hstory of dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna n order to explan ther tes as well as the ssues of Sno-Vatcan relatons. A hstorcal-emprcal approach s used for ths thess n order to beneft from the rgor of the hstorcal method and the ductlty of emprcal research n the analyss of sources. Moreover, n the last chapter, we use the case study method and look at two models: Russa and Vetnam and ther relatons wth the Apostolc See. These models are heurstc devces that can help to enlghten our reflecton on the 10

24 Sno-Vatcan ssue. Ths study s clearly trans-dscplnary and adopts a holstc approach to Sno-Pontfcal relatons. It takes not only takes nto consderaton relgon, theology, nternatonal geo-poltcs, geo-strategy and dplomacy, but also focuses on a socal and specfc context where these relatons are mplemented. On such a study as our thess, we understand that there s a lmtaton to the nterpretaton of data, that there s a hermeneutcal am rather than a cogntve one, and that there s a dversty of opnon rather than a normatve one. For ths thess, we have prncpally used two types of sources, prmary and secondary. Prmary sources are multple wth a dversty of subjects n the study. These prmary sources are experts ntervews, dscourses and poltcal actons, offcal documents, agreements, credental letters. Many essays or journalstc artcles were wrtten about Sno-Vatcan relatons and Natonal the dffcultes of the Apostolc See n establshng tes wth Chna. Whle, there s a large lterature about Chna and the Catholc Church, there s a paucty of studes n the specfc topc of the relatons between Tawan and the Vatcan. Most of the perodcal artcles or books n Englsh focus on Chna-Vatcan relatons; the queston Unversty of Tawan-Vatcan relatons has not been the center of these studes but only one part or one chapter. The publc lecture of Ambassador Raymond Ta The Vatcans Dlemmas: Tape and/or Bejng?, gven n 2002 at the Internatonal Insttute of Asa Studes and the Snologcal Insttute of Leden Unversty (Netherlands), has not only helped me consderably to understand the hstory and the nature of ROC-Vatcan blateral relatons, but also the dlemmas of the Catholc Church wth Chna and Tawan. In order to have a clear comprehenson of Vatcans dplomacy wth the 11

25 Republc of Chna that started 70 years ago, I frst benefted from the advce gven by my thess drector, Professor Tou Chou-seng, who was ambassador of the ROC to the Holy See. He helped me to dentfy not only the meanng of the relatons between the two states, but also the challenges of these tes snce 1949 when the ROC government shfted to Tawan and the PRC was proclamed. Professor Tou challenged me wth many questons that were problematc to my research feld; I came to understand that t was frst essental to defne the status and msson of the Holy See. For ths am, I read The Holy See and the Internatonal Order (Cardnale, 1976), and The Holy See n Multlateral Dplomacy (Dupuy, 2003) and Chaos papers (1997, 2000). Other books n French gave me the key and tools to have a clear understandng of the Holy See and the purpose of ts dplomacy: Sant-Sège et la dplomate, Aperçu hstorque, jurdque et pratque de la Le dplomate pontfcale (Cardnale, 1962), Urb et Orb. Enquête sur la géopoltque Natonal vatcane (Colonna-Cesar, 1992) or Le Sant-Sège, sujet souveran de drot nternatonal (Barbern, 2003). Dr. Tou ntroduced me Fabrzo Bozzato who s currently a Ph.D. student at the Graduate Insttute of Internatonal Affars and Strategc Studes at Tamkang Unversty and also an assocate researcher at the Rcc Unversty Insttute n Tape. Outstandng poltcal analyst wth a double expertse n Pacfc Studes and Chna-Holy See relatons, he has been very knd and of so much help to me from the very begnnng of my research. He explaned me so well to me the methodology to adopt for ths knd of research and spent so many hours to share wth me hs ncredble knowledge about the Holy Sees Snopoltk. The book, Chrstans n Chna (2002), of Reverend Jean Charbonner, my confrere that I met n Pars to ntervew, and those of Lous We Tsng-Sng, Le Sant Sège, la France et la Chne sous le pontfcat de Léon XIII (1966, the Holy See, 12

26 France and Chna under the pontfcate of Leo XIII) and le Sant-Sège et la Chne de Pe XI à nos jours (1968, the Holy See and Chna from Pus XI to our present tme) have opened for me the doors to enter nto the heart of the hstory of ROC-Vatcan dplomacy. I went to Rome, Italy and had the prvlege to meet ROC Ambassador to the Holy See, H. E. Larry Wang who explaned to me the essence of the dplomatc tes of hs country wth the See of Peter n promotng human dgnty, global poverty allevaton, world peace, democracy, relgous freedom He gave me a lot of documents such as hs credental letters, hs speech upon presentng to the Holy Father hs letters of credence and the Popes address on that occason.in the Eternal cty, I met experts lke Dr. Peter Chang, a journalst based at Rado Vatcan who spent long hours wth me answerng my multtude of questons. I also got the Natonal opportunty to dscuss wth clergymen lke Reverend Angelo Lazzaroto, Pontfcal Insttute of Foregn Mssons (PIME) and Reverend Wlhelm Müller, Socety of the Dvne Word (S.V.D.), who gave me a good bblography that has helped me to take the rght drectons n ths study of the relatons between the Supreme government of Unversty the Catholc Church and Tape. It was mportant for me to meet them to have more nformaton and explanatons about my specfc research n the feld of Tawanese studes In 2002, Professor Chen Fang-Chung of Fu Jen Unversty, Tape, publshed A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Ths book s a treasure for my research because t not only provdes me the offcal letters, addresses and speeches exchanged between the Apostolc See and the Republc of Chna but also the pontfcal documents towards Chna. Ths book 13

27 provdes precous reference materals for scholars and students who want to perform research n that feld. Lkewse, the complaton of Papal documents of Elmer Wurth, related to Chna ( ), offers a lot of materal. Ths latter book has defntely helped me to understand the Sno-Vatcan relatons and the stuaton of Tawan. I found n ths book one mportant text of John Paul II: To the Tawan Bshops and the Chnese Daspora: Be a Brdge-Church, that shows how much the Pope desres Tawan to play a role n the process of rapprochement of the Church wth Chna. In these pontfcal documents, we can feel and understand the sprt and ams of the Holy Sees dplomacy. Bejng has lad down two precondtons to the Vatcan n order to normalze dplomatc relatons: the nomnaton of bshops, namely, the non-nterference n Chna's nternal affars and the end of ts relatons wth Tawan. These Natonal Vatcan-Tawan relatons have not been so much explored and developed. We found papers, journalstc artcles, books and on the data-base of NCCU -lbrary and other documents on the Internet that are about Chna-Vatcan relatons. Then, we collected everythng where the Tawan factor was mentoned n order to lead our study. The Unversty publcatons of Beatrce Leung (1998, 2005), Gerald Chan (1989) and Luehrmann (2009) are of great nterest but become obsolete as tme flows. We keep ourselves updated on ths topc thanks to all the onlne artcles on the webstes of the Holy Sprt center n Hong-Kong ( the blog of the Vatcanst, Andrea Tornell ( 30 days whch s nternatonal monthly magazne drected by Gulo Andreott ( Asanews.t ( or Chesa, the webste of the Vatcanst, Sandro Magster ( We also lead the same procedure of 14

28 research onlne for the study of the Russa-Vatcan and Vetnam-Vatcan relatons of the chapter 7 of ths thess. Natonal Unversty 15

29 2. The Internatonal Status of the Holy See 2.1. Introducton The Roman Catholc Church s the only relgous nsttuton n the world to have dplomatc relatons wth other states and that s concerned wth nternatonal law. The Catholc Church s ruled by a supreme organ that s defned as Holy See. 27 These are two dstnct enttes that should not be confused wth each other. In fact, The Holy See s to the Church what the government s to the State, wth the dfference beng that the monarchcal consttuton of the Church, beng of dvne orgn, s not subject to change. 28 Actually, the term Holy See has three dfferent meanngs. Sometmes, t denotes the Pope together wth the central offces of the Roman Cura, formed of the sacred congregatons, the trbunals and the varous other departments. Sometmes t desgnates the Pope n hs role as vsble head of the Church, possessng the Apostolc prmacy as successor of St. Peter. Fnally, t Natonal sometmes ndcates the sprtual organzaton of Papalgovernment. 29 In 1929, the Lateran Treaty defned the soveregnty and the ndependence of the Holy See and gave t a terrtory that s the Vatcan Cty State. The Holy See has Unversty qute an atypcal status n the nternatonal realm. In fact, the nternatonal and jurdcal status of the Holy See because of ts qute unque stuaton has been the subject of many controverses and dscussons n the nternatonal communty. Thus, ths chapter ams to clarfy the nternatonal status of the Holy See, ts connecton wth the Catholc Church, the nature of the Vatcan Cty State and the msson of the 27 The word See comes from the Latn sedes whch means seat. Ths seat refers to the seat or the resdence of the Bshop. Holy See refers to the preemnent seat of the Bshop of Rome who s the Pope. The term See refers to the Char of Peter: that s, to the symbol of the teachng and governng authorty of the frst of the Apostles, Smon Peter, whose successor the Pope s: hence t s qualfed as Apostolc or Holy. 28 Cardnale, I. (1976). The Holy See and the Internatonal Order. Toronto: Gerrards Cross : Smythe, p Ibd. p

30 pontfcal dplomacy. It s mportant to pont out ts legtmacy to act n the nternatonal arena but also to explan the specal characterstcs of the pontfcal dplomacy to better understand ts tes wth the Republc of Chna The Legal Status of the Holy See n Publc Internatonal Law The Papal States and the Roman Queston Relatons between the Church and the varous States have exsted from tme mmemoral. 30 Throughout the exstence of the Papal States, the Pope was a monarch and, as such, the equal of all other monarchs. Hs nfluence and prvleges granted to hm by the dfferent European states were due not solely to hs status of monarch of a state, but also to hs poston as the Head of the Roman Catholc Church. 31 On September 20, 1870, Italan troops occuped Rome and nvaded the Papal States. 32 Then, Rome, captal of the Supreme government of the Catholc Church, became the Italan Captal of Kng Vctor-Emmanuel II. The Pope, Pus IX, Natonal was no longer consdered as a terrtoral soveregn and ths stormng of Rome became known as the Roman Queston. Even though the Pope had no more terrtores, the Holy See retaned ts nternatonal personalty. It contnued to have Unversty relatons wth many states, to exercse the us legatons (that s the rght of actve and passve legaton 33 ), to apply the us foedorum ac tractatum and us contrahend (that s to negotate and conclude concordats, treates and agreements wth other states). The Supreme Pontff has always been recognzed as a soveregn and a subject 30 Cardnale, I. (1976). The Holy See and the Internatonal Order, p Chao, J. (1997). Jurdcal, Functonal and Operatonal Factors Affectng Vatcan Dplomacy. Tamkang Journal of Internatonal Affars, 1(2), p See map 33 The rght of actve legaton s the rght of a stateto send envoys to other states or nternatonal organzatons. The rght of passve legaton s the rght of a state to receve envoys from other states. The rght of legaton s a consequence of soveregnty. 17

31 of nternatonal law despte the absence of a temporal soveregnty as durng the Italan conquest. Indeed, the Holy See has a sprtual soveregnty that s ndependent to any terrtory. Ths sprtual aspect s one of the two sdes of ts soveregnty. Accordng to the Code of Canon Law: Can. 361: The terms Holy See mean not only the Roman Pontff, but also, unless the contrary s clear from the nature of thngs or from the context, the Secretarat of State, the Councl for the publc affars of the Church, and the other Insttutes of the Roman Cura. They consttute the central admnstraton and therefore the government of the Catholc Church. 34 Thus, the place of the Holy See and ts presence on the nternatonal scene s explaned by ts supreme authorty over the Catholc Church. The sprtual soveregnty s the soveregnty by excellence attrbuted to the Pope, head of the Church. The nternatonal personalty of the Holy See comes from t. 35 Natonal The Holy See and ts Internatonal Personalty In 1929, a settlement to ths so-called Roman Queston was acheved wth the Treaty of Lateran. 36 Wth ths treaty 37, the Holy See ganed ts nternatonal Unversty recognton and was approved as a person of nternatonal law. In fact, the Treaty was founded upon the presumpton that the Holy See possessed nternatonal personalty. In the Artcle 2, ths treaty states that: 34 Catholc Church.(1983). Code of Canon Law, Latn - Englsh. Vatcan Cty: Lbrera Edtrce Vatcana, Can Barbern, G. (2003). Le Sant-Sège, sujet de drot nternatonal.pars, France: Cerf, p The treaty of Lateran s also known as The Lateran Pacts accordng to the lteral translaton of Italan Patt lateranens 37 The Lateran Pacts of 1929 contaned three sectonsthe Treaty of Conclaton (27 artcles) whch establshed Vatcan Cty as an ndependent state, restorng the cvl soveregnty of the Pope as a monarch, the Fnancal Conventon annexed to the treaty (3 artcles) whch compensated the Holy See for loss of the Papal states, and the Concordat (45 artcles), whch dealt wth the Roman Catholc Church's ecclesastcal relatons wth the Italan State. 18

32 Italy recognzes the soveregnty of the Holy See n nternatonal matters as an nherent attrbute n conformty wth ts tradtons and the requrements of ts msson to the world. 38 The Italan government therefore recognzes the Supreme Insttuton of the Church as an autonomous and ndependent entty that has an ndvdual legal subjectvty at the nternatonal level. The Lateran Treaty s an nternatonal act whch also concerns thrd states. 39 Ths soveregnty allows the Holy See to partcpate n nternatonal relatons and gves t the rght to be consdered as a subject of nternatonal law. The Holy See s therefore legtmate to ntervene on the world stage. Nevertheless, the Pope mght contnue to act even wthout any terrtory, gven that nternatonal law tends to extend the noton of nternatonal personalty to governmental nternatonal organzatons that do not necessarly have the state status. Natonal The fact that the Holy See s a non-terrtoral nsttuton s no longer regarded as a reason for denyng ts nternatonal personalty. The papacy can act n ts own Unversty name n the nternatonal communty. It can enter nto legally bndng conventons known as concordats. Indeed, n the world of dplomacy the Pope enjoys the rghts of actve and passve legaton. He can send and receve representatves who are publc mnsters n the sense of nternatonal law. 40 Furthermore, ths personalty of the Holy See s dstnct from the personalty of the State of Vatcan Cty whch s a 38 Artcle 2 of the Lateran Pacts of 1929: Treaty between the Holy See and Italy n the Name of the Most Holy Trnty. Retreved December 12, 2011, from ntreaty.pdf 39 Barbern, G. (2003). Le Sant-Sège, sujet de drot nternatonal. Pars, France: Cerf, p. 37 (Le traté du Latran est un acte nternatonal qu concerne également les Etats ters) 40 Graham, R. (1959). Vatcan dplomacy : a study of Church and state on the nternatonal plane. Prnceton, New Jersey, USA: Prnceton Unversty Press, p

33 terrtoral entty. The papacy as a relgous organ s a subject of nternatonal law and capable of nternatonal rghts and dutes. 41 The Soveregnty of the Pope s recognzed nternatonally and provdes legtmacy to the Holy See to ntervene on the world stage. To renforce ths dea of the Soveregnty of the Pope ndependent to the terrtory, Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, a former Under-Secretary for Relatons wth States 42 of the Vatcan sad that the Holy See s not a state, but a soveregn moral force, the expresson of the Papacy on the nternatonal scene The Holy See and the Foundng of the Vatcan Cty State The Vatcan Cty State: a Vassal State The creaton of the Vatcan Cty State (Stato della Cttà del Vatcano n Italan), n 1929 by the Treaty of Lateran, provdes the Holy See wth a temporal jursdcton and ndependence wthn a small terrtory. Thus, the Pope was reestablshed as the Natonal soveregn of the State of the Vatcan Cty. Wth a tny surface of 44 hectares, the very nature of the Vatcan Cty State has been often dscussed and contested by nternatonalst doctrne. Indeed, the Vatcan Cty State does not fulfll perfectly the crtera of the Montevdeo Conventon 44 Unversty defnton of law of statehood that requres a state to have a permanent populaton, a defned terrtory, a stable government and the capacty to enter nto relatons wth other states. 41 Graham, R. (1959). Vatcan dplomacy : a study of Church and state on the nternatonal plane, p An offce equvalent to that of Foregn Mnster 43 Tauran, Jean Lous as quoted n Hercules, N.J, Holy See Dplomacy: a study of non-algnment n the post-world War Two era, Catholc Culture, January 5, 1999, Retreved December 14, 2011, from 44 The Montevdeo Conventon on the Rghts and Dutes of States was a treaty sgned at Montevdeo, Uruguay, on December 26, 1933, durng the Seventh Internatonal Conference of Amercan States. The Conventon codfed the declaratve theory of statehood as accepted as part of customary nternatonal law. 20

34 The Vatcan Cty s regarded as a vassal state 45 of the Holy See. Unlke any other modern naton, the Vatcan Cty does not exst to support ts ctzens. Rather, ts purpose s to provde a base for the central admnstraton of the Roman Catholc Church. Artcle 4 of the Lateran Treaty states: The soveregnty and exclusve jursdcton over the Vatcan Cty, whch Italy recognzes as appertanng to the Holy See, forbds any nterventon theren on the part of the Italan Government, or that any authorty other than that of the Holy See shall be there acknowledged. 46 The Vatcan State s a very specfc state because t was founded to gve a terrtory to a unversal and sprtual government and therefore to ensure ts total ndependence vs-à-vs other establshed powers. In fact, the Vatcan Cty State s an nstrument and ts rason dêtre s the servce of the Church and of the papacy for ther msson to manfest the ndependence of the Holy See toward any other Natonal authorty or power. After the fall of the Papal States, Pus IX told to the French ambassador: Unversty All that I want s a small corner of earth where I am master. Ths s not to say that I would refuse my states f there they were offered to me, but so long as I do not have ths lttle corner of earth, I shall not be able to exercse my sprtual functons n ther fullness Soveregnty and Independence of the Holy See The Vatcan and the Holy See are dstnct enttes, both recognzed nternatonally as such, and subjects of nternatonal law; but they are ndssolubly 45 Kunz, J. L. (1952, Aprl). The status of the Holy See n nternatonal law.amercan socety of nternatonal law, 46(2), pp The Lateran Pacts of 1929, Artcle 4 47 Nchols, P. (1980). Daly Lfe n the Vatcan. In The Vatcan. New York, USA: Vendome Press, p

35 unted n the person of the Pope who s at once ruler of the State and head of the Roman Catholc Church. Although the former s temporal n ts purpose and the latter s sprtual, ths ntmate unon prevents the Vatcan from beng restrcted to purely poltcal purposes. The Holy See exercses soveregnty over the Vatcan Cty, not for the advantage of the State tself, but for the hgher nterest of the Church. Ths State was created wth temporal soveregnty prmarly to assure ndependence of sprtual acton to the Holy See. The Vatcan s thus a means to a hgher end, an nstrument of another pre-exstng jurdcal subject, from whch t cannot be separated. The close unon wth the Holy See mports to ths mnuscule State ts great mportance, t also makes t jurdcally and poltcally unque n the world. 48 The State of the Vatcan Cty can thus be deemed a sgnfcant but not essental nstrument of the Holy See. As prevously mentoned, the Holy See has remaned Natonal contnuously as a jurdcal entty snce Roman Imperal tmes and has been nternatonally recognzed as a powerful and ndependent soveregn entty snce late antquty to the present, wthout nterrupton even at tmes when t was deprved of terrtory. Between 1870 and 1929, whch lay between the loss of the tradtonal Unversty Church States and the establshment of the State of the Vatcan Cty, the Holy See by the practce of States, remaned a subject of nternatonal law. Indeed, the Holy See never ended to conclude concordats and nternatonal treates wth a great number of States, to partcpate n nternatonal conferences, to conduct medaton and arbtraton mssons, and mantan both actve and passve dplomatc relatons. The am of the creaton of the Vatcan Cty State s to ensure the absolute and vsble ndependence of the Holy See, to guarantee ts ndsputable soveregnty n 48 Chao, J. (1997). Jurdcal, Functonal and Operatonal Factors Affectng Vatcan Dplomacy.Tamkang Journal of Internatonal Affars, 1(2), p

36 nternatonal matters. It has been found necessary to create, under specal condtons, the Vatcan Cty, recognzng the full ownershp, exclusve and absolute domnon and soveregn jursdcton of the Holy See over that Cty. 49 Thus, wth the creaton of the Vatcan Cty State, the Pope was able to freely govern the Catholc Church and conduct dplomatc relatons. Among other thngs the Preamble of the Lateran Treaty states that the contractng partes had recognzed the convenence of guaranteeng to the Holy See, n a stable way, a de facto and de jure condton, n order that t may obtan an absolute ndependence for the accomplshment of ts dvne msson, and the necessty to guarantee to the Holy See a complete and vsble ndependence and a soveregnty unassalable n nternatonal law. 50 In hs speech of December 28, 1949 to the Dplomatc Corps, accredted to the Holy See, Pus XII thus defned the character and purpose of the Vatcan Cty State: Is t not very sgnfcant - the confdence shown by so many Heads of State who have sent you as ther Ambassadorsto the Holy Apostolc Seeths Vatcan Cty State whose mportance cannot be llustrated by statstcs, nor measured by ts terrtoral extent nor evaluated by the strength of ts armed forces? What s ts terrtory, upon whch you have met together, f not an mperceptble pont on the globe and on the maps of the world? Nevertheless, n the sprtual order t s a symbol of great value and of unversal extenson, for t s the guarantee of the absolute ndependence of the Holy See n the accomplshment of ts worldwde msson. 51 Natonal Unversty The Holy See: a Su Geners Entty The foundng of the Vatcan Cty State defntely made vsble the ndependence of the Holy See toward the Italan State and to allow the Pope to not 49 The Lateran Pacts of 1929, Preamble 50 Cumbo, H. F. ( , Wnter). The Holy See and nternatonal law.the Internatonal Law Quaterly, 2(4), p Allocuton of December 28, 1949, Dscors e Radomessag de Sua Santa Po XII, vol. XI, p

37 only be a temporal soveregn but also the Head of the Catholc Church. Ths small state s not an end n tself but a means. The Vatcan Cty s the physcal base of the Holy See, almost a pedestal upon whch s posed a much larger and unque ndependent and soveregn authorty: that of the Holy See. The State of the Vatcan Cty has an nternatonal jurdcal state personalty and can establsh nternatonal agreements. Is has the capacty to act as a state especally n the nternatonal arena. The legal poston held by the Vatcan Cty n the nternatonal communty s ndsputable. However, t s the Holy See whch nternatonally represents Vatcan Cty State. In fact, when the Holy See enters nto agreements for Vatcan Cty State, t uses the formula: actng on behalf and n the nterest of the State of Vatcan Cty. 52 No dplomatc msson s accredted to the Pope solely n hs capacty as a temporal soveregn of the Vatcan Cty but wth the Holy See. Natonal The Holy See has a unque stuaton n nternatonal law because of ts double soveregnty, both temporal and sprtual. Moreover ths pecular character, as a non-terrtoral entty wth a legal personalty akn to that of states s consdered as an anomaly, an atypcal organsm or an entty su geners 53. The Status of the Unversty Holy See status may be unque however ts statehoodlke status cannot be dened. The soveregnty and ndependence of the Holy See s recognzed nternatonally. Currently, the Holy See has dplomatc relatons wth 179 soveregn states and n addton wth the soveregn entty, the Order of Malta and the European Unon. Ths defntely makes clear the nternatonal status of the Holy See. Thanks to ts sprtual nature, the Holy See enjoys nternatonal personalty whch s renforced by the 52 Yet, at the same tme, the Vatcan Cty s a party to some nternatonal and blateral agreements. The denomnaton Vatcan Cty State s used n texts concernng the Internatonal Telecommuncatons Unon and the Unversal Postal Unon. 53 Su geners s a Latn expresson, lterally meanng of ts own knd or unque n ts characterstcs. 24

38 foundng of ths small pece of terrtory. Thus, t has a legtmacy to be present on the nternatonal stage. Through the Holy See, the Catholc Church s the only relgous denomnaton n the world to have access to nternatonal relatons and to be concerned wth nternatonal law The Msson and Interests of the Holy See A Dplomacy at the Servce of Peace The nterests of the Holy See are very dfferent to those of other states. It doesnt seek for commercal relatons or economc and fnancal trades. It doesnt have mltary forces nor border dsputes. The Holy See s the only Organzaton whch can authortatvely entrust ts dplomatc agents wth a msson whch, beng at once relgous, poltcal and socal s entrely dedcated to peacemakng at the prncpal levels of human actvty. 54 Natonal The msson of the Holy See s the pursut of unversal peace, based on justce and charty as the prerequstes of nternatonal harmony, order and cooperaton. The peace message s the heart of the Gospel message. The Church fnds the roots of ts peacemakng n the teachngs of the Gospel: Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God. 55 Unversty Peace s not just a general condton of non-bellgerence, of cohabtaton and of non-nterference n the nternal affars of other States; t s a great poltcal edfce whch, as Popes have emphaszed n nnumerable statements, rests on the pllars of truth, justce, freedom and soldarty. Peace s a great but fragle edfce, and t requres constant care and attenton. In each of the Popes annual messages for the World Day of Peace on 1 January, vtal aspects for the protecton of peace are ndcated; smply by perusng the lst of topcs chosen as ttles for the ndvdual 54 Cardnale, I. (1976). The Holy See and the Internatonal Order, p Gospel accordng to Sant Matthew, Mt 5, 9 25

39 World Peace Day messages from 1968 untl today, one can grasp more specfcally the areas n whch the Holy Sees dplomatc actvty s conducted. 56 Peace s clearly a letmotv for the pontfcal dplomacy. It has the deal to solve the problems among natons n a peaceful manner and thus by refusng war as a soluton. The pontfcal dplomacy has been many tmes effcent n negotaton n nternatonal conflcts. The Holy See medated conflcts among rval temporal powers. Thanks to ts subtle nfluence, the Holy See succeeded n avodng world crss, war or at least delay t n some nstances. In other tmes, the nvolvement n nternatonal medaton and arbtraton of the Holy See resolved dsputes among world powers before the dsputes became hostle A Dplomacy at the Servce of Relgous Freedom As a representatve of the Catholc Church, the Holy See acts frst n the Natonal nterests of the unversal Church that s represented n the partcular and local Churches n dfferent parts of the world. It s concerned about ts Catholcs all around the world and ther relgous freedom. Pope, Pus XII, declared to the journalsts of the Foregn Press Assocaton n Rome, May 12, 1953: Unversty The Holy See s the supreme authorty of the Catholc Church and hence of a relgous socety whose goals are to be found n the supernatural and n the world beyond. Nevertheless, the Church lves n ths world. Each of her sons and daughters, 400 mllon Catholcs 57, belongs to a partcular State and people. It s always one of the essental tasks of the Holy See to see that, throughout the entre world, normal and f possble, frendly relatons may regn between Church and State; ths so that Catholcs may lve ther fath n 56 Card. Lajolo, G. (May, 10, 2007). Lecture at Sopha Unversty, Tokyo. Retreved December 17, 2011 from Presdent/2007/10_May_2007.htm 57 Accordng to the Census of the 2012 Annuaro Pontfco,Lbrera edtrce Vatcana (Pontfcal Yearbook), the number of Roman Catholcs of the world s about bllon at the end of

40 tranqulty and peace and that the Church may at the same tme, provde for the State that sold support whch t consttutes wherever t s allowed to carry on ts work. Consequently poltcal events have ther repercussons also on the Church and on the Holy See, but only ndrectly n the measure n whch,?other? n a sudden and radcal way, they alter the stuaton of the Church n a country. Yet the Church does not wsh to be and s not a poltcal power usng poltcal means for poltcal ends. It s a relgous and moral power, whose competence extends as far as the bounds of the relgous and moral sphere, and ths n turn ncludes the actvty of free responsble man, both as an ndvdual and as a member of socety. 58 The am of the Holy Sees dplomacy s not only the Lbertas Ecclesae (the freedom of the Church) but also the beneft of the whole human race. The Holy See represents the Catholc Church n the very meanng of the etymology of the term Catholc 59, whch means unversal n Greek. It doesnt seek for ts own nterests but s also concerned for the promoton of human dgnty, justce, freedom, common Natonal good, true good of man, love and truth for every human beng. The Holy See s the bearer of a message of peace for all of humanty and seeks for the freedom of every belever. By ts dplomacy, the Catholc Church wants to ncrease the protecton of the rghts of every human beng. For the Holy See, these rghts are grounded and Unversty shaped by the transcendent nature of the person, whch permt men and women to pursue ther journey of fath and ther search for God n ths world A Dplomacy at the Servce of Humanknd The Supreme government of the Church does not seek any personal advantage n ts relatonshp wth an ndvdual State, but rather the sprtual good of the people 58 Allocuton of May 12, 1953, Dscors e Radomessag d Sua Santtà Po XII, Tpographa Polglotta Vatcana, 1955, Vol. VX, pp From the Greek adjectve (katholkos) whch meansunversal 27

41 themselves whose temporal welfare s prncpally the concern of poltcal leaders. The msson of the Holy See s to promote the true welfare of the peoples and natons, to contrbute n the moral elevaton of humanknd and to the regn of peace n the world. In 1963, Pope John XXIII, n hs encyclcal letter, 60 Pacem n terrs, defends the order that should preval among men and the fundamental human rghts: Any well-regulated and productve assocaton of men n socety demands the acceptance of one fundamental prncple: that each ndvdual man s truly a person. He s a nature, that s, nature that s endowed wth ntellgence and free wll. As such he has rghts and dutes, whch together flow as a drect consequence from hs nature. These rghts and dutes are unversal and nvolable, and therefore altogether nalenable. 61 The Holy See has a very dfferent form of relatonshp wth secular states than they have wth each other; t does not recognze the valdty of war as an nstrument Natonal of natonal polcy; and t defnes ts secular enemes and alles on the bass of power n the sprtual doman. Although ecclesastcal dplomacy was able to shape and nfluence secular dplomacy n the Mddle Ages, n the modern age ths has been much less the case, snce ecclesastcal and secular dplomacy are now much more Unversty delberately compartmentalzed. 62 Cardnal Casarol underlned the mportant sprtual and moral msson of the Church n 1989 n a Dsarmament Conference: He who has the honor of addressng you today, and who s most grateful that 60 APapal encyclcal s a letter, usually treatng some aspect of Catholc doctrne, sent by the Pope and addressed ether to the Catholc bshops of a partcular area or, more normally, to the bshops of the world; however, the form of the address can vary wdely, and often desgnates a wder audence. Papal encyclcals usually take the form of a Papal bref due to ther more personal nature as opposed to the formal Papal bull. Papal encyclcals are so famous that the term encyclcal s used almost exclusvely for those sent out by the Pope. 61 Pope John XXIII. (1963). Encyclcal letter, Pacem n Terrs, 9 62 Kent, P., & Pollard, J. (1994).A dplomacy unlke any other: Papal dplomacy n the nteteenth and twenteth centures. In P. Kent, J. Pollard, P. Kent, & J. Pollard (Eds.), Papal dplomacy n the modern age Westport, CT, USA: Praegers Publshers, p

42 the opportunty of dong so has been offered to hm represents before you a power (f t s even possble to use such a term) whch has no army at all. Its arms are exclusvely of moral and sprtual nature, far removed therefore from those wth whch your Conference s concerned. 63 The Holy See represents a moral power actve n every part of the world that ams to offer a global project to the world on the sprtual and moral levels. Through soft power 64, as descrbed by Joseph S. Nye, the Holy See desres to conduct ts sprtual msson and to lead socety to hgher values of freedom, of human rghts and of peace whch s a supreme good for humanty. Its actons take place on the plane of conscences by persuason. The Holy See proceeds through dfferent channels such as publc opnon channels, dplomatc channels, or by the presence of ts representatves at the assembles held by the Internatonal Organzatons. Techncally, the dplomacy of the Vatcan s carred out through blateral dplomacy 65 and through multlateral dplomacy Concluson Natonal The Holy See s the authorty of the Pope wthn the Catholc Church; t s the Unversty nsttutonal embodment of the mnstry of the Pontff. Indeed, t has an atypcal status and s a unque entty amongst other subjects of nternatonal law but ts nternatonal personalty cannot be dened. The status of the Holy See may be an 63 Card. Casarol A., Statement at the Dsarmament Conference (February, 21, 1989) n Dupuy, A. (2003). Words that matter.the Holy See n multlateral dplomacy. New York, USA: The Path to Peace foundaton, p Soft power s a concept developed by Joseph Nye to descrbe the ablty to attract and co-opt rather than coerce and rather than usng force or money as a means of persuason. The phrase was coned by Joseph Nye of Harvard Unversty n a 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The Changng Nature of Amercan Power. 65 The blateral dplomacy of the Holy See s the relatons wth the 179 states; the sgnng of Concordats, treates that are n solemn form or accords on specfc subjects. 66 The multlateral dplomacy of the Holy See s the relatons wth governmental organzatons, essentally the Unted Natons and ts agences, the Councl of Europe, the European Communtes, the Organzaton for Securty and Cooperaton n Europe [OSCE], the Organzaton of Amercan States and the Organzaton for Afrcan Unty. 29

43 anomaly; t enjoys nternatonal jurdcal status. Unlke the other states, the presence of the Holy See s unversal. The pontfcal dplomacy takes part n the realm of nternatonal relatons as a moral voce or moral authorty. Wthout any doubt, the Holy See has been and remans a vbrant part of the nternatonal arena and ts voce speaks not just for some or for ts own people but for all of humanknd. Even though the pontfcal dplomacy has been many tmes effcent throughout ts hstory, t also has some lmts. The Pontff only uses soft power for ts dplomacy and words can be persuasve sometmes but also weak at other tmes. No one can assure the Pope that hs words wll be followed. In fact, a state wll generally lsten to the Holy See when the pontfcal dplomacy s n ts favor. A state n order to defend ts own nterests, especally on economc or poltcal ssues, wont necessarly lsten to the message of the Pope and surpass ts moral authorty. The Natonal deal of ecclesastcal dplomacy s the brotherhood of men, and whether or not t succeeds n achevng ths goal t serves as a gude for cvl dplomacy whch attempts to make reason preval over force and to contrbute to the growth of ndvdual states n harmony wth all others. In fact, accordng to ths vew, t would Unversty be a postve loss for cvl dplomacy f Vatcan dplomacy ceased to be practced. Thus, the envoys of the Holy See are sent to varous countres, not just to defend the rghts of the Church, but also to defend the rghts and to serve the needs of the people there. 67 The Holy See has dplomatc relatons wth 179 countres and among them the Republc of Chna s ncluded. The relatons of the Holy See wth the Republc of Chna are marked by mutual respect and by the shared deals of relgous freedom, human dgnty, democracy world peace and the promoton of the 67 Chao, J. (2000). The evoluton of Vatcan dplomacy.tamkang Journal of Internatonal Affars, 4 (4), p

44 greater welfare for each human beng. However, theses tes have been put to several tests. In fact, these relatons have been an ssue for the Peoples Republc of Chna to accept and to start dplomatc tes wth the Vatcan. That very ssue needs to be nvestgated through the hstory of the Sno-Vatcan relatons n order to better understand the challenges that the Holy See must face between the Republc of Chna and the Peoples Republc of Chna. Natonal Unversty 31

45 3. Hstorcal Evoluton of Sno-Vatcan Relatons 3.1. Introducton In Chna, France and Brtan took part n the Second Opum War 68 and n 1860 French troops entered Pekng. Thus, Chna was forced nto unequal treates and to gve France and Brtan enormous ndemntes. The treates granted France the rght to protect the mssonary work n Chna. Therefore, Chna had to concede to France the so-called French protectorate over the Chrstan mssons. However, the Holy See desred to free the mssons from the protecton of the colonal powers and to establsh dplomatc tes between Rome and Pekng. In 1860, Pope Pus IX sent Msgr. Lous Spelta as Apostolc vstor 69 to Chna n order to begn relatons wth the Emperor Xanfeng. 70 The Pontff also gave to Msgr. Spelta a letter for the Chnese Emperor Xanfeng to establsh a knd of conventon wth the Chnese Government, whch could protect all the Catholcs n Chna. 71 Natonal Unversty The letter stated: The Holy See frankly wants to manfest ts good wll towards Your Majesty, and strongly desre to make possble the establshment of an entente between Your Majesty and the Holy SeeWe wholeheartedly beg Your Imperal Majesty to gve protecton to all the Catholcs who lve n the mmense areas of Your Empre, as well as to all the evangelcal workers,.e., European mssonares, so that the Catholc fath can be freely preached n those regons. 68 The Second Opum War or the Anglo-French expedton to Chna was a war pttng the Brtsh Empre and the Second French Empre aganst the Qng Dynasty of Chna, lastng from 1856 to It was fought over ther conflctng vewponts on dplomatc relatons, trade, the admnstraton of justce and tea. 69 In the Catholc Church, an Apostolc vstor s a Papal representatve wth a transent msson to perform a canoncal vstaton of relatvely short duraton. The vstor s deputed to nvestgate a specal crcumstance n a docese or country, and to submt a report to the Holy See at the concluson of the nvestgaton. 70 The Emperor Xanfeng ( ), 17 July August 1861, was the nnth Emperor of the Qng Dynasty, and the seventh Qng emperor to rule over Chna, from 1850 to We, L. (1966). Le Sant-Sège, la France et la Chne sous le pontfcat de Léon XIII. Schöneck/Beckenred, Swtzerland: Les cahers de la nouvelle revue de scence mssonnare, p 8. 32

46 But unfortunately, due to the death of the Emperor Xanfeng (n 1861) and the sckness and early death of Mgr. Spelta (n 1862), the letter most lkely dd not reach ts destnaton. 72 In 1881, the Emperor Guangxu 73 nssted to have dplomatc relatons wth the Holy See. Then, n 1886, Pope Leo XIII decded to send an ApostolcNunco 74 to Chna. Nonetheless, France was opposed to the nomnaton of a dplomatc envoy and threatened to break ts dplomacy wth the Holy See From the Apostolc Delegaton to the ApostolcNuncature n Chna Archbshop Celso Costantn, Frst ApostolcDelegate to Chna After the atroctes of the Boxer Revoluton 75 Chnese Chrstans were slaughtered wthout pty, as trators, 76 of the Republc of Chna 77 where tens of thousands of and the proclamaton n 1912, Pope Benedct XV decded to accelerate the process of Sno-Vatcan relatons. Fnally, the Vatcan establshed ts frst tes wth Natonal Chna n 1922 when t sent ts ApostolcDelegate 78, Archbshop Celso Costantn, an 72 Tcozz, S. (2009, Sprng). Lou Tseng-Tsang ( ) and Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons.trpod, XXIX(152), p The Emperor Guangxu, 14 August November 1908, was the eleventh emperor of the Qng Dynasty, and the nnth Qng emperor to rule over Chna. Hs regn lasted from 1875 to ApostolcNunco s an ecclesastcal dplomatc ttle (from the Latn word, Nuntus meanng envoy). An ApostolcNunco s the equvalent of ambassadors of other countres. In Catholc countres, the Nunco often ranks above ambassadors n dplomatc protocol. 75 The Boxer Rebellon was a proto-natonalst movement by the Rghteous Harmony Socety n Chna between 1898 and 1901, opposng foregn mperalsm and Chrstanty. The uprsng took place n response to foregn spheres of nfluence n Chna, wth grevances rangng from opum traders, poltcal nvason, economc manpulaton, to mssonary evangelsm. In Chna, popular sentment remaned resstant to foregn nfluences, and anger rose over the unequal treates, whch the weak Qng state could not resst. Concerns grew that mssonares and Chnese Chrstans could use ths declne to ther advantage, appropratng lands and property of unwllng Chnese peasants to gve to the Church. Ths sentment resulted n volent revolts aganst foregn nterests. In June 1900 n Bejng, Boxer fghters threatened foregners and forced them to seek refuge n the Legaton Quarter. In response, the ntally hestant Empress Dowager Cx, urged by the conservatves of the Imperal Court, supported the Boxers and declared war on foregn powers. 76 Charbonner, J.-P.(2007). Chrstans n Chna. San Francsco, USA: Ignatus Press, p The 1911 revoluton led by Dr. Sun Yat-Sen overthrew the Qng Dynasty. In 1912, the government of the Republc of Chna was establshed n Nankng, markng the brth of the frst republc n Asa. 78 For natons wth whom the Holy See has no dplomatc tes, an ApostolcDelegate s sent to serve as a lason wth the Roman Catholc Church n that naton, though not accredted to the government of the state. ApostolcDelegates have the same ecclesastcal rank as Nuncos, but have no formal dplomatc status; though n some countres they have some dplomatc prvleges. Unversty 33

47 ecclesastcal representatve of Hs Holnessthe Pope,wth no formal dplomatc credentals. 79 In fact, before sendng Archbshop Costantn to Chna as ApostolcDelegate, the Holy See had tred to send a representatve to Chna to solve certan problems related to mssonary actvty. At that tme France had a lot of power regardng the Catholc mssons because t possessed the protectorate over them. So, when the Holy See assgned Archbshop Costantn to Chna, t took specal care to request that he mantaned absolute secrecy about hs assgnment. 80 The Pope entrusted hm to apply to Chna the sprt of hs Apostolc letter Maxmum llud 81 n order to renew the understandng of the Chrstan Mssons n Asan countres. Pope Benedct XV wanted to create a better way for the Catholc Church to evangelze for the progress of mssonary actvtes especally at that tme of the growth of natonalsm n Chna. The task of Archbshop Costantn was then to accommodate the evangelzaton work, to take care of the local Natonal Churches n consderng ther own cultures and to establsh the natve bshops. Benedct XV wanted Archbshop Celso Costantn to free the Holy See from the protectorate system and ts natonalstc mplcatons, to elmnate the nfluence of European powers and to reshape the theology n Chna. Unversty When Archbshop Costantn arrved n Chna, the Catholc Church was stll under foregn mssonary control. Nonetheless on hs arrval, wth zeal, he mmedately began to push for mplementaton of the drectves outlned by Pope Benedct XV n hs mssonary apostolc letter Maxmum llud. Before leavng for 79 Chan, G. (1989, December). Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons: Problems and Prospects. Chna Quarterly, 120, p Chong, F. (2008, Sprng). Cardnal Celso Costantn and the Chnese Catholc Church.Trpod, XXVIII (148), p Maxmum Illud s an Apostolc letter of Benedct XV ssued on 30 November 1919 n the sxth year of hs pontfcate. It deals wth the Catholc mssons after World War I. 34

48 Chna, Cardnal Von Rossum, the Prefect of Propaganda Fde 82, exhorted Archbshop Costantn: Make every effort to mplement the thought of the encyclcal Maxmum Illud. The most urgent matter s to hold the natonal councl of bshops meetng as soon as possble. 83 Two years after hs arrval, Costantn succeeded n holdng the so-called Frst Councl of Chna, n Shangha from May 15 to June 13, He convened all the foregn heads of Catholc mssons n Chna, Delegates of varous mssonary nsttutes, and representatves of the Chnese clergy to plan a general reform of the Catholc Church n Chna. Together, they addressed pressng problems, such as the tenson between natve and foregn prests, the promoton of the Chnese clergy and the ordnaton of Chnese bshops, the creaton of new commssons for the work of Natonal the apostolate, and the lberaton of the Church from the poltcal nfluence of the French protectorate. 84 Thanks to the work of Costantn, PrefecturesApostolc 85 were headed by Chnese prelates, Chnese prests n ncreasng number acceded to mportant postons and mssonary tranng began to emphasze understandng of Unversty and respect for Chnese culture. In October 1926, Pope Pus XI ordaned sx Chnese bshops (the frst such ordnatons snce 1685). By 1933, when Costantn fnshed hs mandate, 19 of the exstng 119 ecclesastcal terrtores were n Chnese 82 Now called Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples. 83 Chong, F. (2008, Sprng). op. ct., p West, J.-P. C. (December 2005). Celso Bengno Lug Costantn, Chna Bographcal Dctonary of Chnese Chrstanty, Shangha. Retreved August 25, 2011, from 85 An Apostolc prefect (or prefect Apostolc) s a prest who heads what s known as an ApostolcPrefecture, a mssonary area where the Catholc Church s not yet suffcently developed to have t made a docese. If a Prefecture grows and flourshes, t s elevated to an Apostolc vcarate, headed by a ttular bshop, n the hope that wth tme the regon wll generate enough Catholcs and stablty for ts Catholc nsttutons, to warrant beng establshed as a docese. 35

49 hands. The prelate also contrbuted to the dea that the Chnese had prmary responsblty for convertng ther own people when he founded, n 1926, the Dscples of the Lord (C.D.D) 86, a Chnese relgous congregaton for the purpose of mpartng the mssonary sprt to the local clergy. 87 The most mportant Costantns contrbuton to mprovng relatons between the Church and the Republc of Chna was n makng Chrstanty compatble wth Chnese culture. 88 Costantn, strongly advocated the development of Chnese forms of expresson and, through hs nfluence, Chnese-style buldngs, statues, mages, and musc began to gan acceptance n the Catholc Church. He s also credted wth the establshment of Fu Jen Unversty n Pekng as Chnas frst catholc unversty. The presence and the work of Costantn made possble to mprove the relatons between the Holy See and Chna. Hs nomnaton was an unoffcal way of Natonal ndcatng the end of Frances specal protectorate over the mssons, although the Delegate was not accredted as a Nunco to the Chnese government. Nevertheless the Chnese authortes were apprecatve of ths move; at the funeral of Sun Yat-sen n 1925, Archbshop Costantn receved the same honors as the members of the Unversty dplomatc corps. 89 After ten years n Chna, Archbshop Costantn left n February 1933 and was apponted Secretary of the Propaganda Fde n Rome. On November 28, 1933, Pus XI assgned Archbshop Marus Zann to ths very same post. Even though, ths new ApostolcDelegate was not a formal dplomatc envoy, he was receved n Nanjng by Presdent Ln Sen on March 14, Congregaton of the Dscples of the Lord (Congregato Dscpulorum Domn, CDD) 87 West, J.-P. C. (December 2005). Ibd. 88 Ta, R. (2002). The Vatcan's Dlemma: Tape and/or Bejng? In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p Charbonner, J. (2007). op. ct., p

50 The Holy See and the Manchukuo Durng that perod, Chna had to face both the cvl war 90 and the Japanese nvason. It s mportant to recall ths epsode of the Japanese nvason n Northern Chna n order to clearly understand the poston of the Church and ts polcy. Indeed, the presence of the Holy See n the Japanese occuped terrtores has been msnterpreted and used as proof of a supposed malcous polcy of the Pope toward Chna. To recall ths epsode of Hstory, wll help to understand the am of the Church n Chna and ts real nterests. It wll also show that the Holy See dd not have any polcy to harm Chna as sometmes s thought by some or s used by others to justfy any mstrust of Chna toward the Church. In March 1932, the Japanese created the state of Manchukuo, consdered by Natonal most hstorans as a puppet state of the Empre of Japan, and nstalled Puy as the ruler of ths new state. In 1934, Pu Y, the last Qng Emperor of Chna, was offcally crowned the emperor of Manchukuo. The League of Natons refused to recognze the legalty of Manchukuo. Ths moral sancton obvously could not be gnored by Unversty the moral authorty of the Vatcan. 91 However, the Catholc Church had vcars and prefects Apostolc n charge of the ten mssons n the Manchukuo: eght mssons n Manchura plus the two provnces of Jehol and Hngan whch were then annexed to the Empre. As mentoned prevously n the chapter 2, the Holy See,as representatve 90 The Chnese cvl ( ) war confronted the Chnese Natonalst Party (Kuomntang, KMT) governng the Republc of Chna and the Chnese Communst Party (CCP). 91 Charbonner, J. (2002). Dd the Vatcan establsh dplomatc relatons wth the Manchukuo? In The Internatonal Symposum on the Hstory of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons (, Zh ng fàn wàj o gu nxì sh guójì xuéshù yánt o huì lùnwén jí). Zh nghuá mínguó j shíy nán shí'èr yuè. Tape, Tawan, ROC: Mnstry of Foregn Affars of the Republc of Chna and the Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty (, Zh nghuá mínguó wàj o bù zànzhù t nzh jào f rén dàxué lìsh xì yìnxíng), p

51 of the Catholc Church, s concerned about ts Catholcs throughout the world and wth ther relgous freedom. Consequently, thepropaganda Fde entrusted Msgr.Auguste Gaspas, ttular bshop of Canope and Vcar Apostolc of Krn, the task of representng ad tempus, donec alter provdeaturthe Holy See and Catholc Mssons to the Manchukuo Government. It s mportant to emphasze that ths msson was entrusted to hm by the Propaganda Fde whch deals wth relgous matters only and not by the Secretarat of State whch deals wth dplomatc relatons. 92 The Japanese were eager to obtan offcal recognton from the Vatcan. Well aware of Romes reluctance, they dd everythng to let people beleve n an offcal recognton of Manchukuo. 93 On hs sde, wthout any possblty to contact the ApostolcDelegate, Msgr. Zann n Pekng, Msgr. Gaspas felt helpless n dealng Natonal wth the Japanese requrements and urged the Roman authortes to send a Delegate to the newly establshed Manchukuo government; but that request was categorcally dened by the Holy See. The Propaganda Fde proposed Msgr. Gaspas hmselfas a representatve of the Holy See to deal wth the local government on ssues Unversty concernng the Church. However, Bshop Gaspas wth hs heavy pastoral dutes was not enthusastc n havng the task of representatve. Rome repled by offerng hm the possblty to appont a coadjutor bshop Msgr. Charles Lemare. 94 The perspcacty of the Holy See and ts smart way to face Manchukuo were 92 Charbonner, J. (2002). Ibd., p The Japanese nvted Msgr. Gaspas to offcal receptons together wth the ambassadors and he receved decoratons. He was present at the ceremony of enthronement of Emperor Puy n the newly bult palace of Changchun. He receved a frst medal n 1935 as a recognton of hs socal servces. In 1937, Bshop Gaspas receved the medal ofgrand Offcer of the Order of Natonal Support. In Charbonner, J. (2002).Ibd., pp Father Lemare was superor of the Krn Semnary and was consecrated as a coadjutor on November 15,

52 destned to have long-term repercussons on the Holy Sees relatons wth the Peoples Republc of Chna. The Holy See was n fact depcted by Maost propaganda as an accomplce of the Japanese occupers and the Catholc Church as an agency of foregn mperalsm. 95 Through the decades, the Manchukuo affar has been presented as proof of the Roman Catholc Churchs supposed malevolence toward the Chnese naton and used by Bejng 96 as a justfcaton for ts mstrust and hostlty toward the Holy See and the Chnese Catholcs loyal to the Pope. 97 Bshop Lemare, referrng to the Vatcans ntentons wrote ths: Natonal The Vatcan never recognzed the legtmacy of the Manchukuo Government, nether the legtmacy of Japanese power n Manchura nor the legtmacy of the Imperal power of Puy and of hs Manchu mnsters. The Vatcan was too much aware of the stuaton to be caught, too sncere, too respectful of the volated rghts of Chna and of the sufferngs of the Chnese populaton n Manchura, a populaton humlated and reduced to slence by a State polce omnpresent and omnpotent, to act a fool play n seemng to recognze that government and have wth t dplomatc relatons. On the other hand, the Holy See could not reman ndfferent to the stuaton of the Church n Manchura The Vatcan was present n Chna through an ApostolcDelegate resdng n Pekng. But the Japanese forbade the Mssons heads (Vcars and Prefects Apostolc) to have any relaton wth ths ApostolcDelegate Therefore Rome had to nomnate or to send someone wth the powers t was necessary for the nternal and sprtual lfe of the Unversty 95 Photos of Msgr. Gaspas attendng offcal receptons held by the puppet Emperor of Manchukuo Pu Y have been used extensvely frst by the Japanese as a means of ganng nternatonal support to ther polcy n Chna and later by the Chnese Communst regme n ther struggle aganst Foregn mperalsm. In Charbonner, J. (2002).op. ct., p On the State Admnstraton for Relgous Affars of the Peoples Republc of Chna, we can read an artcle on Freedom of Relgous Belef, 16 October 1997, They [Catholc mssonares] obstructed and opposed Chna's struggle aganst fascsm and the Chnese people's revoluton. After Japan nvaded Northeast Chna the Vatcan took a stand whch was, n fact, supportng the Japanese aggresson. It took the lead n recognzng the puppet Manchukuo regme set up by the Japanese and sent a representatve there. From State admnstraton for relgous affars of PRC. (1997, October 16). Freedom of Relgous Belef n Chna- (Zh ngguó de z ngjào xìny ng zìyóu zhuàngkuàng).prc.retreved November 12, 2011, from 97 Bozzato, F. (2009). Heavenly Powers: Holy See Dplomacy toward Chna (Unpublshed master's thess). Unversty of Tasmana, p

53 Church. 98 Ths defntely explans that the real man motvaton of Holy See was to safeguard the nterests of the local Church n Manchukuo and not to gve any recognton to ths new terrtory. 99 Even though, one can say that we should probably recognze that the Church compromsed n some ways wth the Japanese power and gave the mpresson that Japanese encroachments n Chna could be tolerated. 100 The Holy See and the Republc of Chna started formal dplomatc relatons n these dffcult crcumstances wth the Manchukuo and n the context of the Second World War Archbshop Antono Rber, Frst Internunco of the Holy See to Chna It was not untl 1942 when French nfluence subsded followng nternatonal poltcal changes and when France realzed that t could no longer hold onto the Natonal Chnese Church that the Vatcan establshed dplomatc relatons wth Chna. 101 Lou Tseng-Tsang 102, who was Premer of the Republc of Chna and Chnas Unversty Foregn Affars mnster,played a meanngful role n Chnas contacts wth the Vatcan. He summarzed hs attempts, as Chnas Foregn Mnster, to establsh dplomatc relatons between Chna and the Holy See n the followng way: 98 Charbonner, J. (2002). op. ct., p Once Pope Pus XI told Cardnal Costantn after an audence on December 11, 1937 : «Rmanere vgltant e mparzal. Non dare ncarch a Mons. Gaspas, perchè gappones drebbero subto che l Papa ha reconoscuto l nuovo regme nel nord della Cna» (my translaton : Reman vglant and mpartal. Do not gve any assgnement to Msgr Gaspas, for the Japanese would mmedately say that the Pope had recognzed the new regme of North-East Chna). In Charbonner, J. (2002).Ibd., p Charbonner, J. (2002).I op. ct., p Chan, G. (1989, December).op. ct., p Lou Tseng-Tsang was a Chnese dplomat and then a Benedctne monk n Bruges, Belgum. At the proclamaton of the Chnese Republc n 1912, he joned the Party of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, and served as Foregn. He also served as Prme Mnster. Later, he converted to Catholcsm and became a monk. Hs monastc name was Perre-Célestn. 40

54 In 1917, the opportunty to proceed further was offered to me. I proposed that the Government reach an agreement wth the Holy See n order to establsh dplomatc relatons between the Republc and the Holy See. And snce such a proposal was accepted, I started contacts wth the Vatcan, who at once gave ther consent The nterventon and the systematc opposton of a great European power, that declared that t was actng to protect the Mssons, forced us to gve up the project... The project had to wat untl February 1943, more than a quarter of a century later, to be acheved. 103 In March 1942, the Chnese msson to the Unted States expressed the desre to establsh formal relatons wth the Holy See and n June, Amleto Govann Ccognan, the ApostolcDelegate n Washngton D.C. gave, upon nstructons, a postve response to the Chnese Embassy. 104 Dr. Hseh Shou-kang, Chargé daffares 105 of Chna n Swtzerland, was assgned as the frst Extraordnary Envoy and Plenpotentary Mnster of the Republc of Chna to the Holy See and hs Natonal nomnaton was offcally announced on October 23, 1942, n the Holy Sees newspaper, LOsservatore Romano.He fnally arrved n Rome n January 1943, and presented hs credental letters to Pope Pus XII on February Ths decson had been prepared through the good offces of Lou Tseng-Tsang and was also probably Unversty 103 Dom Lou Tseng-tsang. (1945) Souvenrs et Pensées (Pars, Désclée de Brouwer, 1945), pp n Tcozz, S. (2009, Sprng).op. ct., p ApostolcNuncature to Chna. (2002). In celebraton of the 60 years of ROC/Holy See Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, p Chargés d'affares (mnstres chargés d'affares), who were placed by the règlement of the Congress of Venna n the fourth class of dplomatc agents, are heads of permanent mssons accredted to countres to whch, for some reason, t s not possble or not desrable to send agents of a hgher rank (although the countres mantan dplomatc relatons). 106 As representant of a country n war aganst the Kngdom of Italy, Hseh Shou-kang needed to reman wthn the fronters of the Vatcan Cty State. The Vatcan tred to delay the arrval of Dr. Hseh by tellng hm that hs apartment was not yet ready. It was a way for the Holy See to offcally announce the establshment of the dplomatc relatons wth Chna as late as possble. The announcement was done on October 22, 1942, that s to say sx months after the arrval on Aprl 24, 1942 of Ken Harada, the Japanese representant to the Vatcan. Hseh Shou-Kang fnally presented hs credentals to the Pope Pus XII on February 25, 1943, when one can reasonably thnk that Japan wll perhaps take a long tme to lose the war, but certanly not wn t. From the note n. 16 p. 353 of Ladous, R., & Blanchard, P. (2010). Le Vatcan et le Japon dans la guerre de la Grande Ase orentale, la msson de Marella. Pars, France: Desclée de Brouwer. 41

55 precptated by the fact that Japan, at the same tme, obtaned dplomatc relatons wth the Holy See. Indeed, Ken Harada was sent by Japan to Rome as ts frst dplomatc representatve to the Vatcan n He should have receved the ttle of Envoy Extraordnary and Mnster Plenpotentary 107 to the Holy See but Pus XII gave hm unlaterally 108 the rank of ambassador 109. Therefore because of ths fact, t s easly understandable that Chna could not be outdone. Three years later Archbshop Antono Rber was sent by the Vatcan as the frst Internunco 110 to Nankng, where the Natonalst government of the Republc of Chna was relocated. The Apostolc Delegaton to Chna became then an Apostolc Internuncature n Holy See s Polcy n Chna from Pope Pus XII to Pope Benedct XVI Pope Pus XII Natonal In 1945, Japanese occupyng forces were defeated n Chna and Archbshop Zann went to Chongqng to celebrate the Japanese surrender. In February 1946, Pope Pus XII elevated for the frst tme n hstory a Chnese Bshop to the rank of Cardnal. It was Bshop Tan Geng Xn who was then apponted as Archbshop of Unversty Bepng 111, Hebe provnce. Then, Pus XII apponted Bshop Paul Yu Bn as 107 An Envoy s a head of msson, not consdered a representatve of the head of state, but nonetheless wth plenpotentary powers (.e. full authorty to represent the government). 108 At that tme, the representant of the Pope n Japan kept hs rank as ApostolcDelegate. The Apostolc delegaton was not yet elevated to Nuncature. 109 Ladous, R., & Blanchard, P. (2010). Le Vatcan et le Japon dans la guerre de la Grande Ase orentale, la msson de Marella. Pars, France: Desclée de Brouwer, p Ken Harada was a chargé d'affares of Japan to Vchy France and a dplomat to the Holy See from Japan. He was apponted as a specal envoy to the Vatcan, and served n ths capacty from 1942 to He was the frst dplomatc representatve to the Vatcan from Japan. 110 Ta, R. (2002). op. ct., p Through the long hstory of Chna, the cty has taken on numerous names.. In 1421 when the Yongle Emperor moved the captal of the Mng Dynasty north from Nanjng n Jangsu Provnce, he renamed the cty Bejng. In 1928, when the captal of the Republc of Chna was moved to Nanjng, the cty was renamed Bepng, meanng Northern Peace. In 1949, when the Communst Party of Chna made the cty the captal of the newly founded People's Republc of Chna, the cty's name agan reverted to Bejng. 42

56 Archbshop of Nankng, Jansu provnce and Zhou J Sh the Archbshop of Nanchang n Jangx Provnce. Thus, the Pope showed hs care for Chna 112 by establshng offcally the Chnese Herarchy n Aprl Then, on July 6, Antono Rber arrved as frst Internunco n Chna. In the same year, talks between the Chnese Natonalst government (KMT) of General Chang Ka-shek and the Chnese Communst Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong broke down. Thus, a cvl war erupted and ended wth the vctory of the Communsts over the Natonalsts, who were fellow ctzens. On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong announced the foundng of the People's Republc of Chna at Tananmen Square n Bejng. The new Chnese Communst government affrmed ts ndependence of all foregn mperalsm and the dplomatc corps was compelled to leave. Sno-Vatcan relatons worsened wth the establshment of the People's Natonal Republc of Chna. The new Chna was hostle to anythng remnscent of western mperalsm, ncludng the Roman Catholc Church. Foregn prests were expelled, and many natve prests fled overseas for fear of persecuton. Archbshop Antono Rber, the frst ApostolcInternunco to Chna snce 1946, chose to stay behnd n Unversty Nanjng (the captal of the Natonalst Government), to contnue hs pastoral dutes even though the rest of the foregn dplomatc corps had left wth the Natonalst Government. Indeed, the prmary and constant preoccupaton of the Holy See s the fate and welfare of Catholcs wherever they are. Usng ths lne of conduct, Antono 112 In Aprl 1946, Pus XII created a terrtoral herarchy n Chna; no longer were bshops to be vcars Apostolc wth Delegated jursdcton as ttular bshops of nomnal sees. From now on they had ther own terrtoral doceses n Chna, bearng the name of Chnese ctes. The Church was dvded nto twenty ecclesastcal provnces, each under the authorty of an archbshop. Wthn these provnces, seventy-nne doceses were created, each under a bshop, and there were stll thrty-eght PrefecturesApostolc. Two years later, n July 1948, there were twenty archbshoprcs, eghty-four bshoprcs, and thrty-fve PrefecturesApostolc, gvng a total of 139 ecclesastcal crcumscrptons. In Charbonner, J. (2007).op. ct., p Charbonner, J. (2007). op. ct., p

57 Rber stayed n Chna and expected a possble soluton to preserve dplomatc relatons wth the newly establshed government. However, n March 1951 the Archbshop ssued a pastoral letter Ecce Domnus 114 addressed to all the bshops and prests remanng n the country urgng them not to take part n the Three Autonomes Movement (self-government, self-support and self-propagaton) promoted by the new regme n the admnstraton of Church affars. 115 The relgous polcy of the Communsts was nspred on athestc materalsm and amed to the gradual transformaton of all relgons nto an nstrument of Socalst reconstructons. The Trple Autonomy Movement was n fact a poltcal campagn, Communst n nspraton. Admnstratve autonomy means beng drected by the Party and rejectng all mperalst nfluence; economc autonomy means fnancng oneself by productve actvtes and possbly grants from the state, whle refusng all mperalst subsdes, especally Amercan ones,; autonomy n the apostolate means Natonal propagatng the fath by Chnese people, usng Chnese theology and rejectng all foregn mssonares who are saboteurs, spes, secret, agents, reactonares, antrevolutonares, etc. 116 Archbshop Antono Rber tred hs best to create tes wth the newly establshed Communst government of Chna whch dd not accept Unversty hm as a dplomat. The Communsts even referred to hm as the Monegasque ctzen snce he was born n Monaco. Because of hs pastoral letter aganst the Trple Autonomy and hs gudelnes aganst the Patrotc Movement Party, the Communst authortes accused hm of colludng wth colonalsm and mperalsm n explotng the Chnese; on September 5, 1951 they expelled hm. Despte the reactons of the Chnese Communst authortes aganst the Catholc 114 The Ttle of the pastoral letter Ecce Domnus means Here s the Lord. 115 Chan, G. (1989, December). op. ct d., p Charbonner, J. (2007).op. ct., p

58 Church, the Holy See has always shown goodwll toward Chna. Indeed, Pope Pus XII reacted mmedately after the expulson of ts Internunco by addressng the encyclcal letter, Cupmus n prms 117, to the bshops, to the prests and to the fathful of Chna, n whch he stated: We desre above all to manfest our burnng affecton for the whole Chnese naton. In ths letter, the Pontff expressed hs esteem for Chna but deplored that the Church was consdered as an enemy of Chna. The Pope recalled that the Church s at the servce of God and does not seek any earthly advantages. He encouraged the Chnese Catholcs to resst the Communst persecuton. On October 7, 1954, he wrote another encyclcal letter enttled Ad snarum gentem 118 refutng accusatons made aganst Catholcs n Chna, emphaszng that Catholcs were not less patrotc Natonal than others. He warned of the dangerous prncples underlyng the movement of the Three Autonomes. He also advocated a certan autonomy for the Church of Chna, provded t remaned n loyal submsson to Rome. However, the Communst government responded wth arrest and oppresson. It marked the begnnng of the Unversty underground Church. From then, celebratons of Mass took place n prvate houses and Catholcs began to lve under the permanent threat of denuncaton, mprsonment and torture. Mao Zedong launched campagns of purfcaton wth the purpose of oustng hs supposed enemes untl reachng the establshment of the Cultural Revoluton. In 1957 the Chnese Catholcs Patrotc Assocaton (CCPA) was establshed to consttute the nucleus of a Natonal Church separated from Rome. 117 Cupmus prms means We desre above all. The text can be retreved on the webste of the Vatcan, Ad snarum gentem means to the Chnese people. The text can be retreved on the webste of the Vatcan, 45

59 At the same tme, n July, Pus XII wrote Prayer for the Church of Slence, where he prayed for both the persecuted and ther oppressors wthout mentonng Chna. Between 1957 and 1962, the Natonal Church elected for tself forty-fve bshops despte Pus XIIs strong reprobaton and threats wth excommuncaton of the consecrated bshops as well as consecrators. These bshops of the Natonal Church were to work wth the remanng twenty prevously apponted by Rome. 119 On June 29, 1958, Pope Pus XII wrote a thrd letter to the Catholcs of Chna, AdApostolorum prncps 120, n whch he made a clear condemnaton of communsm and the Patrotc Assocaton. In ths document, he also expressed hs sadness when learnng that certan bshops n Chna were elected and consecrated outsde the tradton and dscplne of the Church. 121 For Hm, the Patrotc Church was n a state of schsm. The Pontff n AdApostolorum prncps stated: For under an appearance of patrotsm, whch n realty s just a fraud, ths assocaton ams prmarly at makng Catholcs gradually embrace the tenets of athestc materalsm, by whch God Hmself s dened and relgous prncples are rejected. Natonal Unversty Pope Pus XII hmself was from a well-known famly n Rome, even before he was ordaned as a prest. Ever snce he was the PapalNunco to Germany, he had been well known for hs ant-communst atttude. When he was made the Secretary of State to the Vatcan, hs personalty and hs famly connectons enabled hm to have warm relatons wth the rght-wng leaders n Italan poltcal crcles and he had 119 Cardnale, I. (1976). The Holy See and the Internatonal Order. Toronto: Gerrards Cross : Smythe, p Ad Apostolorum prncpsmeans At the tomb of the Prnce of the Apostles. The text can be retreved on the webste of the Vatcan In Ad Apostolorum prncps, Pus XII argued on the valdty of epscopal ordnaton nsde the Patrotc Church and ts llct character : Acts requrng the power of Holy Orders whch are performed by ecclesastcs of ths knd, though they are vald as long as the consecraton conferred on them was vald, are yet gravely llct, that s, crmnal and sacrlegous. 46

60 a consderable amount of nfluence n general electons. Above all, the Amercan Cardnal Spellman was a close frend of Pope Pus XII, and through Spellman the Roman Cura got a great amount of fnancal support from the Catholc Church of Amerca. Gven ths poltcal background, one has no dffculty n understandng why Mao Zedong vewed the Vatcan as one of the mperalsts when the US and ts assocates were regarded as the great mperalsts and lackeys. 122 The algnment of the Holy See wth the western powers aganst the communst block after the Second World War was one of the dffcultes that mpared ts relatons wth the Communst Government. Chna was aware of the ferce struggle of Pope Pus XII aganst communsm and consdered Rome as an enemy. Indeed, Pus XII rejected communsm however untl hs death n October 1958, he dd hs best to create frendly tes and never ceased to open the doors of dalogue wth Chna even though the stuaton was very complex. Pus XII, who nsttuted the sacred herarchy n Natonal Chna, deplored the epscopal consecratons that had taken place wthout Romes agreement as a very serous act of dsobedence. Ths call to order contnues to wegh heavly to ths day on the conscences of many bshops, many of whom appled secretly to Rome askng to be recognzed. 123 Unversty Pope John XXIII Immedately after hs pontfcal electon on October 28, 1958, Pope John XXIII was concerned about the ssues of the Church n Chna. At the consstory 124 of December 1958, 125 John XXIII renewed the condemnaton of hs predecessor for the 122 Leung, B. (1992). Sno-Vatcan Relatons: Problems n Conflctng Authorty, CamBrdge, Unted Kngdom: CamBrdge Unversty Press, p Charbonner, J. (2007). op. ct., p A consstory s a formal meetng of the Sacred College of Cardnals of the Roman Catholc Church, except when convened to elect a new Pope (n whch case the meetng s called a conclave). 125 At ths consstory Pope John XXIII stated :It s Our wsh, furthermore, that Our voce (Our admontons and nvtatons) should reach also to those who have shown themselves to be weak, 47

61 acts of the Patrotc Church and the problem of the ordnatons of patrotc bshops that paved the way for a deplorable attempt at schsm. 126 / 127 However, the word schsm was not used agan. In A letter to the Herarchy n Formosa, 128 Pope John XXIII expresses hs sadness at seeng the Manland Chnese suffer and also at seeng what once seemed so hopeful, lyng n runs. He tred to provde the opportunty for reconclaton wth the Patrotc Church n Chna by prayng that grace wll reach and llumne the mnds of the beclouded and vacllatng conscences of those who have taken the wrong sde PopePaul VI Paul VI became Pope on June 21, 1963 and mmedately after hs electon, sent a message to the Chnese leaders to contnue the work of Pus XII and John XXIII. He recalled the care of the Catholc Church toward natons and specfcally toward Chna: Natonal To belong to the Church does not weaken the love of the Chnese Catholc waverng, and frghtened ; to be explct, those who have taken over the places and Sees of sacred pastors by unlawful means and thus, unfortunately, have paved the way for a deplorable schsm. In JohnXXIII. (1958). An address of Pope XXIII to a secret consstory of the College of Cardnals, December 15, In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons.(2002).Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p Catholc Church.(1983). Code of Canon Law, Latn - Englsh. Vatcan Cty: Lbrera Edtrce Vatcana, Can Schsm s the wthdrawal of submsson to the Supreme Pontff or from communon wth the members of the Church subject to hm. 127 Pope John XIII n an address n 1959 recalled the word schsm he used at the consstory n 1958: Pus XII, of venerable memory, repeatedly lamented the sad stuaton whch confronted the Church n some countres. And We, from the very frst days of Our pontfcate, made hs lament and hs sorrow Our own, for We were faced by a persecuton affectng mllons of Our fathfull, of dfferent natonaltes and languages. Especally n Our Consstaral address of December 15 of last year, n speakng of a people very dear to Us, we ponted out to the world, chartably but truthfully, that there were some who were anxous to provoke a grevous schsm.in JohnXXIII. (1959). In Sorrows and Joys of the Church, Address of Pope John XXIII to the Fathful on May 17, In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), 2006,Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Center, p JohnXXIII. (1961). Letter to the Herarchy n Formosa, 29 June In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), 2006, Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Center,pp Unversty 48

62 for the country; on the contrary, t renforces t and makes the Catholcs partcpate n the sprt of responsblty to the securty, the peace and progress of the country. The Church does not want to domnate, but to serve. 129 Pope Paul VI tred to contact the Communst authortes durng the years 1963 to 1965 for the Catholc Bshops of Chna to attend the so-called Second Vatcan Councl 130 but t was unsuccessful. He sent another message of Peace to Presdent Mao Zedong on December 31, 1965, but a few months later Chna started the Cultural Revoluton. The Church n Chna was then persecuted and cut off from the World for ten years. In 1959, the Republc of Chna rased ts Vatcan msson to ambassadoral status. However, t was only n 1966 that the Vatcan elevated ts Internuncature n Tape to the Status of Nuncature; 131 Natonal Unversty that s to say t was an elevaton from the level of legaton to that of embassy n cvl dplomacys termnology. The seven-year gap, from 1959 to 1966, between Tawans rasng ts level of representaton to the Holy See on the one hand, and the Vatcans recprocaton on the other, can be seen as an attempt by the latter to wat for an opportunty to mprove relatons wth Chna. 132 In 1965, durng one of hs vsts to the Unted Natons, Pope Paul VI appealed to the western powers to welcome Chna among the UN members. In fact, Paul VI desred to save the poston of Tawan at the Unted Natons but at the same tme he advocated the entry of Chna. By ths, he expected to facltate the msson of the 129 PaulVI. (1963). Message to Chnese Leaders. In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: (p. 141). Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Study Center. 130 The Second Vatcan Councl took place to gve a sprtual renewal to Catholc Church and reconsder ts poston n the modern world. 131 Apostolc Nuncature to Chna. (2002). op. ct., p Chan, G. (1989, December). op. ct., p

63 Holy See on the Manland and be able to protect Manland Chnese Catholcs. In hs Epphany dscourse of 1967, Pope Paul VI called for better relatons wth the Manland Chnese people, for whch, he sad, the Catholc Church had always professed profound sympathy. Other overtures were made by hm n hs speech to the F.A.O 133 n 1970, ten days before he undertook hs trp to the Far East, and agan durng hs stop at Hong Kong, where he sent hs cordal and sncere greetng to all the Chnese people, wherever they may be. On the other hand, the Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the Geneva Offce of the Unted Natons Organzaton prased Communst Chna for ts exemplary respect of tradtonal Chnese values n the tranng of ts workers durng a speech he gave at a meetng of the Internatonal Labor Organzaton n PopeJohn Paul II Natonal Mao Zedong ded on September 9, 1976 and many thngs changed n Chna. For many years Zhou Enla and Deng Xaopng had been tryng to launch a bg campagn for modernzaton. Fnally, n 1978, after the death of Charman Mao, the Thrd Plenum of the XIth Congress of the Party resolutely adopted the new polcy of Unversty reform and openness. A realstc slogan was produced for the occason: Seek the truth n the facts. 135 On October 16, 1978, Karol Wojty a, a Polsh cardnal from a Communst country, became Pope John Paul II. At the same tme, reforms and socal changes started n Chna. Indeed, Chna, led by Deng Xaopng n 1978, began to emerge from ts solaton wth a modernzaton polcy. Thus, there emerged the possblty 133 Food and Agrculture Organzaton of the Unted Natons (F.A.O) 134 Cardnale, I. (1976). op. ct, p Charbonner, J. (2007). op. ct., p

64 for dalogue wth the possble resultng establshment of a SnoVatcan Concordat. The Open Door Polcy,that was a part of the modernzaton program ntated at the Partys Thrd Plenum n December 1978, provded the Vatcan wth a longed-for opportunty to fnd out about the real stuaton n Chna. The long slence, especally durng the ten years of the Cultural Revoluton, kept the Vatcan from makng any accurate observaton and contact. 136 The Vatcan tred all possble means to establsh contacts wth Chna for the purpose of ntatng a Sno-Vatcan dalogue n order to work out ther dfferences. It was hoped that a Sno-Vatcan rapprochement could be developed now that Chna had begun to come out from ts solaton and nvolve tself n nternatonal affars, both on global and regonal levels. 137 In 1981, Pope John Paul II went to Manla and met wth the representatves of the Chrstans of Overseas Chnese Communtes. In hs speech True Chrstans Natonal and Authentc Chnese, he clarfed the Vatcans polcy on Chna. He prased the Chnese Culture and Hstory and recalled that Chnese Catholcs are called to be good Chnese ctzens. He explctly wanted to create tes of trust wth Chna and to mprove Sno-Vatcan relatons. In that speech, Pope John Paul II reaffrmed to Unversty Chna the msson of the Church: In proclamng Jesus-Chrst as the eternal Son of God and Savor of the world, the Church has no am than to be fathful to the msson entrusted to her by her Dvne Founder. She has no poltcal or economc goals; she has no worldly msson. She wants to be, n Chna as n any other country, the herald of the Kngdom of God. She desres not prvleges, but only that all those who follow Chrst may be able to express ther fath freely and publcly 136 Leung, B. (1992).op. ct., p Ibd., p

65 and lve accordng to ther conscences. 138 All along hs pontfcate, John Paul II sent many messages of frendshp to Chna n the hope of rapprochement. In hs address to the Bshops of the World nvtng them to pray for the Church n Chna, he stated: Concern for the Church n Chna, whch was always so deeply felt by my recent predecessors Pus XII, John XXIII, Paul VI and John Paul I, has become the partcular and constant anxety of my pontfcate, as I have shown more than once and n varous ways. Ths anxety sprngs from the very nature of the catholcty of the Church, whch s one and unversal, multple n the varety of peoples whch compose t and at the same tme dentcal n the foundaton of the fath and n the bond of communon. 139 On 25 October 1982, at the commemoraton of the fourth centenary of Matteo Rcc's arrval n Chna, held n Rome at the Gregoran Unversty, Pope John Paul II Natonal referred to Rcc's restored tomb n Bejng as a symbol of dalogue and stated: The tomb of Matteo Rcc n Bejng brngs to mnd the gran of wheat hdden n the earth n order to bear abundant frut. It consttutes an eloquent appeal, both to Rome and to Bejng, to resume that dalogue begun by hm four hundred years ago wth so much love and so much success. 140 Unversty On March 4-6, 1986, the Holy See called a meetng and gathered experts n order to help the Roman Cura to understand the specfc stuaton of the Catholc 138 JohnPaul II. (1981). True Chrstans and authentc Chnese, February 18, In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), 2006, Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Center, p JohnPaulII. (1982). Pope's letter to Bshops of the World nvtng them to pray for the Church n Chna.InA Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. (2002). Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p JohnPaulII. (1982). Fr. Matteo Rcc establshed a Brdge between the Church and Chnese Culture. InA Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. (2002). Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p

66 Church n Chna. Indeed, the Pontff wanted to fnd a soluton to the ssue of the Patrotc Church, the ordnatons of Bshops, not apponted by Rome, and the Underground Church. The dvson between patrotc and underground groups engendered great dffcultes for the Catholc Church n Chna. On October 8, 1989, Pope John Paul II was n Seoul for the 44 th Eucharst Congress and whle prayng for peace for all natons, the Pope sad: Allow me to menton, n partcular, two peoples who are very close to my heart: the peoples of North Korea and n Manland Chna. Regardng the latter, he speaks of hs ardent desre to express hs deep affecton for them n person. 141 Followng the Tananmen Square ncdent on June 4, 1989, thngs n Chna were at a stalemate; the Pope deplored the persecutons of Catholcs n Chna. However, Pope John Paul II unceasngly proclamed hs goodwll toward Chna and many are hs speeches, prayers, and letters showng hs desre for rapprochement. He never stopped expressng hs desre for the Natonal normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons even though Chna dd not share hs vews. The year 1993 was one of numerous ntatves on the part of the Holy See and of the Holy Father. Recevng the dplomatc corps accredted to the Vatcan, Pope John Paul II agan expressed the hope that the New Year would brng opportuntes for Unversty more States to send ther representatves to Rome: I thnk, among others, of Chna and Vetnam, of Israel and Jordan, to menton some. 142 In 2000, the ordnatons of bshops wthout Papal mandate and the canonzaton of 120 Chnese martyrs on October 1 st had serously undermned the process and created more msunderstandng. The canonzaton of the Chnese martyrs, that took place on the 141 JohnPaulII. (1989). I commend to Mary the Peoples of North Korea and Manland Chna, October 8, In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), 2006, Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt., p Charbonner, J., & Polt, G. (2006). Chna-Vatcan Relatons: In The Catholc Church n Chna: today and tomorrow. Leuven, Belgum: Ferdnand Verbest Insttute, p

67 very same day as the brth of the Peoples Republc of Chna on October 1, 1949, worsened the already complcated status of the Roman Catholc Church n Chna. Bejng descrbed most of these martyrs as evl-dong snners who were executed for breakng the law. From that day, the dalogue wth Chna became truly tensed and dffcult. In 2001, Pope John Paul, wth great courage and humlty, asked for forgveness for errors and lmts of Chrstans aganst Chna n the past. He called agan for dalogue and rapprochement wth Bejng by statng: It s no secret that the Holy See, n the name of the whole Catholc Church and, I beleve, for the beneft of the whole human famly, hopes for the openng of some form of dalogue wth the Authortes of the Peoples Republc of Chna. Once the msunderstandngs of the past have been overcome, such a dalogue would make t possble for us to work together for the good of the Chnese people and for peace n the world. The present moment of profound dsquet n the nternatonal communty calls for a fervent commtment on the part of everyone to creatng and developng tes of understandng, frendshp and soldarty among peoples. In ths context, the normalzaton of relatons between the People's Republc of Chna and the Holy See would undoubtedly have postve repercussons for humantys progress. 143 Natonal Unversty Untl hs death n 2005, Pope John Paul II, wth patence and care for Chna, dd all what was possble to create a Brdge wth the Chnese authortes, bshops and Catholcs. All along the twenty-sx years of hs pontfcate, he addressed sxty tmes to Chna through offcal letters, speeches, messages and greetngs. Nonetheless, hs courageous efforts dd not lead to true and profound dalogue the Chnese government. Ths Pope who was an mportant actor of the fall of 143 JohnPaulII.(2001). Message of Pope John Paul II, Fourth Centenary of Matteo Rcc's Arrval n Benjng. In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: Hong-Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Study Center, p

68 Communsm n Eastern Europe dd not succeed n normalzng relatons wth Chna PopeBenedct XVI Wth John Paul IIs death and the electon of Benedct XVI, the Chnese authortes, perhaps only for pragmatc and propagandstc reasons, have started sendng postve sgns to the Holy See. In an unusual move on the death of Pope John Paul II, 144 Bejng conveyed ts sympathes to the Holy See, n Aprl Lu Janchao, the Foregn Mnstry spokesman, stated that: the Chnese Government consstently adheres to two basc prncples n Chna-Vatcan relatons. Chna s wllng to amelorate relatons wth the Vatcan and t s hoped that the Holy See, under the leadershp of the new Pope, wll do somethng that s conducve for the mprovement of Sno-Vatcan relatons. Revewng the years of Pope John Pauls IIs pontfcate ( ), Chna never once dstanced tself from these two basc Natonal ponts: severance of tes wth Tawan and recogntons of Bejng as the sole legtmate government of Chna; and no nterference nto Chnas nternal affars. 145 For the frst tme ever, the Chna through the Chnese Catholc Patrotc Unversty Assocaton sent condolences for the passng of a Pope and the congratulatons for the electon of a new one. Chnese authortes showed nterest n resumng dplomatc relatons wth the Vatcan. Ths marked the begnnng of a new phase that wll be developed n Chapter Even whle the Popes condton was declnng, Bejng sent a message of concern for the Pontffs health : We are nformed on the state of the health of the Pope. We want to express our preoccupaton, and hope that he shall receve good medcal treatment and recover hs health.in Charbonner, J., & Polt, G. (2006). Chna-Vatcan relatons: In The Catholc Church n Chna: today and tomorrow. Leuven: Ferdnand Verbest Insttute, p Ibd, p

69 3.4. The ROC and the Holy See n Ilha Formosa The Frst Arrval of the Catholc Church n Formosa The stable presence of the Catholc Church n Tawan was not acheved untl the Spanards arrved n That lasted for only sxteen years, untl 1642, when the Spanards had to abandon the sland because the Dutch had expelled them. 146 From ther Cagayan base, n the Phlppnes, the Spansh Domncans moved northward to establsh themselves n Tawan n They receved the faculty of admnsterng the sacraments n 1627, whch was granted by the bshop of Manla. 147 Those Catholc mssonares were the very frst to come to Tawan and the ctes of Keelung and Tamshu n Northern Tawan. In 1642, after the Dutch occupaton, they were arrested and deported to Batava, Indonesa. Then, on May 18, 1859, Spansh Domncans came from the Phlppnes, through Amoy, to Kaoshung, where they establshed the Church. The Tawan terrtory belonged orgnally to the Fuken Natonal Apostolc Vcarate, whch was dvded n 1883 nto the two vcarates of Fuchow and Amoy, Tawan belongng to the latter. After Japanese occupaton on the sland, t was only on July 19, 1913, that Tawan became an ndependent ApostolcPrefecture. It had, pror to ths, two successve prefects Apostolc of Spansh natonalty, namely, Unversty Msgr. Clemente Fernandez, from 1913 to 1929, and Msgr. Tomas de la Hoz, from 1920 to Under the pressure of the Japanese government, a Japanese prefect Apostolc was apponted n the person of Msgr. Satowako Asajro ( ). After the Japanese surrender n 1946, Reverend Tu Mn-Cheng, a natve prest of Tawan, was apponted admnstrator of the Tawan Prefecture. At ths tme, there were only twelve prests on the whole sland and hardly ten thousand Catholcs n all. 146 Borao, J. (2001). The Catholc Domncan mssonares n Tawan.In Mssonary approaches and lngustcs n Manland Chna and Tawan).Leuven : Leuven Unversty Press, p Borao, J. (2009). The Spansh experence n Tawan, Hong Kong, Chna: Hong Kong Unversty Press, p

70 In 1948, Bshop Arregu, a Domncan, succeeded Father Tu and fostered the evangelzaton of the ndgenous people The Chnese Natonalsts and the ApostolcInternunco n Tawan In 1949, the government of the Republc of Chna departed from Manland Chna after the Chnese Communst Partys vctory n the Cvl war. Archbshop Antono Rber, the frst ApostolcInternunco to Chna snce 1946, chose to stay at hs post but he was expelled to Hong-Kong n 1951 by the Communsts who accused hm of colludng wth colonalsm and mperalsm n explotng the Chnese. Hs stay n Nanjng was a very dffcult and controversal one: Natonalst supporters blamed hm for not followng the Chang Ka-shek wthdrawal from Nanjng whle the communst alles chastsed hm, as well as the Vatcan, for not recognzng the new government. Ths made hs presence n the new poltcal settng most awkward. Natonal After an ntal delay, apparently caused by Tawans dspleasure over Rbers decson to reman n Nanjng, n 1952, he was posted to Tawan to resume hs dutes as Internunco n Chna. 149 The expulson of Archbshop Rber from Chna to Hong Kong, based on poltcal and deologcal consderatons, marked the break of Unversty dplomatc relatons between Manland Chna and the Holy See. The year 1949 marked a watershed n the Chrstan hstory of Tawan as more than four hundred Catholc prests, both Chnese and foregn, arrved on the sland durng the 1950s. Conversons began on a consderable scale, among both aborgnes and Chnese refugees from the Manland. In 1952, Tawan became the twenty-frst Catholc ecclesastc provnce of Chna, wth an archbshoprc at Tape. 148 Charbonner, J. (2007).op.ct., p Chan, G. (1989, December).op. ct., p

71 Father Joseph Kuo, C.D.D., was apponted as the frst archbshop. Archbshop Rber, the erstwhle Internunco who had been expelled from Chna came from Hong-Kong to Tape to presde at the consecraton of the new archbshop. By a mysterous dspensaton of Vatcan dplomacy, Rber stayed n Tawan as a representatve of the Holy See. The Tape government, flattered by the creaton of the new archbshoprc, accepted the creaton of an Internuncature at Tape and sent Dr. Hseh Shou-kang 150 to Rome as mnster plenpotentary of the Republc of Chna to the Holy See. The Vatcan thus recognzed the progress made n the evangelzaton of Tawan, but t was also commttng tself poltcally to a Chnese government hostle to the Bejng government. These dplomatc lnks, stll mantaned untl now, have gven the Communst government of Chna, accordng to some scholars, an addtonal argument to forbd Manland Catholcs from owng allegance to the Pope. 151 Natonal At the same tme, on the other sde of the Formosan Strat, Chna establshed n 1957 the Chnese Patrotc Assocaton ndependent of the Unversal Church n Rome and severed all tes wth the Vatcan. Those loyal to the Pope went Unversty underground and formed the clandestne Church. The Catholc Church n Manland Chna has been dvded ever snce. On the other hand, relatons between the Holy See and the ROC became closer and closer. In 1959, Archbshop Rber was succeeded by Archbshop Joseph Capro. In the same year the Republc of Chna rased ts Vatcan msson to ambassadoral status. HsehShou-kang, who had 150 The Republc of Chna sent ts frst representatve, Mnster HsehShou-kang, to the Vatcan n Hseh was succeeded by Mnster Wu Jngxong n But n June 1949 Wu quetly abandoned hs post and left wth hs famly for the Unted States after a short stay n Chna, obvously alarmed by the dramatc poltcal changes takng place n hs natve country. Then, Chu Yng was named Chargé daffares, a.. from 1949 to 1954 followed by HsehShou-kang, the frst Mnster Plentotentary of the R.O.C to the Holy See. HsehShou-kang was Mnster Plentpotentary to the Holy See from 1954 to 1959 and then Ambassador of the R.O.C to the Holy See from 1959 to Charbonner, J. (2007). op.ct., p

72 returned to hs former post as Chnese counselor to the Vatcan snce 1954, became the frst Chnese ambassador there. In 1966 the Vatcan recprocated by elevatng ts legaton n Tape to the status of embassy and the then Archbshop Capro was promoted to the rank of Pronunco. The seven-year gap, from 1959 to 1966, between Tawan's rasng ts level of representaton to the Holy See on the one hand, and the Vatcan's recprocaton on the other, can be seen as an attempt by the Vatcan to wat for an opportunty to mprove relatons wth the Peoples Republc of Chna The Holy See, Tawan and the Entrance of the PRC at the Unted Natons Snce the foundng of the Peoples Republc of Chna many foregn states gradually shfted dplomatc recognton to Bejng whch supported the dea that Tawan was part of Chna under the One-Chna Polcy. Ths culmnated wth the Peoples Republc of Chna dsplacng the mportance of Tawan at the Unted Natons, n Natonal The Vatcan recalled Archbshop Cassdy to the Vatcan, and sent Archbshop Capro, the Pronunco to Tape, on an extended leave a few days before the People's Republc of Chna was admtted to the Unted Natons n October Snce that day, when the ROC was forced to gve up ts seat n the Unversty Unted Natons, the PapalNuncature n Tape had been headed by a Chargé daffares, ad nterm. No Pronunco to the ROC had been named snce them. Apparently the PRC wanted to solate Tawan further by nsstng that the Vatcan should cut dplomatc tes altogether wth Tawan. The downgradng of Vatcan-Tawan dplomatc relatons was not enough because t was a unlateral 152 Chan, G. (1989, December). op. ct., p Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement. Workng Papers, Current Issues n Relgon and Poltcs, Unversty of St. Andrews, the Centre for the Study of Relgon and Poltcs (CSRP), Scotland, UK. Retreved February 10, 2012, from p

73 acton and Tawan stll had ts ambassador to the Vatcan all the same. 154 Ths Vatcan move not only faled to wn Bejng's favor but also hurt the feelngs of Tape. The Vatcan's downgradng of ts dplomatc representaton n Tape was the result of a combnaton of factors, ncludng the Vatcan's desre to re-establsh lnks wth the Chnese Church, an ncreasng nternatonal recognton of the Bejng government, and Chna's expandng tes wth the west 155. Currently, the Vatcan s the only European Ally of the Republc of Chna. However, the tensons n the Strats between the two Chnese governments have put the Sno-Vatcan relatons n to several tests. Indeed, the Vatcan desres to normalze ts relatons wth the PRC but t s also confronted wth two major ssues mposed by Bejng whch requests the drecton of the Catholc Church n Chna and the end of the Holy Sees recognton of Tape Concluson Natonal The Sno-Vatcan relatons, establshed n 1922, have been confronted by many dffcultes. However, wthout becomng dscouraged, the Holy See kept ts tes wth the Republc of Chna and tred all possble means to establsh contacts wth Unversty Manland Chna. Its purpose has been to ntate a Sno-Vatcan dalogue n order to resolve dfferences between the two. The attempts of the dfferent Popes were to open dalogue wth the PRC and were ntated out of love for the well-beng of all Catholcs n Chna. The downgradng of relatons wth Tawan was to release the pressure and the oppresson of the Communsts on Catholcs lvng on the Manland. The Vatcans prncple ams at negotatng for the normalzaton of ts dplomatc relatons wth Chna are to enhance the development of the Chnese Catholc 154 Leung, B. (1992). op. ct., p Chan, G. (1989, December). op. ct., p

74 Church. 156 The Vatcan s concerned wth ts fathful wherever they are n the world; the Vatcan s also concerned wth protectng the rghts, freedom and well-beng of the whole human race. Ths s one of the prncple reasons why the Holy See wants to establsh tes wth Chna. Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, the then Vatcans Secretary for the Relatons wth the States, explaned n an ntervew wth the Chna Tmes of Tape on June 3, 1999: For the Holy See, the frst am of dplomatc relatons, wth Chna as wth other countres, s that of fosterng the lfe of the Church and of promotng peace n the nternatonal context through dalogue. 157 Through the analyss of the hstorcal evoluton of the Sno-Vatcan relatons, t appears clearly that n order to normalze dplomatc relatons, the Holy See has to consder the two condtons of Bejng: that s to say the nomnaton of bshops Natonal namely, non-nterference n Chna's nternal affars Unversty and the end of ts relatons wth Tawan. The latter condton s a real dlemma for the Holy See whch s currently the only State n Europe that recognzes the ROC. 156 Leung, B. (2005). SnoVatcan Relatons at the Century's Turn. Journal of Contemporary Chna, 14(43), p Ta, R. (2002).op. ct., p

75 4. The Holy See and the Cross-Strat Conundrum 4.1. Introducton In 1951, The Holy Sees Internunco, Archbshop Antono Rber, was forced to leave Manland Chna. After a bref stay n Hong Kong, he came to Tawan and establshed the Nuncature n Tape. Despte ths expulson, the Holy See has unceasngly tred to keep tes wth the Chnese on the Manland. Indeed, the Holy See has the great desre to keep relatons wth the great and noble Chnese famly. However, because of the tensons n the cross-strat between the two governments of the ROC and the PRC, the Holy See has been forced for years by Manland Chna to make a choce between Tape and Bejng. The Chnese Communsts have requested the Holy See to end ts tes wth Tawan n order to establsh relatons wth Chna. Before any normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons, the Chnese government wants the Holy See to recognze the PRC as the sole legtmate Chnese government and to Natonal consder Tawan as an nseparable part of Chna. Ths defntely puts the Holy See n a very delcate poston that s ndependent of ts own wll and makes the msson of the Pope dffcult. Unversty Whle facng some ssues wth the PRC, the Holy See s enjoyng relgous freedom that s offered to all n Tawan by the ROC consttuton and government enforcement. Tawan works n deep cooperaton wth the Holy See to promote human dgnty and to help those most n need. Nevertheless, because of the condton mposed by the P.R.C, the Holy See fnds tself n an awkward poston. The Pope truly desres to normalze dplomatc relatons wth Chna but doesnt want to hurt the feelngs of Tawan who has been so fathful. The Holy See therefore has to fnd a peaceful way to reach the Manland Chnese. The vocaton of the Church s to announce peace among the natons and Pope John Paul II asked Tawan 62

76 to partcpate n ths sublme msson and play the role of BrdgeChurch wth the Manland The Tes and Shared Ideals between the Holy See andthe Republc of Chna Human Rghts, Peace and Relgous Freedom The Catholc Church arrved n Tawan almost 400 years ago. In fact, the frst prests came n 1626 and receved a warm welcome from the local populaton. They remaned untl 1642 when they were expelled by the Dutch. Prests dd not return to Tawan untl 1859, arrvng n Kaohsung. In 2009, the Catholc Church celebrated the 150th annversary of evangelzaton n Tawan. For ths specal event, Pope Benedct XVI sent a specal blessng through hs envoy, Hs Emnence Cardnal Tomko, Prefect Emertus of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples and Natonal Presdent Emertus of the Pontfcal Commttee for the Internatonal Eucharstc Congresses. Hs partcpaton brought to lght the Popes presence and gave a unversal dmenson to the celebraton. Moreover, among the dstngushed guests was the ROC Presdent Ma Yng-jeou. The presdent commented that Cardnal Unversty Tomko prevously vsted Tawan twce, n 1988 and Hs thrd vst to Tawan comes on the occason of the 150th annversary celebraton of mssonary actvtes n Tawan by the Catholc Church. Presdent Ma remarked that ths demonstrates the mportance that the Vatcan places on Catholcs n Tawan. 158 He expressed hs deep grattude for the great contrbuton of the Catholc Church to Tawan, emboded n the mssonares who brought peace, blessngs and development to the country. He 158 Offce of the Presdent of the Republc of Chna (Tawan). (2009, November 20). Presdent Ma Meets Papal Specal Envoy Jozef Cardnal Tomko. Retreved January 5, 2012, from

77 quoted from the Bble encouragng each one to be the salt of the earth and the lght of the world (Mt 5:13-14). 159 The blateral relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna have remaned frendly and stable throughout the years manly because of ther common belef n advocacy of freedom, human rghts and world peace. Democracy and human rghts are essental for the Holy See as they are for Tawan. As a matter of fact, Tawan s now counted among the advanced democratc natons. In 2002, on the occason of the 60 th annversary of Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons, Dr. Eugene Y.H. Chen, ROC former Mnster of Foregn Affars, recalled that the nternatonal communty has prased the efforts and achevements that Tawan has made n fosterng democracy and upholdng human rghts. He spoke about how much the defense of democracy s an essental pont for the ROC and that has tghtened tes Natonal wth the Holy See. He stated that: Our beng part of the global manstream of democracy, whch drew much of ts nspraton from the Chrstan tradton, has lad down a sold foundaton for the frendly tes between Tawan and the Holy See. 160 Unversty Many are the cordal addresses of the Pope to Tawan. Most of them are messages of frendshp and grattude for the common shared deals of servce to humanknd, of freedom of relgon and of peace. In 2008, Presdent Ma Yng-jeou apponted Hs Excellency Larry Wang as ambassador of ROC to the Holy See. 159 CRBCNewsBulletn.(2009, November).Hghlghts on the150th Annversary of Evangelzaton n Tawan. Retreved January 5, 2012, from Chnese Regonal Bshop's conference: Chen, E. (2002). Preface.In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p. VIII. 64

78 Presentng hs credental letters, Pope Benedct XVI expressed to hm how Tawan makes a valuable contrbuton to the buldng of a more secure and stable world. He congratulated Tawan on beng such a good partner n the msson of the Church: The Government n Tape has a keen sense of belongng to a world communty, a global human famly. Ths s expressed n many ways, not least n the generosty wth whch ad and emergency relef s suppled to poorer natons.() The Holy See s pleased to work together wth all those who seek to promote peace, prosperty and development, and apprecates the Republc of Chna's commtment to that noble cause. 161 In Tawan, there s a wde dversty of relgons and a real freedom for each person to practce hs own belef. Ths s certanly due to ts multcultural hstory but also due to the relgous freedom wrtten n the consttuton of the Republc of Chna. Artcle 13 of the Consttuton 162 Natonal of the Republc of Chna states that the people shall have freedom of relgous belef. Ths freedom of relgon s deeply apprecated by the Church and permts her to fulfll her sprtual and humantaran msson wthout nterference or dscrmnaton, for the servce of ndvduals and of Tawan as a whole. Pope Benedct XVI n the aforementoned address to Unversty Ambassador Larry Wang underlned the benefts of relgous freedom n Tawan that the Church s enjoyng and whch permts the Church to lead her msson. The Holy Father showed hs grattude to the ROC and hs desre to cooperate wth such a democracy. He sad: Your Government's frm commtment to freedom of relgon has made t possble for the Church to carry out her msson of love and servce, and to 161 BenedctXVI. (2008, November 12). Holy Father addresses new Ambassador of the Republc of Chna to the Holy See. L'Osservatore Romano(46), p Offce of the Presdent of the Republc of Chna (Tawan),Consttuton, the text of the Consttuton can be retreved on 65

79 express herself openly through worshp and the proclamaton of the Gospel. On behalf of all the Catholcs n Tawan, I would lke to express my apprecaton of ths freedom that the Church enjoys. 163 Beng free n Tawan, the Church can partcpate n Tawans progress and serve the poor and the needy and contrbute to promotng Human dgnty and peace. Last year, n January 2011, Ambassador Larry Wang explaned on Rado Vatcan that freedom of relgon s not only a fundamental freedom but a rght ncluded n the Unversal Declaraton of Human Rghts adopted by the Unted Natons General Assembly. He affrmed that the protecton of relgous freedom s one of the ways to safeguard peace. He sad that: When hearng the Holy Fathers words I cannot refran from thnkng about my country, whch s a democracy that embraces relgous pluralsm and tolerance toward all belefs. Its Consttuton guarantees freedom of relgon as a rght for all people and no relgon benefts from specal prvleges granted by the government. Consequently, Tawan s a meltng pot of relgons, nfluenced by a Chnese cultural hertage and faths from other parts of the world. In Tawan, greater freedom of relgon has not led to conflcts among relgons. Instead, adherents of all faths lve together n peace and show respect for other belefs. Interrelgous dalogue plays an mportant role n creatng an envronment where relgous freedom s respected and has deep roots n Tawan. 164 Natonal Unversty Tawan's consttuton provdes freedom of relgon and the ROC government s the warrantor of the practce of ths freedom. In Tawan, authortes at all levels protect ths rght n full, and do not tolerate ts abuse, ether offcally or prvately. Indeed, relatons between the Holy See and Tawan are marked by mutual respect 163 Benedct XVI. (2008, November 12), op. ct., p Wang, L. (2011, January 15). Tawan's Ambassador to Holy See on Pope's state of the world address. (R. Vatcan, Intervewer) Rome, Italy. Retreved from d-address html 66

80 thanks to the guarantee of the prncple of relgous freedom. In Tawan, the Catholc communty does not encounter any specfc dffcultes. In such an envronment, Catholcs have been able to contrbute effectvely to the materal and sprtual good of ther country. Thus, they have been promotng truth, justce and soldarty. Accordng to the latest statstc of the Tawan Catholc Drectory for 2010, Tawan s the home of 299,938 Catholcs. There are 15 bshops, 682 prests, 93 relgous brothers, 1146 relgous ssters, 65 semnarans, 321 catechsts, 378 parshes, 3 Catholc unverstes, 29 secondary schools, 11 elementary schools, and 167 kndergartens. The Church also admnsters 10 hosptals, 7 clncs, 15 orphanages, 20 nursng homes, and 19 centers for handcapped chldren. Through these numerous nsttutons and organzatons, Catholcs cared for mllons of Tawanese and partcpated n the development of Tawan. Natonal In 2005, Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, former Secretary for Relatons wth States of the Holy See, receved from the ROC government, the Order of the Brllant Star wth Specal Grand Cordon as recognton for hs contrbuton to dplomatc tes between Tawan and the Holy See. On ths occason, Cardnal Tauran Unversty sad that relatons between the Vatcan and Tawan wll be further strengthened because of the long-term efforts by Catholcs that have profoundly benefted the people of Tawan. He has also prased Tawan for ts long-term ad and assstance to countres n Afrca and Latn Amerca -- efforts that have been recognzed by the Holy See as actons reflectng the Catholc sprt. 165 Indeed, Tawan and the Holy See are good partners and share a common belef on human dgnty, peace and freedom. In January 2008, confdent n good tes wth the Vatcan, ROC Presdent 165 Chu, Y.-T. (2005, November 26). Chen expects relatons wth Vatcan to mprove. Tape Tmes. Retreved January 8, 2012, from 67

81 Chen Shu-ban asked Pope Benedct XVI to support hs country's bd to jon the Unted Natons and to partcpate fully n other nternatonal forums. He told the Pope: I am confdent that wth the rghteous support of the Holy See and our alles, Tawan wll someday gan a more encouragng response from the nternatonal communty. 166 In September 2009, the Pontfcal Councl Cor Unum 167 held Sprtual Exercses at Fu Jen Catholc Unversty n Tape for presdents and drectors of the Churchs mnstry of charty from throughout Asa. There were 450 partcpants, ncludng 5 Cardnals and more than 60 Bshops, from 29 natons and 260 doceses. On September 11 th, Presdent Ma Yng-jeou met wth Cardnal Paul Josef Cordes, Presdent of the Pontfcal Councl Cor Unum, at Fu Jen Catholc Unversty. Natonal Presdent Ma sad ths was a rare opportunty to personally receve good wshes from the Holy See. He also expressed hs hopes to contnue to strengthen cooperaton wth the Vatcan n the future. 168 Unversty Humantaran Cooperaton between the Holy See and Tawan The Holy See beleves that the appeal to soldarty and concrete acton s of prmary mportance, especally n ths perod of extreme nternatonal nstablty and 166 Wooden, C. ( 2008, January 10). Tawans presdent asks Pope to support bd to jon Unted Natons. Catholc News Servce. Retreved November 7, 2011, from The Pontfcal Councl Cor Unum for Human and Chrstan Development s a part of the Cura of the Catholc Church.Its msson s "the care of the Catholc Church for the needy, thereby encouragng human fellowshp and makng manfest the charty of Chrst", and t undertakes ths msson by carryng out humantaran relef operatons followng dsasters, fosterng charty, and encouragng cooperaton and coordnaton of other Catholc organzatons. 168 OffceofthePresdentoftheRepublcofChna(Tawan). (2009, September 11). Presdent Ma Meets Pontfcal Councl Cor Unum Presdent Cardnal Paul Josef Cordes. Retreved January 11, 2012, from 68

82 ntra-natonal conflcts. In fact only a soldarty that establshes condtons of justce can help to realze nternatonal relatons amng at dmnshng the gap between the rch and the poor, between the hghly developed countres and the developng countres. 169 Based on the sprt of unversal love that s at the heart of the Catholc doctrne, the Holy See has constantly urged developed natons to pay more attenton to the wealth dsparty between the North and the South, and advocates the forgvng or reducng of the foregn debt of poor natons by wealthy natons, and helpng developng natons to break away from poverty. 170 The cooperaton on humantaran assstance of Tawan wth the Holy See can be regarded as excellent. Tawan s truly a good partner of the Holy See and has never refused to provde help whenever the Pope has appealed for t. Tawan has always headed the Holy Fathers call for soldarty. For nstance, n 1997, ROC Natonal Presdent Lee Teng-hu, apponted Vce Presdent Len Chan as hs specal envoy to meet the Pope on January 14, On that specal occason, Dr. Len expressed hs strong support of the Popes appeal for peace. On behalf of the ROC government, Dr. Len donated one mllon U.S. dollars for the refugees and the needy. Hs Holness Unversty decded to entrust ths to the Pontfcal Councl Cor Unum for projects nvolved n the rebuldng of Bosna-Herzegovna and for the Afrcan Great lakes regon. 171 On the appeal of the Holy See, Tawan has constantly shown ts goodwll to help. There are numerous examples such as: the Great Lake n Afrca n 1994, the 169 Dupuy, A. (2003). Words that matter.the Holy See n multlateral dplomacy. New York, USA: The Path to Peace foundaton,p Chen, E. (2002), op.ct., p. IX. 171 Ta, R. (1999). Reflectons on my msson to the Holy See.In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, ROC:Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p

83 reconstructon of Sarajevo Churches, the Albanan refugees n Italy and the reconstructon of earthquake-strcken Asss baslca also n 1997, the needy and the sck n Cuba, the vctms of Hurrcane Mtch n 1998 n four Central Amercan countres, the Kosovo refugees and the vctms n the Colomba earthquake n 1999, the tsunam n Indonesa n More recently, Tawan has proved once agan ts desre to help those who lost everythng and who have no hope, such as the people of Hat who suffered extremely after the terrble earthquake of By charty work and humantaran concern for the most n need, Tawan jons the Church n her sublme msson of promotng peace and justce. At the same tme, ths cooperaton strengthens the tes of Tawan wth the Holy See. Wth great generosty, Tawan offers assstanceto the poor, and promotes educaton and economc development n order to eradcate poverty. 172 Natonal On Aprl , Presdent Ma Yng-jeou, at a recepton hosted by the ApostolcNuncature n Tape n honor of Hs Holness Pope Benedct XVIs fourth annversary, prased the Holy Father and hs dedcaton, not only to mantan human rghts and freedom, but also to safeguard far treatment and justce. In hs speech, Unversty Presdent Ma sad that the noble deals and boundless love of the Pope are admrable. He also added that the people and government of Tawan chersh human rghts, love peace, advocate freedom and democracy, and respect relgous freedom. Indeed, Tawan and the Holy See are peace partners and share common deals. He stated that: Tawan has become one of the Holy Sees most loyal partners for charty and peace. We wll contnue to dspatch agrcultural and medcal mssons to our 172 Chen, E. (2002), op.ct., p. IX. 70

84 dplomatc alles n Afrca, Latn Amerca, and the South Pacfc regon n hopes of helpng the less fortunate mprove ther lves. We wll also contnue to enhance exchange and contact between Tawan and the Vatcan, and work wth t to promote democracy, human rghts, freedom, and peace around the world. 173 A few months ago, on December 1, 2011, when Presdent Ma met Cardnal Grocholewsk, Prefect of Congregaton for Catholc Educaton n Holy Sees, he stated that Tawan recently has scored very hgh n varous nternatonal compettveness surveys and s also makng every effort to be nvolved n nternatonal humantaran assstance, as demonstrated by the ad that Tawan provded to Hat after ts devastatng earthquake n 2010, and to Japan after t suffered multple dsasters n In the future, the government wll contnue to work to mprove ts standard of lvng and wll contnue to play the role of peacemaker. It wll also keep n mnd the Pope's call for people to nvolve Natonal themselves n humantaran assstance work. Indeed, Tawan has always responded to the appeals of the Holy See to assst the most needy. Smlarly, the Holy See has been attentve to Tawan and has shown Unversty ts concern when Tawan faced natural dsasters. The Pope sent Cardnal Jean Lous Tauran as hs specal envoy to offer condolences n the wake of the dsastrous earthquake that ht Tawan on September 21, Every day for three days, Rado Vatcan broadcast the stuaton n Tawan and on September 26, 1999, at noon, for the prayer of the Angelus, Pope Jean Paul II prayed publcly for Tawan. 174 He sad that: 173 Ma, Y.-j. (2009). Tawan and the Holy are peace partners. Newsletter(2). Retreved November 15, 2011, from 174, Chen, F., & Chang, G. (2003). (Zh ng fàn wàj o gu nxì sh ). Tape,, Tawan, :, Táw n sh ngwù yìn sh gu n, p

85 In these days my thoughts have constantly turned to the beloved people of Tawan as they recover from the recent earthquake and ts tragc aftermath. Wth profound concern I commend the vctms to Almghty God and mplore hs dvne consolaton and strength upon all the bereaved. I am lkewse confdent that the nternatonal communty wll respond wth renewed soldarty and ready assstance n the urgent work of relef and rebuldng. 175 More recently, n 2009, Pope Benedct XVI donated a sum of $50,000 as a token of hs concern for the people of Tawan, severely ht by Typhoon Morakot. 176 In fact, the Pope was the frst Head of State to send a donaton to help the vctms Recent Agreements and cooperaton between the Holy See andtawan Tawan and the Holy See have n recent years created and sgned dfferent tes and agreements. In 2009, holders of Holy See dplomatc and offcal passports as well as regular Vatcan passport holders wll be granted vsa-free entry to Tawan for Natonal short stays, wth mmedate effect. The vsa-free prvlege for Holy See dplomats or offcals and Vatcan ctzens s part of the governments efforts to cement blateral relatons and promote cultural and academc exchanges. Thus, holders of Holy See dplomatc and offcal passports can enter Tawan wthout vsas for vsts of up to Unversty 90 days, whle for regular Vatcan passport holders the maxmum perod of stay wthout a vsa wll be 30 days. An offcal of the ROC Mnstry of Foregn Affars sad that: 175 JohnPaulII. (1999, September 26). Angelus, Domenca, 26 settembre Retreved January 16, 2012, from html 176 VatcanRado. (2009, August 22). Pope's ad for Tawan tyhpoon vctms. Retreved , January, from s.html 72

86 We hope that the new vsa-free program wll help to further strengthen cultural and academc exchanges between Tawan and the Vatcan. 177 On the academc level, n the summer of 2009, about 20 students from Tawan Natonal Normal Unversty went to Rome for a two-week program at the pontfcal Gregoran Unversty. In the same year, three pontfcal unverstes n Rome sgned cooperaton agreements wth three dfferent unverstes n Tawan. Among them, there are the Pontfcal Unversty of the Holy Cross 178 n the Rome and Natonal Unversty 179 whose offcals sgned the memorandum of understandng and addendum at the Vatcan on October 21, Monsegneur Russell, current chargé daffares, a. of the Holy See, sad that ths opens the way for academc cooperaton and educatonal exchanges of professors and students. For hm, when students travel and study n a dfferent cultural context, n a dfferent language, they brng somethng and they take somethng away. Student exchanges brng greater Natonal understandng among peoples. Greater understandng promotes peace and harmonous relatonshps among natons. 180 Then n 2011, a hstorc agreement was made between the Holy See and Tawan Unversty on the recognton of unversty degrees. For ths occason, Hs Emnence Zenon Cardnal Grocholewsk, Prefect of the Congregaton for Catholc Educaton, and Archbshop Savo Hon, Secretary of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples, met Presdent Ma Yng-jeou on December 1, 2011 n hs presdental offce 177 Wu, S. (2009, September 28). Tawan grants Vatcan passport holders vsa-free prvlege. Tawan News-Central News Agency. Retreved December 12, 2011, from Pontfca Unverstà della Santa Croce, PUSC 179 Natonal ChengCh Unversty, NCCU 180 Russell, P. (2010, March 25). Rado Tawan nternatonal ntervews Msgr. Paul Russell. Rado Tawan Internatonal. (C. Huang, Intervewer) Tape, Tawan, ROC: CRBC NEWS/ Bulletn. Retreved Aprl 15, 2010, from 73

87 n Tape. Ths agreement between the Mnstry of Educaton of the Republc of Chna and the Congregaton for Catholc Educaton of the Holy See s based on collaboraton n the feld of Hgher Educaton and on the recognton of studes, qualfcatons, dplomas and degrees. 181 Indeed, ths agreement provdes for mutual recognton of qualfcatons between ecclesastcal unverstes around the world, lnked to the Holy See, and unverstes recognzed by the Tawan Mnstry of Educaton. Thanks to ths agreement, ttles, dplomas and degrees earned at ecclesastcal unverstes worldwde 182 wll be recognzed n Tawan 183 and vce versa. Ths wll generate a huge number of vsts and exchanges, and the subsequent collaboratons. Wth the agreement sgned today, Tawan enters more effectvely nto the nternatonal academc world. 184 Ths agreement wll certanly create closer relatons between the Holy See and Tawan who wll have new opportuntes to lead projects together and support each other n the nternatonal arena. Natonal 4.3. The Holy See and the Two-Chna Dlemma The Holy See and the Artcle 56 of the PRC Common Program The PRC had long snce lad down the condton that any naton wshng to Unversty establsh dplomatc relatons wth t had to cut off relatons wth the ROC Its ntenton was clearly stated n Artcle 56 of the Common Program as early as Ths read: 181 OffceofthePresdentoftheRepublcofChna(Tawan). (2011, December 1). Presdent Ma meets Hs Emnence Zenon Cardnal Grocholewsk, Prefect of Congregaton for Catholc Educaton n Holy See. Retreved February 12, 2012, from There are currently over 650 ecclesastcal unverstes n the World. 183 Tawan has currently 161 colleges and unverstes. 184 Bernardo Cervellera, Hstorc agreement between the Holy See and Tawan on the recognton of unversty degrees nton-of-unversty-degrees html 74

88 Artcle 56. The Central People's Government of the People's Republc of Chna may, on the bass of equalty, mutual beneft and mutual respect for terrtory and soveregnty, negotate wth foregn governments whch have severed relatons wth the Natonalsts reactonary clque and whch adopt a frendly atttude towards the People's Republc of Chna, and may establsh dplomatc relatons wth them. Untl 1978, the Unted States had been faced wth the trcky problem of decdng what to do about ts relatons wth Tawan. Chna stuck to ts unarguable tenet for normalzaton: vz. the breakng of dplomatc relatons between the Unted States and the ROC, the termnaton of the Mutual Defense Treaty between the Unted States of Amerca and the Republc of Chna and the wthdrawal of all U.S. mltary personnel from Tawan. 185 In September 1978, the U.S. soluton to ths problem led t to establsh dplomatc relatons wth Bejng and to break off dplomatc relatons wth Tape, but the U.S. retaned ts extensve economc tes Natonal wth the sland and handled nter-governmental relatons through an ostensbly prvate body staffed by government offcals. 186 Unversty It was not the best soluton for the PRC who amed at ncorporatng ths sland nto ts soveregnty. Yet, t was the best that the U.S. could offer. 187 The Vatcan beng one of the states that stll mantans formal dplomatc tes wth Tawan, the PRC demanded that one of the condtons for Sno-Vatcan dalogue, as proposed by the Pope, and before any possble negotatons could begn, be that the Vatcan cut off dplomatc relatons wth Tawan. 188 Tawan s consstently at the top of Chnas foregn polcy agenda, and the prospect of a Vatcan concesson on ths ssue would be a large ncentve at least 185 Clough, R. (1978). Island Chna. CamBrdge, Mass, U.S.A.: Harvard Unversty Press, p Ibd.,p Leung, B. (1992). Sno-Vatcan Relatons: Problems n Conflctng Authorty, Cambrdge, Unted Kngdom: Cambrdge Unversty Press, p Ibd., p

89 for further talks. 189 To solate Tawan n nternatonal affars s one of the major concerns n Sno-Vatcan relatons for the Chnese government. 190 However, the Holy Sees wthdrawal of formal recognton of the ROC would undoubtedly margnalze Tawan n the nternatonal dplomatc arena. Just before the PRC was admtted to the Unted Natons n October 1971, the Vatcan recalled ts Pronunco to Tape. As well, the post of ambassador to Tawan, has remaned vacant, a move that hurt sentment n Tawan at the same tme that t dd nothng to mprove favor wth Bejng. 191 From that day, a Chargé daffares, a.. has been apponted at the head of the Nuncature of the Holy See. Bejng nssts that dplomatc tes can be re-establshed only after the Vatcan publcly acknowledges the one-chna prncple under Bejngs leadershp. Gven the amount of domestc change n Tawan snce the frst democratc presdental electons n 1996, and the Natonal fact that the Holy See s the only European state to dplomatcally recognze the ROC, the ncentve from Bejng to dplomatcally solate ts perceved renegade provnce s huge. In the contnuaton of the so-called one-chna polcy, governments offcally recognze ether Tape or Bejng as the captal of a sngle Unversty Chnese government. Although the Unted States refused recognton of the Communst government n Bejng untl the 1970s, developng tes wth the Natonalsts n Tape, even durng that tme the recognton was of Tape as the government of one Chna that ncluded the Manland. Once the Unted States establshed formal dplomatc tes wth the PRC (a process started by Presdent Rchard Nxon n 1971 and concluded by Presdent Jmmy Carter n 1979), offcal 189 Leung, B. (1998, March). The Sno-Vatcan Negotatons: Old Problems n a New Context. The Chna Quarterly, 153, p Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September). The Red Flag and the Rng: the dances surroundng the Vatcan tes. Asan Poltcs & Polcy, 1(3), p

90 poltcal recognton of Tawan ceased as the Unted States acknowledged the Bejng government. 192 The downgradng of dplomatc tes between the Holy See and Tawan has nevertheless not been suffcent for the PRC to consder any normalzaton of ts relatons wth the Supreme Government of the Church Prudence of the Holy Sees Dplomacy n the Cross-Strat The Holy See found tself confronted wth a poltcal problem that was alen to t. It was exposed, powerless, to the dynamc of the dspute between the Republc of Chna and the Peoples Republc of Chna, and the Internunco had to leave the contnental Chnese sol aganst hs own wll. The prmary and constant preoccupaton of the Holy See has always been the fate and the good of Catholcs on Natonal both sdes of the Strat: proof of ths s the fact that, despte the nsstence on the part of the poltcal and relgous authortes of Tawan, only n 1966 was the Apostolc InterNuncature n Tape rased to the level of Nuncature. 193 Unversty For the Holy See, the frst am of dplomatc relatons, wth Chna as wth other countres, s that of fosterng the lfe of the Church and of promotng peace n the nternatonal context through dalogue. 194 The Holy See has always remaned prudent n ts dplomacy and n partcular n the trangular relaton wth the PRC and the ROC It has constantly recalled the specfc msson of the Church to serve everyone and especally those who are oppressed. The Pope s always wllng to create tes wth the states n order to be able to be close to the ones n need and to promote human rghts. Even though 192 Ibd., p that s, to use the termnology of cvl dplomacy, from level of Legaton to that of Embassy 194 Chen, F.-c.(2002). A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p

91 the Internunco, Archbshop Antono Rber, was expelled from Chna n 1951, the Holy See has never ceased to send the message of frendshp to the PRC government because of ts concern for the Chnese. In 1959, Presdent Chang Ka-shek apponted Dr. Hseh Shou-kang as the frst ROC ambassador to the Holy See, but Pope Paul VI apponted Archbshop Joseph Capro, the Frst Pro-Nunco to the Republc of Chna, only n Ths seven year gap can be explaned by the prudence of the Holy See not to hurt Chna and ts hope to have tes wth the PRC The Holy See cares much for the well-beng of the Chnese on the Manland. Through the years, the Popes have tred ther best to keep contact, and show frendshp and goodwll toward Chna. Pope Jean John Paul IIs great desre was to buld a world based on brotherhood, n order to create, defend and spread peace all around us. 195 Natonal The non-replacement of a cardnal n Tawan after the death of Cardnal Yupn n 1978 can be nterpreted by the prudence of the Holy See not to antagonze the Chnese government. The Holy See s glad that Tawan shares ts common deals of relgous freedom, human dgnty and peace. The tes between the two states are marked by mutual understandng and respect. Unversty However, the Holy See flled wth ts sprtual desres to normalze dplomatc relatons wth Chna and reestablsh full communon wth the Manland Chnese Catholc Church. Because of that, the Holy See has been very prudent and no Pope has yet accepted the nvtaton to vst Tawan. For nstance, n February 1981, Pope John Paul II, n hs Far-East trp, dd not accept a proposed vst to Tawan on hs way to the Phlppnes and Japan to avod the rsk of upsettng Bejng. 196 In 1989, 195 JohnPaulII. (2000). Address to the Dplomatc Corps accredted to the Holy See. In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Center, p Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p

92 The ROC government sent an offcal nvtaton to Pope John Paul II to come to Tawan. In 2002, Vce Presdent Annette Lu, on her trp to Europe for the 51st congress of Lberal Internatonal held n Budapest, also went to the Vatcan and nvted Pope John Paul II to vst Tawan. Many nvtatons of Tawan to the Holy Father have not yet been honored by a postve response because of the rsk of upsettng Manland Chna. The Holy See certanly doesnt want to create an ncdent n the cross-strat and upset Chna. Bejngs senstvty to ths ssue can perhaps be llustrated by the fact that t refused to permt any Chnese Delegates to attend Pope John Paul IIs funeral n 2005 because the Vatcan accepted Tawans then-presdent Chen Shu-ban to attend the funeral.in December 2008, Pope Benedct turned down the nvtaton from the Archbshop of the Tape Archdocese to vst Tawan and jon n the 2009 Natonal celebraton of the 150 th annversary of the establshment of the Catholc Church n Tawan, sendng a representatve nstead. 197 Unversty Whle contnung to mantan state-to-state relatons wth the ROC government and strong Church-to-Church relatons, the Vatcan has to reman extremely prudent because of the potental negatve mpact wth the relatons wth Manland Chna. It seems that the Holy See prefers not to make any gestures that could be nterpreted as hostle by ether of the two sdes Tawans Concern by the Vatcans Rapprochement Attempts wth Chna A few days before the PRC was admtted to the Unted Natons on October 25, 1971, the Holy See recalled ts pronunco Archbshop Edward Cassdy to Rome. Consequently, n December 1971, Archbshop Lo Kuang of Tape went to Rome to 197 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September),op.ct.., p

93 talk wth the Secretary of State, Cardnal Cassarol, about the poston of Rome toward the ROC after t was expelled from the Unted Natons. Archbshop Lo Kuang also met the Holy Father who told hm that the Holy See would keep relatons wth the ROC Ten months later, on August 2, 1972, the Holy See sent Msgr. Francs Colasuanno, a chargé daffares, a., to the ApostolcNuncature n Tape 198. The Natonalst government n Tape was very nervous about the developments n the Vatcan and ts relatons wth the PRC It was reported that on March 3, 1981, mmedately after the Popes speech n Manla, the Ambassador of the ROC to the Vatcan, Mr. Zhou Shou-ka, spoke wth the Prefect of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples, Cardnal Ross, at the Vatcan for more than thrty mnutes on common questons relatng to the two states. The meetng was requested by the Ambassador of the RO.C. Then on March 4, 1981, the Foregn Mnstry of Natonal Tawan summoned Monsgnor Gglo, the chargé daffares, a.., n Tape ApostolcNuncature, and requested hm to explan once more the relatons between Tawan and the Holy See. The Tawan government openly admtted that they were closely watchng the developments n the relatons between the Vatcan and Unversty Manland Chna. In these crcumstances the best course the Tawan government would take was to ally tself wth the local Catholc Church for mutual support. 199 At that tme, the Church n Tawan conssted of 300,000 Catholcs n seven doceses, most of the Catholcs beng mgrants from the Manland n 1949, and almost all the Tawan bshops havng been born on the Manland. The Tawan Catholc Church dd not share the same vews on the Sno-Tawan relatonshp as ts 198, Chen, F., & Chang, G. (2003), op. ct., p Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p

94 government. The Popes proposal for rapprochement wth Manland Chna met wth no opposton or nervousness, because the Tawan Catholcs understood that the motvaton behnd the Vatcans gesture was pastoral, for the sake of Catholcs n Chna. They saw that the attempt made by the Pope to open dalogue wth the PRC was for the sake of the Church on the Manland, and that the downgradng of relatons wth the Tawan Church was to release pressure by the government on Catholcs on the Manland. 200 In fact, the Herarchy of the Tawan Church s not drectly concerned wth relatons between the ROC and the Holy See. The Church of Tawan s connected to the Pope by sprtual relatons and not by dplomatc relatons. The Pope has always kept the same relatons wth the Church n Tawan even though the Holy See downgraded ts relatons wth Tawan. Through the years, the Tawan Church remaned fathful to the Pope, who asked her n 1984 to play the role of BrdgeChurch. The stuaton of the leaders of the Catholc Church n Tawan Natonal was not so easy and comfortable because of the polcy of the government of Tawan, whch requested no contact of ts people wth the Manland. The Tawan Catholc Church as well as the Tawan government felt very uneasy when suggestons were made to the Vatcan to sever dplomatc tes wth Tawan n order to ntate contact Unversty wth Chna. The Vatcan would therefore have to close the PapalNuncature n Tawan, whle the Tawanese Chnese ambassador to the Holy See would have to be recalled, and be replaced by a specal PapalDelegate of non-dplomatc nature n Tape. Under pressure from the Tawan government, the Catholc Church n Tawan tred to lobby the Vatcan offcals not to sacrfce the Church of Tawan for the sake of the Church on the Manland. As a consequence, the Vce-Prefect of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples, Cardnal Lourdusamy, was nvted to vst Tawan for the celebraton of the 400 th annversary of the arrval of Matteo 200 Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p

95 Rcc n Chna n Then the Presdent of the Pontfcal Councl of Justce and Peace, Cardnal Gantn, was asked to vst Tawan on February 17, 1984 so that the Tawan Bshops could voce ther dscontent about the possble move of the Vatcan towards the PRC Ths provded an occason for them to express ther anxety at beng betrayed f the normalzaton of Vatcan-Chna relatons were to be made at ther expense. They hoped Cardnal Gantn would be sympathetc towards them and vew the severng of dplomatc rtes from ther standpont of justce and peace. 201 Eventually all seven members of the Tawan Chnese Bshops Conference headed by ts Presdent, Archbshop Lo Kuang, were able to go to the Vatcan on February 1984 to have a dalogue wth the Pope and the hgh-rankng Vatcan offcals, ncludng the Under-Secretary of State, Martnez Solmalo, and the Foregn Mnster, Cardnal A. Slvestrn. In several sessons, they had long dscussons wth Natonal the Vatcan offcals and wth the Pope on ther dsagreement of the Vatcans polcy towards Manland Chna. They challenged the vews of the Vatcan on the possble severng of dplomatc tes wth Tawan and remarked that ths would be a great blow to the morale of Tawan Catholcs. Ther fear of beng vctmzed by the Unversty Vatcan n ts woong of Manland Chna was also explaned. They requested to be kept drectly nformed of the Vatcans future moves towards Manland Chna. In ths encounter and dalogue, whch was loaded wth tenson, the Vatcan was able to skllfully reassure these seven angushed bshops, backed up by ther own government that the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons would not be at ther expense. The Vatcan promsed them that n the future f there were to be any move towards the PRC or the Catholc Church n Chna, the Tawan Chnese Bshops 201 Ibd., pp

96 Conference would be the frst to be told. 202 On the dplomatc front, the Vatcan has obvously been makng overtures to the Chnese Government by lowerng ts level of dplomatc representaton n Tawan. Any further lowerng of status would mean ether vacatng the chargé daffares or breakng off dplomatc relatons, and mantanng only relgous tes by postng a non-dplomatc ApostolcDelegate to Tape. Whether the Vatcan s wllng to take such a drastc step or not wll depend very much on the concessons made by Bejng on other ssues, such as the self-appontment of bshops and the recognton of the Pope as the head of the unversal Church. 203 On February 11, 1999, whle respondng to questons from journalsts n Rome, Cardnal Sodano, Secretary of State of the Holy See, commented that the Vatcan was ready to transfer ts Nuncature from Tape to Bejng not tomorrow, but ths very nght, f Chnese Natonal authortes were to permt t. 204 These words led to extreme nterpretatons n many quarters. Both Bejng and Tape dened havng any knowledge of the mpled Vatcan move. Bejng also reterated ts two known pre-condtons for any rapprochement between the two sdes. Two weeks later, t was reported by the Free Unversty Chna Journal, that Archbshop Jean-Lous Tauran, of the Vatcan Secretarat for Relatons wth States, had assured Tawan Foregn Mnster, Jason Hu Chh-chang, that the Holy See wll not sacrfce Tawans nterest smply to accommodate requests from Chna. 205 In fact, by the statement of Cardnal Sodano, the Holy See 202 Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p Chan, G. (1989, December). Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons: Problems and Prospects. Chna Quarterly, 120, p And he added: The Tape Nuncature s already the Chnese Nuncature. Frst t was n Bejng, then n Nankng, where the Nunco was repressed and constraned to transfer to Hong Kong and then to Tawan. Movng t back to Bejng won t be a breakng of relatons wth Tawan but a returnng of the Nuncature to ts ntal locaton. 205 Charbonner, J., & Polt, G. (2006). Chna-Vatcan relatons: In The Catholc Church n Chna: today and tomorrow. Leuven: Ferdnand Verbest Insttut, p

97 was tryng to ntate mmedate talks wth Bejng on all Church matters regardless of the exstng poltcal system. Cardnal Sodano s remarks were a sgn of openness and expressed a desre to ntate a dscusson wth the PRC He wanted to urge relgous freedom on Manland Chna. Indeed before any move of the Holy See, t s clear that the queston of relgous freedom, human rghts and the appontment of bshop on Manland Chna must be clarfed. Dr. Tou Chou-seng, former ROC ambassador to the Holy See, once sad: Chna uses Tawan as a pretext, whle the real problem s that of relgous freedom. 206 However, Tawan was very concerned about ths and the ROC Mnstry of Foregn Affars contacted ts embassy to the Holy See n order to obtan a detaled clarfcaton of ths matter. It then publshed a press release on the peaceful and stable relatons wth the Vatcan: The Mnstry of Foregn Affars would frst lke to pont out that an offcal meda spokesperson of the Vatcan on Dec. 15 of ths year publcly and clearly affrmed that the state of affars has not changed snce August of ths year, when the Vatcan ssued a statement declarng that t had had no concrete communcaton wth Manland Chnese authortes. In addton, Vatcan authortes have on a number of occasons emphaszed to the ROC embassy n the Holy See that the Vatcan has not had concrete contact wth Manland Chna, and that so-called normalzaton of relatons s not n progress. 207 Natonal Unversty In the Chna Tmes of Tape, on June 3, 1999, Archbshop Jean-Lous Tauran, stated that: 206 Eunce, K. Y. (2005, May 19). Tawan Remans a Queston as Vatcan-Chna Relatons Progress. Chrstan Today. Retreved January 12, 2012, from /2922.htm 207 RepublcofChna Government EntryPont.(1999). Government stance on reported PRC-Vatcan contact. Retreved February 8, 2012, from Government Entry Pont: 84

98 For the Holy See, the frst am of dplomatc relatons, wth Chna as wth other countres, s that of fosterng the lfe of the Church and of promotng peace n the nternatonal context through dalogue. Wth Tawan our relatons are marked by mutual respect: thanks to the guarantee of the prncple of relgous freedom, the Catholc communty has not encountered dffcultes, and t has, moreover, contrbuted effcacously to the materal and sprtual good of the country. 208 Nevertheless, the same Archbshop Jean-Lous Tauran also told the Italan daly Correre della Sera ''We are aware that n order to normalze our relatons wth Bejng, we wll have to modfy the form wth Tape. He added: We are wllng to negotate. 209 In 2002, on her way to Hungary, the ROC vce presdent, Annette Lu, spent a short tme at the Vatcan and met wth Archbshop Jean-Lous Tauran. The two offcals exchanged vews on relgous freedom and human rghts. Annette Lu told Natonal Archbshop Tauran that Tawan shares the Vatcan's concern for the followers of Catholcsm on the Manland. But t would volate the sprt of ths relgon f the Holy See breaks off relatons wth the ROC because of such concerns, Lu sad, Unversty suggestng that Tawan's own Catholcs are no less mportant. She suggested a parallel approach that would allow the Vatcan to mprove relatons wth the Manland whle, at the same tme, enhance cooperaton wth Tawan. 210 However, t s clear that the Holy See wants to establsh relatons wth the 208 Ta, R. (2002). The Vatcan's Dlemma: Tape and/or Bejng? In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty,pp Stanley, A. (1999, March 23). Vatcan to Revew Tawan Tes.The New-York Tmes. Retreved 12 12, 2011, from Lu, M. (2002, March 29). Successful end to Annette Lu's vst to Europe.Tawan Today. Retreved January 18, 2012, from 85

99 Manland. Indeed, because of the vocaton of the Church to spread the Gospel and to serve all human bengs, the Pope cannot gnore Manland Chna. In Hong Kong, The Sunday Examner of Aprl 16th 2005 quoted Bshop Joseph Zen Ze-kun: The Holy See s thnkng of gvng up Tawan. Ths s a dffcult decson, but t has decded to do t. If the Holy See does not establsh tes wth Chna, Catholcs there wll not have real freedom. 211 In October 2005, Cardnal Sodano sad agan that the Holy See would soon swtch tes to Bejng. The Drector General of the ROC Department of European Affars, Larry Wang, currently ROC ambassador to the Holy See, sad that Sodano's statement-- that the Vatcan was ready to move ts Nunco, or ambassador, from Tawan to Bejng mmedately -- matched exactly the remarks he made n 1999 n an attempt to urge greater relgous freedom n Chna. He sad that Cardnal Sodano made the remarks n response to a queston from a reporter. It's a passve response, not a delberate sgnal. The Vatcan had broken off offcal Natonal communcatons wth Bejng n 2000 and t had been dffcultto resume offcal contact. Therefore, Larry Wang sad that: Perhaps t's because of the lack of an offcal communcaton channel that Cardnal Sodano chose to make such remarks agan. 212 Unversty The prce to pay by Tawan to let the Holy See go to Bejng to serve the Chnese on the Manland seems to be very heavy. As matter of fact, n 2005, the Mnstry of Foregn Affars sad that t understands the dffcultes the Vatcan faces when tryng to expand tes wth Chna and protect relgous freedom, but stressed 211 Goff, P. (2005, Avrl 10). Vatcan wll abandon Tawan to wn Chna's Catholcs. The Telegraph. Retreved November 12, 2011, from n-chnas-catholcs.html 212 Chang, Y.-p. (2005, November 10). Vatcan remarks nothng new: MOFA. Tape Tmes. Retreved December 11, 2011, from 86

100 that Tawan must be treated wth dgnty and respect throughout the process. 213 However, the Holy See wll not so easly abandon Tawan at any prce. In November 2005, Cardnal Tauran sad about the relatons wth Chna that: The Vatcan would not abandon Tawan even f t opens an embassy n Chna.() The Holy See would fnd an approprate way to mantan tes wth Tawan. When relgous freedom s realzed n Chna, then the Holy See s ready to change the nature of relatons wth Tawan. If and when the normalzaton [of relatons wth Chna] happens, the Holy See wll not abandon Tawan. 214 Cardnal Tauran underlned a very mportant pont about relgous freedom n Chna. Accordng to the moral teachngs of the Church: The end does not justfy the means. It s obvous that the Vatcan wll not sacrfce ts moral prncples on relgous freedom and human dgnty n order to have dplomatc tes wth Chna. As Natonal long as Chna wll not show a clear sgn of adoptng and applyng relgous freedom n ts polcy, the Holy See wont go further n ts relatons wth the Manland. The Holy See s currently the only European State to offcally recognze the Unversty ROC government but the most nfluental of the states to have formal dplomatc tes wth Tape. If the Holy See wthdrew ts recognton of the Tape government and removed ts ApostolcNuncature from Tawan ths would strke a serous blow to Tape, dplomatcally. In a 2005 ntervew wth John Allen, a Vatcan correspondent of the Natonal Catholc Reporter, Dr Tou Chou-Seng sad that: The Holy See s the only European Naton wth whch we stll have relatons. 213 Chang, Y.-p. (2005, November 24). MOFA urges the Vatcan to be far.tape Tmes. Retreved October 21, 2011, from Staffwrters wthagences. (2005, November 23). Tawan Quck Take.Tape Tmes. Retreved December 3, 2011, from 87

101 Were encounterng huge dffcultes n the nternatonal communty, and the Vatcan s very mportant to us. If the Vatcan were to drop Tape for Bejng, we would feel lke weve lost our frends. 215 The fact s the Holy See has to adopt a balanced cross-strat polcy n order not to make a choce between Tape and Bejng, n conformty wth the teachngs of the Church: justce and peace. Above all, Chna must make a consderable effort on relgous freedom for the Holy See to move ts Nuncature from Tape to Bejng. In the same ntervew, Dr. Tou sad that: Natonal There wll be no change n relatons between the Vatcan and Manland Chna n the foreseeable future, because Chna s unlkely to make even mnmal concessons on relgous freedom. Once the people of Manland Chna enjoy relgous freedom, the demand for other freedoms wll follow. The regme s afrad that t wll become a tdal wave and thngs wll get out of control. 216 It wll therefore be nterestng to study, more deeply n another chapter, the relgous polcy of Manland Chna; ths may provde nsght as to whether or not there s any possblty for the Vatcan to make such a move and to thnk about any decson of Unversty the Holy See toward Tawan Pax Vobscum: Cross-Strat Tensons and Papal Exhortatons to dalogue The Church of Tawan : abrdge-church The ad lmna 217 vst of the Tawan bshops n 1984 was hstorcal. Durng the 215 Allen, J. (2005, November 25). Chna, Tawan and the Vatcan.Natonal Catholc Reporter. Retreved February 2, 2012, from Allen, J. (2005, November 25), Ibd. 217 In the Roman Catholc Church, a qunquennal vst ad lmna or more properly, qunquennal vst ad lmna apostolorum or smply an ad lmna vst means the oblgaton of resdental docesan bshops and certan prelates wth terrtoral jursdcton (such as terrtoral abbots), of vstng the 88

102 late 1970s, whenever the Chna Queston was dscussed n Rome, t was treated as f t dd not really concern Tawan drectly, untl the Tawan bshops, durng ther ad lmna vst n 1984, clearly voced ther dsagreement about ths one-sded nterest of the Holy See. It was also durng that vst that the bshops told the Holy Father: As far as the relaton wth the PRC s concerned, please decde whatever you consder necessary for the good of the Unversal Church. We accept your decson. These words were the frut of long reflecton and prayer on the part of the Tawan bshops among themselves, and also of frank and brotherly exchange between the Tawan bshops and the Vatcan authortes n Rome; the latter prevously mght have faled to apprecate the patrotc feelngs of the Tawan bshops for ther motherland. From ths exchange a new understandng between the Church of Tawan and the Holy See was born, sealed by the hstorc call of Pope John Paul II to the Church of Tawan to help hm open the road towards the Church n Manland Chna. Natonal The Pope remnded them of ther beautful task of beng a Brdge-Church for your compatrots n Contnental Chna. 218 In hs address to the Tawan Bshops, Jean Paul II recalled the beauty of the Unversty Chnese culture and the wll of the Church to reach the Chnese n order to proclam the message of God. He stated: For you are Chnese and proud of t. You belong to a great people, representng a quarter of humanty. A people great not only by ts number but also above all by reason of ts culture and ts values. An ndustrous people too, whose nfluence upon the peace and well-beng of humanty today and tomorrow cannot be gnored. The Church has somethng to share wth the thresholds of the [tombs of the] Apostles, Sants Peter and Paul, and of meetng the Pope to report on the state of ther doceses or prelatures. 218 Heyndrckx, J. (2005, Summer). John Paul II, the Pope of dalogue and of the "unfnshed encouter" wth the PRC Trpod, XXV(137), p

103 people concernng God and man. She wshes to offer to ths people the proclamaton of the truth whch she receved from the Apostles: there s one God, and there s one medator between God and men, the man Chrst Jesus, who gave hmself as a ransom for all 219 (1 Tm 2:4-5) The Pope asked the Tawan Church to be the Brdge between the Chnese Catholc Church and the unversal Church. In so dong, the Vatcan completely won over the Tawan Bshops, by gvng them the hgh honor and prvlege of reuntng ther fellow Catholcs on the Manland wth the Unversal Church. For the Tawan Catholc Church t was an honor and a prvlege as well as a moral responsblty to play the role of Brdge-bulder, so that the Chnese Catholcs astray on the Manland could be reunted n the orthodoxy of the Catholc Church. Archbshop Lo Kuang, the Presdent of the Tawan Chnese Bshops Conference serously took the lead n the enterprse by takng up the work of blendng Chnese culture wth Chrstanty and hopefully later to have the acculturated Chrstan message brought to the Natonal Manland. Wth much prde and honor he accepted that the Tawan Church should be the baston for the revval of the ManlandChurch through cultural adaptaton, and called upon the Catholcs n Tawan to shoulder ths grave responsblty entrusted to them by the Pope. 220 Unversty Owng to poltcal condtons, the Tawan Catholc Church was not free to be the medator or to facltate any nformal poltcal nteracton between the Vatcan and the PRC. Ths was because the Natonalst government found t dffcult to tolerate any atttude whch was sympathetc to Communsm. On the other sde of the Tawan Strat, the Communsts dstrust the Catholc Church of Tawan. Ths s not smply because t has some senor clergy who are known as Natonalst supporters, but because Tawan Catholcs are suspected of beng loyal to the Vatcan 219 JohnPaulII. (2006). To the Tawan Bshops and the Chnese Daspora: "Be a Brdge-Church". In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: Hong Kong, Chna, Chna: Holy Sprt Study Center, p Leung, B. (1992), op. ct., p

104 and ther actvtes are suspected to be guded by the nterests of the Vatcan. 221 Cardnal Shan 222 wrote that faced wth growng relatons between the PRC and the Church, the Tawanese Catholc Church has found tself n an awkward stuaton. On ths, snce 1984, Pope John Paul II has sad the same thng and hoped that the Tawan Church could serve as the role of a BrdgeChurch. That means that through the example set by the Tawan Catholc Church, the authortes on the other sde of the Tawan Strats can realze that a local Church wth close tes and subordnate relatonshp wth the Church n Rome can at the same tme enjoy a suffcent level of self-determnaton. More postvely, t also means an appeal to the Tawan Church to provde assstance to the Manland Chnese Church n terms of manpower and sprtual support. Ths wll be done to allow the development of a really self-determnate local Church and to help buld normal relatons wth the Holy See. Natonal Cardnal Shan stated that just lke common ROC ctzens who wsh to see peace and harmony between the two sdes of the Tawan Strats, the Tawanese Catholc Church also wshes to see mprovement n PRC-Vatcan relatons, as well as real freedom n the Catholc Church on Manland Chna. He hopes that such Unversty mprovement can contrbute to better relatons between Tawan and the PRC. 223 On January 11, 2005, ROC Ambassador Larry Wang, recalled on Rado Vatcan how much the Church n Tawan s takng serously ts responsblty to play the role of BrdgeChurch as gven to t by John Paul II n He underlned that 221 Ibd., p Paul Cardnal Shan Kuo-hs, S.J.( ) Bshop Emertus of Kaohsung, Tawan 223 Shan, P. (2002). Preface. In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons,Tape: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p. V. 91

105 Fu Jen Catholc Unversty n Tape does not mss any occason to create tes wth the Manland Chnese. In fact, Fu Jen Unversty held an Internatonal Symposum on Aprl 2010, n Commemoraton of the 400th Annversary of the passng of Matteo Rcc. Ths event gathered about 200 partcpants, among whom were many emnent scholars and snologsts from Europe, the Unted States, Tawan, Hong Kong and the rest of Asa, but especally from Manland Chna. Ambassador Wang qualfed ths event as a remarkable event and a sgn of the changng poltcal clmate. Moreover, n ths ntervew he recalled that Fu Jen Unversty has recently welcomed semnarans and relgous n ts Faculty of Theology, whch shows a clear sgn of connecton and exchange wth the Manland. He sad: We fully understand the Holy Fathers concern for the stuaton, and Chnas Catholc communtes n Manland Chna. I can report to you that the Church n Tawan has not forgotten to play the role of BrdgeChurch as she has been asked to do by the Holy Father. 224 Natonal Encouragements of the Holy See for Peace Between Chna and Tawan The Holy See has always rejoced when Manland Chna and Tawan have Unversty taken ntatves and steps for a better mutual understandng. Indeed, the call of the Pope to the Church of Tawan to be a BrdgeChurch was an nvtaton to create peaceful tes wth Chna. After the smultaneous accesson of Bejng and Tape to the World Trade Organzaton (WTO), the Pope made an encouragng statement n Hs annual address to the Dplomatc Corps, accredted to the Holy See, on January 10, 2002: 224 Wang, L. (2011, January 15). Tawan's Ambassador to Holy See on Pope's "state of the world" address. (R. Vatcan, Intervewer) Rome, Italy. Retreved from d-address html 92

106 I am also pleased to menton the good newssnce last November 2001, delegatons of the Peoples Republc of Chna and the Republc of Chna have taken ther seats n the World Trade Organzaton. May ths postve development help prosper all the efforts whch have been made on the dffcult path of rapprochement. 225 In poltcs, a new world order has not yet taken shape snce the end of the Cold War n the early 1990s. However, a world trade order has been establshed through the World Trade Organzaton. Ths ntergovernmental trade organzaton offers Bejng and Tape the opportunty to use ts system of rules and dspute settlement as an nstrument of peace between peoples. It s therefore hoped that both sdes of the Tawan Strat wll take advantage of the WTO mechansm for the confdence-buldng whch s necessary for a constructve dalogue to resolve ther dfferences and dsputes. 226 Natonal In 2008, snce Ma Yng-jeou became the ROC Presdent, hs admnstraton has decded to lead the so-called flexble dplomacy polcy. The essence of ths polcy s an accommodaton of Tawans foregn polcy and Manland polcy. Tawan wll pursue ts dplomacy wth the precondton of mantanng frendly and cooperatve Unversty relatons wth Manland Chna. Tawan pursues ts foregn polcy based on acceptng the so-called (19)92 consensus (that s, one Chna wth dfferent nterpretaton). The Mnstry of Foregn Affars of the Republc of Chna declares that t has mplemented ths polcy based on the prncples of dgnty, autonomy, pragmatsm, and flexblty, that s, ths polcy ams to allow Tawan to forge ahead wth ts 225 JohnPaulII. (2002). Address to the Dplomatc Corps accredted to the Holy See. In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal documents related to Chna: Hong-Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Study Center, p Ta, R. (2001). Globalzaton: challenges and opportuntes for the Republc of Chna. In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, R.O.C.: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p

107 dplomatc work and fnd a modus vvend for ts dplomacy. 227 Wth Chnas rse, Presdent Ma has chosen pragmatsm to redefne the cross-strat relatons. In order to resume and nsttutonalze the cross-strat dalogue and exchanges, Ma Yng-jeou has mplemented several poltcal and nsttutonal frameworks: The 1992 Consensus, the Three Nos polcy (no unfcaton, no ndependence and no use of force n the Strat), the Mutual Non-Denal prncple, the flexble dplomacy, and the transformaton of the natonal dentty toward a more Chnese Tawan. Ma dffused the tensons wth Chna wth the economc agreements sgned n 2008, the ECFA 228, the creaton of food protecton mechansm, jurdcal protecton and fnancal protecton, cross-strat drect flghts and Tawans openng to Chnese toursts He restored on December 15, 2008 the so-called three lnks wth Chna (drect trade, postal servces, and transportaton lnks between Tawan and Chna). All ths has contrbuted to the strengthenng of Tawans economc and cultural tes Natonal wth Manland Chna. In hs naugural address n 2008, called Tawans Renassance, Ma Yng-jeou sad he hopes that the two sdes of the Tawan Strat can seze ths hstorc opportunty to acheve peace and co-prosperty and that the normalzaton of economc and cultural relatons s the frst step to a wn-wn soluton. Ths flexble Unversty 227 Wang, K. (2011, February). Tawans Dplomatc Polcy under the MA Yng-jeou Admnstraton. Palo Alto, USA. Retreved October 15, 2011, from p ECFA (Economc Cooperaton Framework Agreement). The MAC (Manland Affars Councl) gves on ts webste the man objectves of the ECFA that are : (1) To promote the normalzaton of cross-strat economc and trade relatons: although both sdes of the Tawan Strat are currently members of the WTO, many restrctons n cross-strat trade and commerce reman. (2) To avod Tawan beng margnalzed by regonal economc ntegraton : The global trend of regonal economc ntegraton has led to the sgnng of approxmately 247 free trade agreements (FTAs) n the world so far. Gven that sgnatores provde tarff exemptons on a recprocal bass, falng to sgn FTAs wth key tradng partners puts Tawan at rsk of beng margnalzed and losng ts compettveness n major markets. Sgnng agreements wth Manland Chna, Tawans man export market, wll help us partcpate n regonal economc ntegraton and mtgate the rsk of economc margnalzaton. (3) To enhance Tawans poston as a platform for regonal nvestment : Sgnng trade agreements (arrangements) wth Manland Chna wll offer ncentves for transnatonal enterprses to use Tawan as a trade and nvestment sprngboard to the East Asa market, whch wll help Tawan to better ntegrate nto the global tradng system. 94

108 dplomacy has defused tensons across the Tawan Strat, bolstered Tawans dplomatc relatons and nternatonal space through pragmatc means, and earned consderable recognton from the nternatonal communty. 229 The mprovements n relatons between Tawan and Manland Chna wth ths flexble dplomacy polcy are certanly good for the regonal peace and stablty but also should facltate the trangular relatons of the Holy See, Chna and Tawan. The dplomacy of Mas admnstraton has created a Brdge across the Strat and facltated the exchanges for both sdes on dfferent levels: poltcal, economc, cultural as well as on the relgous freedom level. Wth the so-called flexble dplomacy, Ma Yng-jeou wants to make Tawan a responsble stakeholder, and a peace maker n the nternatonal communty. In 2008, Larry Wang, ROC Ambassador to the Holy See, presented hs Letters Natonal of Credence to Pope Benedct XVI and recalled that for more than ffty years, relatons between the Chnese people onether sde of the Tawan Strat have been characterzed by controversy and anmosty. However, he told the Pontff that the new admnstraton of Presdent Ma has expressed ts goodwll to Manland Chna Unversty and launched a new era of cross-strat relatons by resumng dalogue and consultatons wth Bejng.He added that the Mas admnstraton s not excludng the possblty of enterngnto consultatons wth Manland Chna over a cross-strat peace accord. Ambassador Wang sad: I frmly beleve that the reconclaton of relatons wth Manland Chna wll brng a more stable and peaceful envronment not only for Asa, but also for the world as a whole. Ths new course of acton corresponds to Your 229 Wang, K. (2011, February).op. ct., p. 2 95

109 Holness dea of urgng everyone to buld a Peaceful World Famly. 230 Pope Benedct XVI was very pleased and prased Presdent Ma for hs work to decrease tensons across the Tawan Strat. He stated: Frank and constructve dalogue s also the key to the resoluton of the conflcts that threaten the stablty of our world. In ths regard, the Holy See welcomes the recent postve developments n relatons between Tawan and Manland Chna. Indeed the Catholc Church s eager to promote peaceful solutons to dsputes of whatever knd, gvng attenton and encouragement to even the fantest sgn of dalogue or desre for reconclaton. In ths way, she wshes to support the efforts of Governments to become staunch champons of human dgnty and courageous bulders of peace. 231 On December 1, 2011, Presdent Ma met Hs Emnence Zenon Cardnal Grocholewsk, Prefect of Congregaton for Catholc Educaton n Holy See, and he Natonal recalled that 30 years ago when he served as former Presdent Chang Chng-kuo's nterpreter, one of hs most mportant jobs was to prepare the response to the Pope's annual prayer for world peace that s delvered on January 1. Consequently, the Pope's longstandng commtment to world peace has made a deep mpresson on hm. Unversty That s why, snce he took offce n May 2008, he has sought to forge peace between the two sdes of the Tawan Strat. Efforts n ths regard have already yelded ntal results, and rays of peace have emerged n the Tawan Strat. Presdent Ma also stated that the Holy Father's calls over the years for world peace demonstrate that peace s a unversal value, and the Holy Father's efforts have won hm worldwde 230 Wang, L. (2008, November 12). The New Amassador of Chna greets Pope Benedct XVI. L'Osservatore Romano, BenedctXVI. (2008, November 12). Holy See welcomes postve developments n relatons between Tawan and Manland Chna. L'Osservatore Romano, p

110 respect and prase Concluson The Holy See has ths partcular msson to be at the servce of humanknd. It cannot abandon the ones who are oppressed and the most n need snce t s the essence of ts vocaton. In 1951, aganst hs own wll, the Internunco was expelled from Chna. However, the Holy See has never ceased to send messages and ntate contacts wth the PRC because of ts concern not only for the Chnese Catholcs but also for all the men and women n Chna. In 2005, Cardnal Tauran sad that: The Vatcan s a dfferent knd of poltcal entty from other countres. It's a leader of a worldwde relgon and therefore ts man concern s expandng relgous freedom around the world. 233 Natonal Dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and the ROC are stable and frendly. However, the Pope has been confronted by a condton of the PRC whch has asked for the endng of dplomatc tes between the Vatcan and Tawan n order to move forward n ther relatonshp. Bejng consders that the Vatcan must treat Tawan as Unversty an nseparable part of Chna. It s a real dlemma for the Holy See because t has no real reason to leave Tawan especally when ths dplomatc partner s sharng the same deals of relgous freedom, world peace and human rghts. Moreover, n ts hstory, the Vatcan has never wthdrawn any of ts Nuncature. 232 OffceofthePresdentoftheRepublcofChna(Tawan). (2011, December 1). Presdent Ma meets Hs Emnence Zenon Cardnal Grocholewsk, Prefect of Congregaton for Catholc Educaton n Holy See. Retreved February 12, 2012, from Chang, Y.-p. (2005, November 24). MOFA urges the Vatcan to be far.tape Tmes. Retreved October 21, 2011, from 97

111 The Vatcan would seem to have lttle to lose f dplomatc relatons were re-establshed wth Chna. The lttle t mght lose - severance of dplomatc tes wth Tawan and a subsequent heavy blow to the belevers there - could loom large f, n the eyes of the world, the Vatcan s seen to be sacrfcng ts moral prncples for the sake of poltcal gan. The Vatcan could, of course, justfy the possble dplomatc shft of emphass away from Tawan towards the Manland for the greater good of the unversal Church, whle, at the same tme, such a shft would not dmnsh pastoral care for the fathful n Tawan. The prncple gan for the People's Republc of Chna, f relatons are re-establshed, s the further solaton of Tawan from the world communty n the wake of a possble Tawan-Vatcan dplomatc break. Chna would be antcpatng that ths mght help force Tawan to the negotatng table for talks on reunfcaton. Tawan's ambassador to the Holy See possesses dplomatc status n Rome through an establshed concordat between the Holy See and the Natonal Italan Government to the effect that all ambassadors to the Holy See enjoy dplomatc prvleges n Italy. It s an asset much valued by the Tape government. The ambassador takes full advantage of hs poston to mprove hs government's relatons wth other European countres. 234 Unversty Nowadays, the tensons between Tawan and the Manland seem to be dffused due to better cooperaton. Ths wll certanly help the Holy See to fnd a way to have tes wth both Chnese governments. Indeed, whle havng good tes wth Tawan, the Pope wants to open the door to the many Catholcs who lve n Chna. It s also mportant to underlne that the relatons between the Vatcan and Chna depend more on matters concernng relgous freedom on the Manland than on the ssue of 234 Chan, G. (1989, December), op. ct., p

112 Vatcan Cty's dplomatc relatons wth the ROC. 235 Natonal Unversty 235 Lu, M. (1999, March 26). Holy See urged to respect tes. Tawan Today. Retreved december 11, 2011, from 99

113 5. The Holy See and the Efforts of Rapprochement wth Chna under the Pontfcate of Pope Benedct XVI 5.1. Introducton The death of Pope John Paul II underlnes the gulf that stll exsts between the Roman Catholc Church and the People's Republc of Chna, two of the world's largest and most mportant bodes. It was the ardent desre of the late pontff to vst Chna durng hs lfetme, but he was dened even the chance to vst Hong Kong durng an Asan tour n At the tme, Bejng ponted out that the Vatcan stll mantaned dplomatc relatons wth Tawan, underscorng the fact that, though the Pope s vewed by most as a relgous leader, Bejng sees hm as t sees the Dala Lama as a poltcal fgure. 236 Pope John Paul II truly desred to establsh tes wth Chna and showed durng hs long pontfcate many sgns of goodwll of the Holy See toward Chna. On the other sde, the PRC has always remnded the Vatcan ts Natonal two pre-condtons n order to mprove the blateral relatons. Frst, the Vatcan must sever dplomatc relatons wth Tawan; t should recognze the Government of the People's Republc of Chna as the sole legal government representng all of Chna, wth Tawan beng an undsputable part of Chna. Second, the Vatcan must not Unversty nterfere wth the nternal affars of Chna n the name of relgon. The People's Republc of Chna alone among the natons of the world dd not send any Delegate to attend the funeral servces of Pope John Paul II. Even the Foregn Affars Mnstry spokesperson Lu Janchao's words of condolence for the Pope's death ndcated lttle sorrow, followed by the same decades-old two pre-condtons. 237 The Chnese Catholc Patrotc Assocaton sent condolences as well, but no Catholcs from Chna 236 Chng, F. (2005).Sno-Vatcan relatons after the death of Jean-Paul II.Chna Bref, 5(8). Retreved October 15, 2011, from Crveller, G. (2005, Summer). John Paul II and Chna.Trpod, XXV(137), p

114 were allowed go to the funeral. The offcal messages sent by Bejng were repeated n the meda. There was lttle to justfy the optmstc analyss expressed, for example, by experts wrtng from Rome and Bejng, who nterpreted the moves from Bejng as encouragng and as a breakthrough Pope Benedct XVI and hs Attempts to Dalogue wth Chna The Begnnng of a New Phase Wth John Paul IIs death and the electon of Benedct XVI, the Chnese have started to send postve sgns to the Holy See. Indeed, for the frst tme ever, the PRC government sent a message to congratulate the Pope at the occason of hs electon. Chnese authortes showed nterest n resumng dplomatc relatons wth the Vatcan. Wth the electon of Benedct the XVI, many hopes and expectatons have been rased about the normalzatons of Sno-Vatcan relatons. For the Chnese Natonal Communsts, ths electon was the begnnng of a new phase. Indeed, they dd not trust the former Pope, John Paul II, who played an essental role n the downfall of European communsm. In the encyclcal Centesmus Annus (1991), Pope John Paul II nvted the whole world to hal the collapse of Communsm and the comng of a Unversty new age. The rejocng of the Catholc Church over the collapse of Communsm n Europe formed a sharp contrast to the anxety of the Chnese leaders vs-à-vs the nternatonal adversary resultng from the Tananmen ncdent as well as the collapse of Communsm n Europe and n the Sovet Unon. 239 Chna consdered John Paul II as a threat to communsm and partly responsble for ts collapse n Europe. After watchng the nfluence of Pope John Paul II over Soldarty actvsts n the Gdansk 238 Charbonner, J., & Polt, G. (2006). Chna-Vatcan Relatons: In The Catholc Church n Chna: today and tomorrow. Leuven, Belgum: Ferdnand Verbest Insttute, p Leung, B. (2005). SnoVatcan Relatons at the Century's Turn.Journal of Contemporary Chna, 14(43), p

115 (Poland) shpyards, Deng Xaopng warned about the dangers of the Polsh dsease spreadng to Chna. 240 Under these crcumstances, a favorable response to Vatcan overtures n the 1990s could hardly be expected. 241 The Chnese Catholc Patrotc Assocaton and the Chnese Catholc Bshops' Conference sent a jont message of congratulatons to Cardnal Joseph Ratznger of Germany on hs electon as the 265th Pope of the Roman Catholc Church. In ths congratulatory message, was wrtten: It s our earnest hope that you would enhance the Sno-Vatcan relatons for the sake of the salvfc work of Jesus Chrst. 242 On ths occason, Foregn Mnstry spokesman Qn Gang, whle recallng the so-called two precondtons, sad that: Natonal We hope that under the leadershp of the new Pope, the Vatcan can create favorable condtons for the mprovement of Chna-Vatcan relatons. 243 The transton between the papaces of John Paul II and Benedct XVI also marked both hghs and lows. For example, n 2005, several bshops were ordaned Unversty and approved by both the CCPA and the Vatcan. Pope Benedct XVI even offcally receved a group of 28 CCPA bshops and semnary admnstrators to Rome n August Ths envronment soured, however, n 2006, wth the Chnese appontment of three bshops wthout Vatcan consent (n Kunmng, Anhu, and 240 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September). The Red Flag and the Rng: the dances surroundng the Vatcan tes. Asan Poltcs & Polcy, 1(3), p Leung, B. (1998, March). The Sno-Vatcan Negotatons: Old Problems n a New Context. The Chna Quarterly, 153, p ChnaDalyagences. (2005, Aprl 20). Chna congratulates Ratznger as new Pope. Chna Daly. Retreved February 17, 2012, from XnhuaNewsAgency. (2005, Aprl 21). Chna congratulates New Pope. Chna.org.cn. Retreved February 17, 2012, from 102

116 Suzhou), whch generated a swft and ferce response from the Vatcan, ncludng the remnder that under canon law, bshops who are ordaned llctly, as well as those who take part n any related ceremones, could face potental excommuncaton from the Church Cardnal Zen and the Vatcans New Polcy on Chna To show hs goodwll to establsh dalogue wth Chna, Pope Benedct XVI decded to create Cardnal the Bshop Joseph Zen of Hong on 24 March Most Reverend Zen's appontment as cardnal was welcomed by Chnese Catholcs as a great sgn of hope. Msgr We Jngy, unoffcal Chnese bshop of Qqhar sad: I thnk the Pope apponted Bshop Zen precsely because he s Chnese. It s a perfect decson, just and ntellgent. Ths appontment expresses the fact that, for the Pope, the Chnese naton and the Chnese Church have an mportant place n hs heart. 245 Natonal Bshop Zen s well known for hs advocacy of relgous freedom and democracy but also for hs good mastery of Theology and the socal teachngs of the Unversty Church. He s defntely a frm defender of Catholc prncples and values. As a matter of fact, followng the appontment of Bshop Joseph Zen, as cardnal, the Chnese foregn mnstry made known ts poston on the ssue. It warned the head of the Catholc Church n Hong Kong not to meddle n poltcs. At a news brefng n Bejng, foregn mnstry spokesman Lu Janchao sad that the Chnese government had noted the appontment and beleved the Catholc Church had all along advocated 244 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September), op. ct., p AsaNews.t. (2006, February 22). Card. Zen a great help for unty, development of Chnese Church, says underground bshop. AsaNews.t. Retreved February 15, 2012, from says-underground-bshop-5461.html 103

117 that relgous fgures should not nterfere n poltcs. In fact, Bshop Zen had frequently been crtcal of Bejng n the past. On the other hand, Bshop Zen sad he saw hs appontment as an ndcaton of a very specal fondness for the Chnese people. He hoped hs appontment could help end the 55-year dspute between the Vatcan and Chna. 246 Cardnal Govann Lajolo, former Secretary for Relatons wth States of the Holy See, sad that: In makng the bshop of Hong Kong a cardnal, the Pope trusts that ths gesture wll be understood correctly and, n a certan way, recprocated. He added: In our opnon, the tme s rpe; the Chnese authortes cannot gnore the expectatons of ther own people, nor the sgns of the tmes. 247 These two comments of Cardnal Lajolo show that the Vatcan s wllng to start a real dalogue wth Chna but also that t has a clear message addressed to Chna about freedom and democracy. Pope Benedct XVI wanted to make a gesture toward Chna as an nvtaton to ntate tes. Although the Holy Father sent these Natonal sgns of frendshp and overtures, three bshops of the CCPA were ordaned n 2006 wthout any mandate of the Pope. These events terrbly damaged the path of possble dalogue and dplomatc relatons. Unversty A Vatcan Prvate Top Level Meetng on Chna n January 2007 Despte these ordnatons, Pope Benedct XVI was not dscouraged and summoned a meetng n January The meetng, chared by Cardnal Bertone, Secretary of State, took place at the Vatcan on January 19th and 20th. There were 20 people, ncludng Cardnal Joseph Zen and Cardnal Paul Shan, emertus bshop 246 CatholcNewsAgency. (2006, February 23). Chnese Offcal warns newly apponted Cardnal, Bshop Zen, not to nterfere nto poltcs. Catholc News Agency. Retreved February 17, 2012, from p_zen_not_to_nterfere_nto_poltcs/ 247 Magster, S. (2006, March 3). The Vatcans New Polcy on Chna Has a Color: Cardnal Red. Retreved February 15, 2012, from

118 of Kaohsung, Tawan, as well as other Chnese prelates from Hong Kong, Macau and Tawan. Several Vatcan offcals were also nvolved: Cardnal Ivan Das, Prefect of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples; Cardnal Wllam Levada, Prefect of the Congregaton for the Doctrne of the Fath; and Cardnal Julan Herranz Casado, Presdent of the Pontfcal Councl for Legslatve Texts as well as Archbshop Claudo Mara Cell 248, Secretary of the Admnstraton of the Patrmony of the Apostolc See. By gatherng so many emnent personaltes and specalsts about Chna, Pope Benedct XVI wanted to map out a wde-rangng strategy to assst the Church n Chna n the future and to deepen the understandng of the stuaton of the Catholc Church n Manland Chna. 249 Chna s defntely a major concern for the Holy Father and s at the center of hs relgous geopoltcs. The press release related ssued after the meetng expressed the wll of the Holy See to contnue on the journey of a respectful and constructve dalogue wth the Chnese Natonal governng authortes n order to overcome past dffcultes, emerged. Moreover, the hope was expressed that a normalzaton of relatons on all levels would come to pass n order to allow a peaceful and frutful lfe of fath n the Church and to work together for the good of the people of Chna and peace n the world. 250 Unversty Ths communqué also announced that Pope Benedct XVI wll address a letter to the Catholcs n Chna. The letter s expected to reaffrm fundamental prncples concernng the dvne consttuton of the Church as well as relgous lberty, and state clearly what consttutes the herarchcal structure of the Church founded by 248 Archbshop Cell, who went as the Pope's envoy to Bejng n 2006, s regarded as the most experenced Vatcan offcal on the Chna queston. 249 O'Connell, G. (2007, January 31). Vatcan Vsta.UCAN News. Retreved February 25, 2012, from AsaNews.t. (2007, January 20). The Pope prepares a letter to Chnas Catholcs. AsaNews.t. Retreved February 15, 2012, from 105

119 Chrst, ncludng the fundamental role of the Pope n appontng bshops Pope Benedct XVI s Letter to Chnese Catholcs An Appeal for Cooperaton at the Servce of Humanknd State and Church serve the people on two dfferent levels: the State as a poltcal power, the Church as a relgous body contrbutng a sprtual force to the belevers and encouragng them to act as good ctzens. There s no conflct between the two powers. On the contrary, there s an appeal for cooperaton n the servce of the same human bengs. 252 The Letter of the Holy Father Pope Benedct XVI to the Bshops, Prests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Fathful of the Catholc Church n the Peoples Republc of Chna 253 so long expected, was fnally publshed on June 30, The Letter, dated May 27 th on the Feast of Pentecost, s dvded nto two parts: the stuaton of the Church, theologcal aspects and gudelnes for pastoral Natonal lfe - and a concluson. The letter was posted on the Vatcan's Web ste n several languages: Chnese, French, Englsh and Italan and had been sent earler to Chnese authortes as a courtesy. Unversty In the very frst part of ths letter, the Holy Father prased Chna and underlned the splendor of ts ancent cvlzaton, wth all ts experence of wsdom, phlosophy, art and scence. Moreover, he noted the achevements of Chna and ts goals of soco-economc progress that attracts the nterest of the entre world. For the 251 O'Connell, G. (2007, January 31). Vatcan Vsta.UCAN News. Retreved February 25, 2012, from Charbonner, J. (2007, Autumn). Pope Benedct opens a brght horzon to Catholcs n Chna. Trpod, XXVII(146), p BenedctXVI. (May 27, 2007). Letter of the Holy Father Pope Benedct XVI to the Bshops, Prest, Consecrated Persons and Lay Fathful of the Catholc Church n the Peoples Republc of Chna. Retreved November 12, 2010, from hna_en.html 106

120 Church, human bengs are the center of concern. Indeed, Pope Benedct XVI recalled that the msson of the Church s to promote and defend the human dgnty. He proposed to Chna to cooperate wth the Church n ths msson of defense of world peace, human dgnty and justce. Pope Benedct XVI stated: As my venerable predecessor Pope John Paul II once sad, "The Catholc Church for her part regards wth respect ths mpressve thrust and far-sghted plannng, and wth dscreton offers her own contrbuton n the promoton and defense of the human person, and of the person's values, sprtualty and transcendent vocaton. The Church has very much at heart the values and objectves whch are of prmary mportance also to modern Chna: soldarty, peace, socal justce, the wse management of phenomenon of globalzaton. Wth ts values and moral prncples, as well as wth ts sprtualty, the Church can brng to Chna another stone to the wsdom that Chna has nherted along ts Natonal long hstory. Both can beneft from each other and offer the best to the so-called global world for the servce of man. Together, they can play a great role n the servce of peace that s the supreme good for all men. The presence of the Church n Chna can be consdered as postve snce t has only the sublme deal to be n Unversty soldarty whch each human beng. The servce of the Church n Chna wll not only enrch the great and wse Chnese values and phlosophy but also refne sprtualty. In ths letter, Pope Benedct XVI shows how much he wants to reconcle wth Chna. There s no sgn or no call for confrontaton. He only wants to ntate a dalogue for mutual understandng. Ths letter, dfferent from prevous Papal letters whch condemned communsm and the socalst system, s a message of love for the Chnese Catholcs and for the whole Chnese people. 107

121 An Appeal for a Unfed Chnese Catholc Church Leaders n Rome have long nssted that there s only one Roman Catholc Church n Chna, albet dvded nto dfferent communtes. Yet representatves on the ground are often caught n a vrtual tug of war between duelng nstructons and mxed messages. One unregstered bshop lamented, The Holy See wants us to reconcle but does not tell us how to proceed or gve us any clear nstructons. 254 In hs 2007 letter to the Church n Chna, Pope Benedct XVI establshed new gudelnes to favor cooperaton between clandestne Catholc communtes and those offcally regstered wth the government. The Papal letter strongly crtczed the lmts placed by the Chnese government on the Church's actvtes. But on several key ssues, ncludng the appontment of bshops, t nvted cvl authortes to a fresh and serous dalogue. 255 Pope Benedct attempted to strke a balance between settng the stage for future dalogue and speakng to the fractures wthn the Chnese Natonal Catholc communty. He worked to dstngush the Churchs aspratons from poltcal goals, denyng any specfc poltcal agenda and encouragng Catholcs to be mndful of ther need to be good ctzens. The Papal letter to Chnese Catholcs states, The Catholc Church whch s n Chna, does not have a msson to change Unversty the structure or admnstraton of the State; rather, her msson s to proclam Chrst to men and women (Pope Benedct XVI, 2007, sec. 4, para. 7). Pope Benedct remnded that Chrst dd not wsh to be a poltcal Messah, but nstead he bore wtness to the truth but refused to use force to mpose t on those who spoke out aganst t (Pope Benedct XVI, 2007, sec. 7, para. 2). Wthn ths text, the Pope spoke of the few bshops named wthout Vatcan approval who have as yet faled to 254 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September), op. ct., p Thavs, J. (2007, June 30). Papal letter to Chnese Catholcs seeks to unte dvded communtes. Catholc News Servce. Retreved from 108

122 seek such justfcaton. He stated, although not n communon wth the Pope, they exercse ther mnstry valdly n the admnstraton of the sacraments, even f they do so llegtmately (Pope Benedct XVI, 2007, sec. 8, para. 12). By permttng Communon between unregstered Catholcs and prests afflated wth the CCPA, Pope Benedct addressed one of the greatest areas of dspute between some Chnese Catholcs: whether ndvduals could, n rght conscence, receve sacraments from ndvduals afflated wth the CCPA. At the same tme as he ssued ths sgnfcant olve branch, he also requested that all bshops of the Church be n vsble and concrete communon wth the Pope (Pope Benedct XVI, 2007, sec. 5, para. 4)a call to those who proclam loyalty to Rome whle subscrbng to the ndependence of the Chnese Catholc Church as requred by the CCPA. Throughout the letter, Pope Benedct called for a unfed Chnese Catholc Church grounded n reconclaton even whle recognzng the ntense pan regardng the dvsons that exst between Natonal some Catholc communtes n the country. 256 Unversty Indeed, the letter contaned mportant drectves amed at brdgng the gap between Catholc communtes that have regstered wth the Chnese authortes -- and therefore operate under certan offcal lmts -- and Catholc communtes that have practced the fath n a more clandestne fashon, professng full loyalty to the Pope. 257 In ths letter, Pope Benedct XVI clearly appeals for unty and reconclaton between the clandestne Church and the offcal Church recognzed by the Chnese government An Appeal for Relgous Freedom: the Appontment of Bshops n Chna In ths letter, Pope Benedct XVI also addressed the thorny queston of the selecton and ordnaton of bshops. Dsputng Chnese government arguments, he 256 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September), op. ct., p Thavs, J. (2007, June 30), op.ct. 109

123 sad that when a Pope names bshops, t s an exercse of hs supreme sprtual authorty and not a poltcal act. It s also a queston of basc relgous lberty. 258 Moreover, n order to uphold the unrenounceable prncples of separaton between State and Church and protect the Catholc doctrne, Benedct XVI stated that the CCPA s unacceptable. Wth ts attempts at ndependence and autonomy, self-management and democratc admnstraton of the Church the CCPA runs the rsk of dstortng the lfe of the catholc communon tself. Thus sprtual, not poltcal needs have led Benedct XVI to condemn the actvtes of the CCPA and demand freedom n matters of appontments. The letter s clearly a sprtual message and for ths reason wll have a greater mpact on Chna than any poltcal row. 259 Appontments of bshops by the Holy Father are an exclusve rght of the Church and essental to relgous freedom. However, Chna wants to have ths rght to name bshops. Ths condton of the Chnese government s totally unacceptable by the Natonal Holy See. Nevertheless, Pope Benedct XVI admts there s a possble way to fnd an accord on the procedure of appontment of bshops snce recognzng bshops has also cvl effects. Pope Benedct XVI sad that The Holy See would lke to be completely free to appont bshops. He nvted Chnese authortes to reach an Unversty agreement wth the Church n order to resolve the stuaton, n whch some bshops contnue to be selected and ordaned wthout Papal approval. The Holy Father outlned three stuatons: (1) Some bshops, eager to mantan loyalty to the Pope, have chosen to be ordaned clandestnely, wthout government approval. The Pope sad that because the clandestne condton s not a normal feature of the Church's lfe, the Vatcan 258 Thavs, J. (2007, June 30), op.ct. 259 Cervellera, B. (2007, June 30). Popes letter: for truth and love of the Church and Chna. AsaNews.t. Retreved February 17, 2012, from 110

124 hopes these bshops wll be recognzed by the government. (2) Other bshops have been ordaned wthout Papal approval, but have later sought and obtaned communon wth the Pope, who has granted t. Unfortunately, the Pope sad, n most cases the prests and fathful of the docese have not been nformed of the bshop's reconclaton wth the Vatcan, gvng rse to serous problems of conscence. For ths reason, the Pope wrote n hs letter that t s ndspensable, for the sprtual good of the docesan communtes concerned, that legtmzaton, once t has occurred, s brought nto the publc doman at the earlest opportunty, and that the legtmzed bshops provde unequvocal and ncreasng sgns of full communon wth the successor of Peter. (3) Fnally, there are a small number of bshops who were ordaned wthout Natonal Papal approval and have not asked for reconclaton. The Pope encouraged them to re-enter the communon of the Church and noted that they exercsed ther mnstry valdly, f llegtmately. 260 The Catholc Bshops College n Chna recognzes the llegtmate bshops but doesnt welcome some bshops who are n communon wth Unversty the Pope. Because of ths very ssue, the Pope stated that ths epscopal college cannot be recognzed as a Bshops' Conference by the Vatcan The Aftermath of Pope Benedct XVI s Letter to the Church n Chna Reactons of the Chnese Government Hs Holness Pope Benedct XVI has tred many attempts to mprove the dalogue between the Vatcan and Chna. In hs 2007 letter, he exhorted the Chnese Catholcs to reman true to ther fath. Wth ths letter, the Holy Father also 260 Thavs, J. (2007, June 30), op.ct. 111

125 attempted to ease governmental concerns by nstructng Catholcs to strve to be good ctzens. Although, as a token of courtesy, the Holy See provded the Chnese government wth a copy of the letter ten days before ts publcaton, Chna's offcal reacton to the letter was stll crtcal, although somewhat restraned. The Foregn Affars Mnstry n Bejng gnored the call of the Pope for dalogue and even warned the Holy See not to create new obstacles. In a bref message, the Chnese Foregn Mnstry just sad that Bejng s wllng to contnue a dalogue wth the Vatcan, but remnded the Pope of the two pre-condtons: the non-nterference n Chnas nternal affars and the severance of dplomatc relatons wth Tawan. The Chnese government was embarrassed and unhappy about the Popes letter to Chnese Catholcs. In fact, the Chnese government's reacton to the Popes letter was very negatve. Cardnal Zen n a recent ntervew, on the day followng the Natonal prayng day for Chna, on May 25, 2012, sad that Bejng dd not want the Holy See to nsnuate the dea that the Chnese Church s persecuted by cvl authortes. But he has no regrets about the letter, whch he sad was totally new and unque and a very eloquent sgn of how much Benedct XVI cares for the Church n Unversty Chna an ssue on whch he s nformed n great detal. For now, Cardnal Zen beleves t s mportant to hope and work for reconclaton between the underground communty and ther brothers who are now stll under the slavery of the patrotc assocaton. He added that Humanly speakng, we see no ntenton of the government wllng to recognze relgous freedom. 261 In fact, when dealng wth senstve ssues, Chnese leaders prefer not to speak n the frst person, or to react too quckly. They let ther mddle-level offcals speak and take acton. Therefore the 261 Pentn, E. (2012, May 25). A day of prayer for Chna.Newsmax. Retreved May 25, 2012, from 112

126 Unted Front Work Department of the Communst Party, even before the letter was publshed, summoned some offcal bshops to Huarou, near Bejng, to nstruct them about the letter. Ye Xaowen, drector of the Councl's State Admnstraton for Relgous Affars, was also there, reassertng the State's polces. Another key government offcal, Mr. Lu Banan, Secretary of the Patrotc Assocaton, sad that hs organzaton would not dstrbute the letter. That means no one wll take responsblty for ths, snce relgous publcatons need government authorzaton. Certanly the heavy suppresson of the letter all over Chna, whle not unexpected, does not presage a good reacton from the government 262. Moreover, Ye Xaowen supposedly addressed the partcpants and told them that we have served you wth maota, the best lquor n Chna. After drnkng t, you no longer need foregn wne, whch s one way of reassertng the plan to set up an ndependent Chnese Catholc Church, somethng that the Pope cannot countenance snce t s contrary to Catholc doctrne. 263 Natonal Today, almost fve years after ths letter, there s no notceable change n Chnas relgous polcy or any postve effects but rather more complcatons. In fact, Unversty the Chnese government has not accepted the Papal letter and consdered t as not realstc. The CCPA has stll contnued to name bshops accordng to ts needs wthout any approval of the Holy Father despte hs 2007 letter and hs wll of reconclaton. 262 Crveller, G. (2007, Autumn). Reactons to the letter of Pope Benedct XVI to the Chnese Church.Trpod, XXVII(146), pp AsaNews.t. (2007, July 2). Subdued but predctable reactons n Chna to Popes letter.asanews.t. Retreved February 21, 2012, from 113

127 Reactons of the Holy See In lght of Pope Benedct XVIs recent letter to Catholcs n Chna, Vce-Charman of the CCPA Lu Banan created a bg surprse when he declared that he hoped to see the Pope vst and celebrate Mass n Bejng durng an ntervew publshed on July 24 n the Italan daly La Repubblca. He sad that he wanted to use the ntervew as an opportunty to send the Pope hs organzatons prayers and an nvtaton to vst. [We want to] Let hm know that we pray for hm always and may the Lord gve us the grace to welcome hm here among us. Then, he added: I strongly hope to be able to see the Pope one day here n Bejng to celebrate Mass for us Chnese. After such an nvtaton, Pope Benedct, who was reached whle leavng a meetng wth local clergy n Northern Italy repled, I can't speak at ths tme It's a bt complcated accordng to ANSA news agency. The Holy Father has Natonal chosen not to comment because of the complexty of the ssue. 264 Unversty However, the followng, Lu Banan, dened the nvtaton, nsstng agan that hopes are mpossble untl dplomatc tes are normalzed, whch means that the Vatcan cut tes wth Tawan and stay out of Chnese relgous affars. 265 The Holy Father, surely because he was well aware of hs nterlocutor, was extremely prudent and dd not rejoce too quckly. Cardnal Bertone commented on ths nvtaton and sad that t was not done formally by the Chnese authortes. The nvtaton was made by an ndvdual, n hs personal capacty, and not n the name of the Chnese 264 CatholcNewsAgency. (2007, July 24). Chnese offcal nvtes Pope Benedct to vst Chna. Catholc News Agency. Retreved February 23, 2012, from AsaNews.t. (2007, July 26). Lu Banan goes back on hs nvtaton to Pope, and the government talks of changng tmes. AsaNews.t. Retreved February 25, 2012, from 114

128 government. 266 Therefore, the nvtaton or the revocaton of ths nvtaton should not cause any reacton or be seen as an offense snce t was not done by offcal channels but smply by one person durng a press conference. The reservaton of the Chnese authortes and the terse message from the Chnese Foregn Mnstry recallng the two precondtons was judged n the Vatcan as a postve realty. 267 Vatcan Secretary of State Cardnal Tarcso Bertone, had underlned the lack of government response, hypotheszng a moment of thought and reflecton. 268 It s supposed that there s a dfference n vewponts, n Chna, between the hghest poltcal authortes who are amng at greater harmony wth the Church and the apparatus of the communst party, whch s more hostle. 269 seems that the Holy See wanted to be extremely patent but also prudent toward the It Chnese authortes. It ddnt want to hurry Chna perhaps for fear of rrtatng t. In Natonal fact, the Vatcan dplomats, who are very sklled, ddnt want to show any regrets or any sgn of rrtaton to the Chnese slence. By keepng an optmstc atttude, they surely wanted to facltate the dalogue and cleverly lead the Chnese authortes toward possble negotatons. Unversty In the meantme, the frst new bshop elected n Chna accordng to offcal procedures, after the publcaton of the Popes letter, s that of Bejng. And the person pre-selected was such that n the Vatcan the news of the appontment was taken not as an affront, but as a relef. Ths new bshop-elect was Joseph L Shan, of 266 CatholcOnlne. (2007, August 19). Cardnal Bertone's Meetng Wth the Press. Catholc Onlne. Retreved February 27, 2012, from Magster, S. (2007, July 23). The Pope Wrtes, but the Bejng Authortes dont respond. Retreved February 27, 2012, from AsaNews.t. (2007, July 26), op. ct. 269 Magster, S. (2007, July 23), op. ct. 115

129 Bejng, from a strongly Catholc famly, a favorte of the fathful who had hm as a pastor n the commercal neghborhood of Wangfujn: entrely the opposte of hs predecessor, Mchael Fu Teshan, an adherent of the communst regme who has never reconcled wth the Pope. Cardnal Bertone descrbed the new bshop-elect as a very good and sutable person. And he added: The electon took place accordng to the canons of the offcal Church, and now we are watng for the bshop-elect to ask for the approval of the Holy See. We are optmsts. 270 The atttude of the Holy See s exceptonal and shows how much the Pope wants to reconcle wth Chna. A few months after the publcaton of the Popes letter, n a press conference durng hs vst to the annual conventon of the Knghts of Columbus, n Nashvlle, Tennessee, Cardnal Bertone sad that the areas that the Pope dealt wth n that letter and the manner n whch he dealt wth them were the best possble way that the Holy See could address the stuaton n Chna, probably Natonal much more than many of the artcles read n the newspapers. By that, he certanly wanted to say that there s no need to add any other comment to the Popes letter as t s very clear and explans the entre pont of vew of the Holy See. He added that the letter of the Pope to the Chnese Catholcs s a hstorcal moment and consttutes Unversty a watershed between the past and the future n the relatonshp between Chna and the Catholc Church. Therefore, the only best thng to do s not to add more words to the letter but to wat for an offcal reply of the Chnese authortes. The Wat and See atttude of the Holy See was well notced when he sad: The queston of a vst has been suspended for the tme beng, and we are watng for some knd of move on the part of the Chnese government. At ths tme we are at a moment of reflecton Ibd. 271 Catholc Onlne.(2007, August 19), op. ct. 116

130 5.5. Concluson Pope Benedct XVI, snce hs electon, has shown to Chna hs clear goodwll to ntate a frank and frutful dalogue wth Chna for a better understandng. Wth the elevaton of Bshop Zen of Hong Kong to cardnal, the establshment of the Commsson on the Church n Chna and hs letter to the Chnese Catholcs, the Holy Father tred to fnd a way to reach the Chnese authortes and prove to them that the Church wll cooperate for the greatest beneft of the Manland Chnese. However, Chna has not really repled postvely to the sgns and messages of the Pontff. The fact that Chna has constantly gnored the appeals of the Church shows n a way that there s a fear of conflct of authorty. Chna defntely doesnt share the same doctrne wth the Church and s certanly not wllng to confront ts convctons to those completely opposte to that of the Catholc teachng. Snce 1951, Natonal the Holy See has not been able to normalze ts dplomatc relatons wth Manland Chna who always recalls ts two pre-condtons. It seems that the shftng of the Nuncature from Tape to Bejng wont happen n a foreseeable future. However, n order to assert and confrm ths statement t s necessary to understand the relgon Unversty polcy of the PRC and ts practce. 117

131 6. Dffcultes n Normalzng Sno-Vatcan Relatons 6.1. Introducton All relgons present world vews that contradct the Marxst-Lennst deology of dalectc materalsm. Relatons between Church and state have hstorcally ranged from relatvely mld tensons, found n western democraces, to fundamental conflcts over authorty, found n authortaran, especally communst states. Wth Mao Zedongs emphass on class struggle and hs ntolerant approach to deologcal ssues, Chnas relgous dealsm ncludng Catholcsm had to gve way to the communst thought. Mao proclamed the PRC n 1949 and n 1951 Sno-Vatcan relatons were formally broken wth the expulson of the Internunco, Archbshop Antono Rber. The Bolshevk nature of the Chnese Communst Party germnated the conflct when nsttutonal control was nstrumental to promotng the nterests of Natonal the Party. In Maost, Chna, the prevalence of Marxsm-Lennsm and Maost thought allowed no room for devatng deas, ncludng relgon. 272 Unversty Only after Deng Xaopng ntated the modernzaton polcy n 1978, and Chna began to emerge from ts solaton, was there a possblty for dalogue, wth the vew of establshng a Sno-Vatcan Concordat. 273 However, untl now relatons between the Holy See and the PRC are stll at a stalemate. The Holy Sees goals n negotatng for the normalzaton of ts dplomatc relatons wth Chna are to enhance the development of the Chnese Catholc Church and to be able to serve all men and women on the Manland. However, the relgous polcy of Chna, and, more specfcally the ssue of the appontment of bshops, make the process of normalzaton of dplomatc 272 Leung, B. (2005, May). SnoVatcan Relatons at the Century's Turn.Journal of Contemporary Chna, 14(43), p Leung, Beatrce, Chnese book..sno-vatcan relatons on the thresold of the twenty-frst century, p

132 relatons, more dffcult. Moreover, the Chnese authortes have been constantly askng the Vatcan to break ts tes wth Chna and to consder Bejng as the sole legtmate government of the PRC and Tawan as part of t. Chna seems to dctate the rule of ths negotaton but the Holy See, based on ts prncples of relgous freedom and human dgnty, cannot accept all the condtons that the PRC has tred to mpose The Relgous Polcy of the PRC and ts Practce The Maost Ideology vs-à-vs Relgon The Chnese Communst Partys atttude to relgon rests on deologcal foundatons. In concurrence wth the ams of Marxst-Lennsm/Maosm, the CCP seeks the eradcaton of relgon as ts overall goal. 274 On October 1, 1949, Ma Zedong, havng defeated hs Natonalst fellow ctzens, proclamed the nauguraton Natonal of the Peoples Republc of Chna. From that day, the Communsts appled the Marxst doctrne n Chna and ts negatve outlook toward relgon. Karl Marx sad that: Unversty Relgous sufferng s, at one and the same tme, the expresson of real sufferng and a protest aganst real sufferng. Relgon s the sgh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless condtons. It s the opum of the people. 275 The doctrne of Karl Marx s fundamentally athest. He consders relgon as the most evdent expresson of humantys alenaton when t s subjected to economc explotaton. For hm, relgon s the llusory dream of sufferng humanty 274 Leung, B. (2001). Communst Party-Vatcan nterplay over the tranng of Church leaders n Chna. Journal for the Scentfc Study of Relgon, 40(4), p Marx, K. Crtque of Hegel's Phlosophy of Rght, CamBrdge Unversty Press, Ed. Joseph OMalley 119

133 and an nstrument of domnaton for those who explot ther fellow human bengs. He thought that t dstracts human bengs from ther real task n the world and consequently has a paralyzng and narcotc effect. When Mao frst began to lead the Chnese people to the so-called socalst utopa, no deologcal rval could have any legtmacy. In ths early perod, relgous freedom was smply part of a polcy to destroy relgon and pave the way for unversal acceptance of socalst orthodoxes. 276 In the frst consttuton of the PRC, promulgated on September 20, 1954, freedom to beleve or not to beleve was affrmed. Indeed the consttuton of the PRC mentoned that ts ctzens can enjoy freedom of relgous belef. However relgous freedom only exsted nsofar as belevers dd not promote counterrevolutonary actvtes. Then, the Chnese Communst government also founded the Offce for Relgous Affars n order to control relgons at the dfferent levels of admnstraton: natonal, provncal and local. The dfferent offces Natonal regulated relgous actvtes accordng to the drectves of the Unted Front, the Communst Partys organ of propaganda. Inspred by the doctrne of Karl Marx, Chnese Communsts rejected relgon and consdered t as an outdated superstton left over from the prevous socety. They were guded by one of the thoughts of Mao Unversty Zedong: The dols were set up by the set up by the peasants, and n tme they wll pull them down wth ther own hands, there s no need for anybody else prematurely to pull down the dols for them. 277 In 1949, Mao Zedong proclamed the monopoly of hs own brand of Marxsm-Lennsm. Socal reforms were launched to elmnate mperalsm, 276 Leung, B. (2005, December). Chna's relgous freedom polcy: the art of managng relgous actvty. The Chna Quaterly, 184, p Charbonner, J. (2007). Chrstans n Chna. San Francsco, USA: Ignatus Press, p

134 feudalsm and bureaucratsm and to prepare for the growth of a poltcal regme of democratc centralsm. Apart from the deologcal ncompatblty of athest Marxsm-Lennsm and relgon, Chnese leaders beleved relgon to be closely lnked to both foregn cultural mperalsm (Chrstanty) and feudalsm (Buddhsm and Taosm). Ths belef set the tone for relgon-state relatons and renforced basc deologcal conflct. 278 Artcle 5 of the Common Programme as lad down by the Chnese Peoples Poltcal Consultatve Conference (CPPCC) n 1949, stated that the people of the PRC are enttled to enjoy freedom thought, speech, publcaton, assembly, assocaton, correspondence, person, domcle, change of domcle and demonstratons. 279 Then, n order to admnster relgous affars n the PRC, the Communst leaders created the Offce of Relgous Affars Bureau and the Party's Unted Front Work Department. Snce the 1950s, the PRC has named fve major relgons as acceptable for ts ctzens: Buddhsm, Taosm, Islam, Natonal Protestantsm, and Catholcsm, even though CCP members are barred from formal relgous afflatons. The offcally recognzed assocatons are afforded legal exstence and even support from the government, by way of CCP-sanctoned patrotc assocatons, buldngs, semnares, and publshng outlets. Yet lmts are Unversty enforced. Especally problematc, n the vew of Bejng, s the combnaton of relgon and actvsm, ncludng separatsm (Muslms n Xnjang, Buddhsts n Tbet) and revolutonary actvsm (Catholcs n Eastern Europe). 280 Nevertheless, there exsts an deologcal stalemate between the CCP and a varety of world relgons. In fact, Bejng perceves that relgon has been employed by nternatonal subversve forces to westernze and dvde Chna. The CCP also beleves that by plantng 278 Leung, B. (2005, December).op. ct., p Leung, B. (1992). Sno-Vatcan Relatons: Problems n Conflctng Authorty, CamBrdge, Unted Kngdom: CamBrdge Unversty Press, p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September). The Red Flag and the Rng: the dances surroundng the Vatcan tes. Asan Poltcs & Polcy, 1(3), p

135 relgous questons, dark foregn forces have been tryng to attan the poltcal goal of pluralzng Chna as a means of subverson The Maost deology and Catholcsm Wth Maost fears of mperalsm many foregn prests were expelled. For the Chnese Communsts, Chrstans had been closely lnked to Westerners and had been the nstruments of mperalst transgresson; all ther lnks outsde Chna were therefore severed. Catholcs were especally suspect due to ther connectons wth the European Pope. Thus, between 1951 and 1955 all foregn mssonares were expelled from Chna. Chrstans were forced to demand expulson of the mssonares, so as to gve proof of ther ant-mperalst convctons. 282 relgous freedom polcy (to beleve or not beleve) was launched n 1950 to deal The wth relgous matters and deologcal conflct n the context of current polces. For Natonal example, the expulson of foregn mssonares n the 1950s was part of the states ant-amercan mperalsm polcy. 283 Unversty At the same tme, the CCP launched the so-called Three Autonomes Movement (self-government, self-support and self-propagaton) n order to establsh natonal Churches ndependent from the West but frmly under ts control. Ths was clearly meant to sever the Chnese Churchs tes wth the Vatcan and to pursue the PRCs deologcal stance on self-suffcency. In 1957 the Chnese Catholc Patrotc Assocaton (CCPA) was establshed, staffed wth cadres from the Relgous Affars Bureau. Ths organzaton s not a Church n and of tself; rather, t s an arm of the Party, ensurng that Catholc groups follow certan formaltes and procedures. The man organzatonal am s to sever Catholc allegance to Rome; to ths effect the CCPA has apponted many Bshops of ts own 281 Leung, B. (2005, May).op. ct., p Charbonner, J. (2007). op. ct., pp Leung, B. (2005, December).op. ct., p

136 accord gnorng Roman Catholc Canon Law whch states that Bshops must be apponted by the Holy See. Ths shows a clear attempt by the CCP to avod external nfluence. 284 The Chnese government requred congregants and prests alke to regster and declare ther allegance to the CCPA, ndvduals refusng to submt to ths authorty contnued to practce ther fath outsde of offcal channels, subjectng themselves to great rsk, ncludng fnes, dsappearances, mprsonment, and even torture. Durng the Cultural Revoluton ( ), relgous belevers, both regstered and unregstered, were brutally targeted, all Churches were shuttered, and nearly all foregn connectons were severed. 285 All evdence shows that the Red Guards were the worst enemes of relgon. These hundreds of thousands of revolutonary teenagers were often hoolgans n western terms. Not only dd the non-ccpa Catholcs have a dffcult tme, but even CCPA Catholcs were purged. The CCPA was dsbanded and ts last meetng was held n 1962, after whch there Natonal were no more meetngs untl At the peak of ther frenzy n August 1966, the Red Guards desecrated Catholc Churches together wth other places of worshp; and they destroyed relgous artcles and lterature. They set out to destroy the Four Old Practces (old deas, old culture, old customs and old habts of explotng Unversty classes) n order, as they clamed, that new practces could be establshed. Relgon, beng part of the old world, was merclessly purged, and relgous actvtes were ordered to come to an end Deng Xaopngs Open Door polcy and ts Effects on Relgon The Thrd Plenum of the Central Commttee of the CCP n December 1978 s 284 Leung, B. (2001).op. ct., p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September).op. ct., p Leung, B. (1992). Sno-Vatcan Relatons: Problems n Conflctng Authorty, CamBrdge, Unted Kngdom: CamBrdge Unversty Press, p

137 generally regarded as a watershed n the hstory of Chna, ths beng the occason when Deng Xaopng establshed hs ascendancy and the party launched the polces of reform and the Open Door. Great changes have taken place n Chnese socal lfe snce then. The economc reforms whch are transformng Chna, coupled wth a lmted degree of relaxaton n deology, have provded room for the revval of relgous actvtes n Chna. 287 In fact, the atmosphere of lberalsm under the open-door polcy of Deng Xaopng requred a softenng n the control of relgon n order to encourage natonal reconstructon and foregn nvestment. 288 Deng Xaopng thought that a better treatment of relgous adherents would ndrectly persuade anxous ntellectuals and professonals to beleve that hs modernzaton was a long term-polcy. It was therefore hoped that they would devote themselves to the natonal reconstructon. The offcal summary of the CCPs polcy on relgon ssued n 1982 as Document 19 stated the basc polcy as one of respect for and Natonal protecton of the freedom of relgous belef, ths pendng such future tme when relgon tself wll would dsappear. Whle recognzng that relgous belef was a prvate matter, and acknowledgng that coercon to prevent relgous belef would be counterproductve, the Party polcy nevertheless permtted the freedom not to Unversty beleve n relgon. The Party was also commtted to provdng propaganda to support athesm, and to usng ts control over the educatonal system to margnalze relgous belef. Document 19 prohbted grants of feudal prvleges to relgous organzatons and otherwse lmted ther capacty to recrut, proselytze and rase funds. Educaton of clergy and admnstraton of relgous organzatons and buldngs amed to ensure that relgous leaders remaned loyal to prncples of Party leadershp, socalsm, and natonal and ethnc unty. Document 19 also prohbted 287 Leung, B. (1992).op. ct., p Leung, B. (2005, December).op. ct., p

138 Party members from belevng n or partcpatng n relgon. 289 Wth the polces of reform and openng, Bejng began to loosen controls on many aspects of assocatonal lfe, ncludng relgous expresson. Even n the absence of formal dplomatc recognton, and n the face of rather severe lmtatons on unregstered assocatons, there are sgnfcant sgns of Catholc Chrstan lfe that cross the offcal and underground dstnctons, ncludng the restoraton of Churches, semnares, and convents, as well as the openng of large centers for socal concern and medcal servces that are run by vowed relgous. 290 The revval and prolferaton of relgous actvty that ensued concded wth an deologcal crss wthn the Party and country at large that alarmed Party leaders. Anxetes were further heghtened by the June 4th Tananmen ncdent and the collapse of communst states n the West. The confluence of these factors trggered a tghtenng of deologcal control and mportant changes n relgous polcy. 291 Natonal As a result, the CCP Central Commttee/State Councl' delvered a new document called Document No. 6 n Ths document emphaszed ncreased regulatory control over all relgous actvtes: mplementng admnstraton of relgous affars s amed at brngng relgous actvtes wthn the bounds of law, regulaton, and polcy, but not to Unversty nterfere wth normal relgous actvtes or the nternal affars of relgous organzatons. Whle the reference to non-nterference seemed bengn, the qualfcaton that ths extended only to normal actvtes suggested an overarchng purpose to confne relgon to the lmts of law and polcy. 292 The Tananmen ncdent, the formaton of a Chnese Underground Bshops Conference n 1989 or the emergence of the Falun Gong n 1997 alarmed the Chnese authortes who 289 Ptman, B. P. (2003, June). Belef n Control: Regulaton of Relgon n Chna. The Chna Quarterly, 174, p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September).op. ct., p Leung, B. (2005, December).op. ct., pp Ptman, B. P. (2003, June), op. ct., p

139 desred to tghten the control over ths phenomenon of prolferaton of relgon. Leaders wthn Chna are seekng ways to more effcently manage sprtual actvtes, whch by all accounts are ncreasng, by developng requrements for operatng wthout threat of mprsonment or harm. The State Admnstraton for Relgous Affars ssued regulatons n 2005 requrng the regstraton of all relgous bodes, an amorphous concept that was left undefned n the offcal language. Practcally speakng, authortes have requred both ndvduals and places to be on publc record n order to operate n the open. In many locales, clergy are beng requred to receve a prest lcense n order to work openly wthout nterference. Regstrants are often requred to concelebrate Mass wth a government-desgnated open Church bshop. Reports ndcate that ndvduals have been prevented from pastoral work or forced to leave f they proceed wthout a lcense. In response, the Vatcan has communcated ts support of ths lcensure (for Natonal members of the unregstered communty) f a consensus of local prests agree that t would be helpful n order to avod persecuton. The practcalty of fndng ths consensus has been dffcult, though, because of the nature of the unregstered Church and the dffculty of assembly. 293 Unversty However, these 2005 regulatons show that relgous practce s not encouraged by the Chnese authortes and severe restrctons reman n place despte a greater tolerance of relgon. It s clear that relgon s consdered as dangerous to natonal securty and socal order. It s wrtten n the artcle 3 of these regulatons on relgous affars: Relgous organzatons, relgous venues and relgous belevers ought to 293 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September).op. ct., p

140 obey the Consttuton, laws, rules and regulatons, and support the unty of the country, ethnc unty and the stablty of socety. No organzaton or ndvdual should use relgon to engage n actvtes whch destroy socal order, harm the bodly health of ctzens, nterfere n the State educatonal system, or harm the natonal nterest, the publc welfare of socety or the lawful rghts of ctzens. 294 In addton, the artcle 4 stpulates: Each relgon must adhere to the prncple of the ndependent runnng of ther relgon. Relgous organzatons, relgous venues and relgous affars are not subject to foregn domnaton. 295 In fact, much of the recent polcy rhetorc n Chna s addressed to the nternatonal arena to gve an mpresson that relgous freedom prevals. Chna tred to show openness when applyng at the World Trade Organzaton or before the Natonal Olympc Games n However, relgon s stll subject to the strct control of the Chnese government The challenge of the PRC to the Holy See: the Two Pre-Condtons Unversty The two pre-condtons necessary to mprove Chna-Vatcan relatons: the Vatcan must break relatons wth Tawan; the Holy See should not nterfere n Chna's nternal affars, not even n terms of relgon Frst Pre-condton: Relatons wth Tawan After Deng Xaopng ntated the polcy of openness as a component of hs modernzaton program, the Vatcan saw the opportunty to try and begn a dalogue 294 Barry, P. (2005, Sprng). Regulatons on Relgous Affars.Trpod, XXV(136), p Ibd., p

141 n order to establsh a Sno-Vatcan concordat. The frst overture was made n 1981 by Cardnal Casarol, the Secretary of State of the Vatcan. The Chnese responded by statng that negotatons would not be possble as long as the Vatcan mantaned dplomatc relatons wth Tawan. 296 Ths frst condton s consstently at the top of Chnas foregn polcy agenda, and the prospect of a Vatcan on ths ssue would be a large ncentve at least for further talks. Indeed, Chnas man concern n engagng n rapprochement wth the Vatcan s to solate Tawan. The severng of Tawan-Vatcan dplomatc relatons would be a natural outcome of establshng Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons. By solatng Tawan, Bejng hopes to force the government of the ROC to the negotatng table and move towards the reunfcaton of Tawan and Chna on Bejngs terms. Actually, the Tawan ssue s not the real problem n the process of the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons. Indeed, the Holy See addressed the PRC many tmes and made clear that t wanted to solve the queston Natonal of Tawan as long as t s done n a proper way. It s also mportant to recall that the Internunco Antono Rber wanted to stay n Chna, but he was expelled by the Communsts. The Holy See ddnt want to move ts Nuncature but n 1951 Chna dd not allow t. Moreover, n order to show hs goodwll for dalogue wth Chna, Unversty Pope Paul VI downgraded the ttle of the Head of the ApostolcNuncature to the more humble grade of chargé daffares. In a letter to the Chnese Leader Deng Xaopng, n November 1983, Pope John Paul II wrote: Tawan s undoubtedly a long and complcated stuaton n whch the Holy See has found tself, through a seres of events, not always dependent on ts own wll. Nevertheless, I am confdent that n the context of concrete 296 Leung, B. (1998, March). The Sno-Vatcan Negotatons: Old Problems n a New Context. The Chna Quarterly, 153, p

142 examnaton of the queston, t wll be possble to reach a postve soluton. 297 Cardnal Sodano n 1999 or Cardnal Zen n 2005 clearly expressed that the Holy See s wllng to move ts ApostolcNuncature to Bejng f the Chnese authortes wll permt t. The nterest on the part of Vatcan dplomats s wtnessed by the now famous February 11, 1999 remarks of Cardnal Angelo Sodano who sad that the Holy See was ready to transfer ts Nuncature from Tape to Bejng not tomorrow, but ths very nght, f Chnese authortes were to permt t. And he added: "The Tape Nuncature s already the Chnese Nuncature. Frst t was n Bejng, then n Nankng, where the Nunco was repressed and constraned to transfer to Hong Kong and then to Tawan. Movng t back to Bejng won t be a breakng of relatons wth Tawan but a returnng of the Nuncature to ts ntal locaton. Ths was a few weeks after Presdent Jang Zemn was to have vsted Italy. Cardnal Sodano s remarks were therefore a sgn of openness and expressed a desre for dplomatc relatons. 298 Natonal The Vatcan has unceasngly sent messages to Chna and told of ts desre to fx ths problem n an approprate way. It s certan that the Holy See wont abandon Tawan for the sole purpose of poltcal gan. The Holy Father s a sprtual Unversty leader and he cares about each human beng. That s why, Archbshop Mglore, the then permanent observer of the Holy See to the Unted Natons, once sad that: The Vatcan s hopng that a formula can be found to mantan tes wth Tawan whle openng dplomatc relatons wth Chna. We are ready to go 297 JohnPaulII. (1983). Letter to Chnese Leader Deng Xaopng. In E. Wurth, & B. Maheu (Ed.), Papal Documents Related to Chna ( ) (pp ). Hong-Kong, Chna: Holy Sprt Study Center. 298 Magster, S. (2003, September 9). Chna and the Vatcan: The Ponts of Dsagreement. Retreved September 15, 2011, from

143 back to Bejng wthout abandonng Tawan. 299 The recognton of the Republc of Chna n Tawan was never a stumblng block to Chnese dplomacy. Chnese leaders lke Mao Zedong and Zhou Enla warmly receved Rchard Nxon n 1972, when the Unted States had full dplomatc relatons wth Tawan, not to menton US mltary assstance and collaboraton. Smlarly, recently Chna accepted South Korea's (1992) and South Afrca's (1998) swtch of dplomatc relatonshps from Tape to Bejng, after the concluson of ntense negotatons, not as a pre-condton. Demandng the break of dplomatc relatons as a pre-condton s unfar on the part of Bejng, and n fact, s a dplomatc blunder. The Holy See s a specal entty, vested only wth moral authorty, not a state among others. The dplomatc actvty of the Holy See only functons for peace and for the pastoral msson of the Church. The pastoral msson of the Church comes before any dplomatc success. The msson of the Pope s Natonal relgous. Ths s why the Church cannot thus far accept the dplomatc pre-condtons mposed by Bejng. For the Church, dplomacy s smply a tool to promote ts legtmate freedom and rghts. When the Chnese government s ready to grant the Church those long-awated rghts, the dplomatc dspute wll be over. 300 Unversty Second Pre-condton: Nomnatons of Bshops The electon of bshops consttutes a major source of contenton between the Holy See and Chna. The Pope refuses to sancton any bshops named ndependently by Chnese or any other cvl authortes. In the Canon law t s stpulated that Can. 299 Puet, T. (2007, March 13). Vatcan dplomat expresses hope for normalzng relatons wth Chna. CatholcNewsServce. Retreved November 4, 2011, from Crveller, G. ( 2005, Aprl 21). The smoke screen of Chnas precondtons for relatons wth the Holy See.AsaNews.t. Retreved October 24, 2011, from oly-see-3108.html 130

144 377 1: The Supreme Pontff freely apponts bshops or confrms those legtmately elected. 301 In Chna, the self-consecraton of bshops dd not come about abruptly. For the frst two such consecratons, both n 1958, pror approval of the Vatcan had been sought after the two canddates were sad to have been locally elected. The Vatcan refused to grant permsson because the electon was n contraventon of Church laws whch reserved the rght of appontment of bshops solely to the Pope, and also because the Vatcan had not receved suffcent nformaton about the sutablty of the proposed canddates or about the electon process whch gave rse to the canddature. Under these crcumstances the Papal authorty was unwllng to accept the unlateral decson of the Chnese Church. Pope Pus XII, through the Congregaton of Propaganda Fde, threatened the consecrated as well as the consecrators wth excommuncaton, the most severe form of Church punshment. The consecratons went ahead, wth the Chnese Church condemnng the pontff for Natonal hgh-handedness. Subsequently, the Chnese have omtted to seek the Pope's approval for further consecratons of bshops. 302 For Bejng authortes, the connecton between relgon and outsde control s a major concern especally because of the unque authorty Catholcs assgn to the papacy n Rome. PRC Unversty leaders are, n general, leery of supranatonal organzatons havng drect nfluence wthn Chna, but especally of relgous nsttutons. 303 Artcle 36 of the 1982 PRC Consttuton specfcally prohbts relgous organzatons and affars from beng drected by foregn powers: Ctzens of the Peoples Republc of Chna enjoy freedom of relgous belef. No state organ, publc organzaton or ndvdual may compel ctzens to 301 Catholc.Church. (1983).Code of Canon Law, Latn - Englsh. Vatcan Cty: Lbrera Edtrce Vatcana, Can Chan, G. (1989, December).op. ct., p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September).op. ct., p

145 beleve n, or not to beleve n, any relgon: nor may they dscrmnate aganst ctzens who beleve n, or do not beleve n any relgon. The state protects normal relgous actvtes. No one may make use of relgon to engage n actvtes that dsrupt publc order, mpar the health of ctzens or nterfere wth the educatonal system of the state. Relgous bodes and relgous affars are not subject to any foregn domnaton. 304 The consecraton of Bshops s an ssue of nfluence and control whch proves to be a thorn n the sde of Sno-Vatcan relatons. The Vatcan nssts that bshops must be approved by Rome, yet Bejng resents the nterference and has prevously ordaned several bshops wthout approval from the Holy See. The ssue s one of leverage: who commands the most. It seems both sdes have reached a stalemate. Should dplomatc tes be forged, the ssue of those ordaned wthout Papal approval would reman. A sub-class of clergy could emerge creatng a schsm wthn the Catholc communty. Furthermore, Canon Law states that those consecrated wthout Natonal Papal approval (as well as the consecrators) ought to be excommuncated, a stance that would need to be clarfed by the Holy See for dplomatc tes to be formed. Along wth concerns over relgous persecuton, the Vatcan vews the CCPA as seekng ndependence from Rome, as an arm of the Party and not a Church n and of Unversty tself, because the poltcal nature of the organzaton s clear. Nevertheless, there remans scope for cooperaton. Pope Benedct XVI clamed that CCPA bshops were valdly ordaned but llegtmate and called for a unfed Catholc Church n Chna Consttuton of the Peoples Republc of Chna, 4 December 1982, Artcle Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement. Workng Papers, Current Issues n Relgon and Poltcs, Unversty of St. Andrews, the Centre for the Study of Relgon and Poltcs (CSRP), Scotland, UK. Retreved February 10, 2012, from p

146 6.4. Prospects on Negotatons: Gans, Rsks and Losses Potental Compromses on the Tawan Issue PRC wants to solate Tawan and uses ths pre-condton wth the Vatcan to establsh dplomatc tes. If a dplomatc settlement s ndeed reached, the outcome wll lead to even further solaton for Tawan, snce the Holy See s the only European power to recognze the Tawanese government. As a way to prevent the potental upheaval, the Bejng dplomatc corps s n the mdst of tryng to establsh normal relatons wth heavly Catholc countres n Central Amerca that currently mantan dplomatc loyaltes wth Tawan. 306 Indeed, as part of ts charm-offensve Bejng s attemptng to establsh sold sets of relatonshps wth many Catholc countres n Central Amerca. Not only would relatons wth the Vatcan ease ths process but Bejng may persuade many of them to swtch dplomatc recognton away from Tape to Bejng. 307 Natonal For Bejng, dstancng Tawan from ts only source of European recognton would be a substantal beneft for fosterng Sno-Vatcan relatons, strengthenng the One-Chna polcy and ncreasng domestc support. It s a zero-sum game. The Vatcan would also see advantages, prncpally access and (lmted) control of the number of Catholcs n Chna. 308 Unversty The Vatcan s concerned for ts fathful wherever they are n the world but also for the whole human race and ams to protect ther rghts, freedom and well-beng. Ths s one of the prncple reasons why the Holy See wants to establsh tes wth Chna. Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, the Vatcans Secretary for the Relatons wth the States at that tme, explaned n an ntervew wth the Chna Tmes of Tape on June 3, 1999: For the Holy See, the frst am of dplomatc relatons, wth Chna as wth other countres, s that of fosterng the lfe of the Church and of promotng peace n the nternatonal 306 Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September).op. ct., p Smth, H. (2011).op. ct., p Ibd., p

147 context through dalogue. 309 Yet, as some have warned, the Holy See wll lose f t s perceved to be sacrfcng moral prncples (by endng ts tes wth Tawan) for the sake of poltcal gan 310. What are the mplcatons for the Church of Tawan that has been fathful and has supported the papacy throughout these long years? Would the Holy See seem to gnore the fdelty of Catholcs and Church leaders n Tawan and appear to abandon them dplomatcally? 311 The Vatcan has a very specal nternatonal status, snce t s both a soveregn state and a transnatonal organzaton. From the state perspectve Bejng has lad down the precondton that any country wshng to establsh dplomatc relatons wth Chna must sever offcal tes wth Tawan frst. 312 From the transnatonal organzaton perspectve there are also ways n whch nternatonal organzatons can mantan relatons wth both Bejng and Tape wthout arousng too much Natonal resentment from Bejng. Examples can be found n the Internatonal Olympc Commttee (IOC), an nternatonal non-governmental organzaton, and the Asan Development Bank (ADB) an nter-governmental organzaton. The methods devsed by these two transnatonal organzatons to resolve the two-chna problem Unversty have become known as the Olympc formula and the ADB formula. These formulas, devsed n 1979 and 1986 respectvely, have snce been appled by many other nternatonal organzatons, especally non-governmental ones, and have been 309 Ta, R. (2002). The Vatcan's Dlemma: Tape and/or Bejng? In A Collecton of Documents on the Hstory of the 60 Years of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons. Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty, p Luehrmann, L. (2009, July/September). The Red Flag and the Rng: the dances surroundng the Vatcan tes. Asan Poltcs & Polcy, 1(3), p Maheu, B. A. (2005, November 7). The Catholc Church n Chna. Amerca Press News, 193(14), p Examples of countres fallng nto ths category nclude the Unted States, Japan and others. However, both the Unted States and Japan fnd alternatve ways of mantanng trade and commercal lnks wth Tawan n the absence of formal dplomatc tes. It may therefore be possble for the Vatcan to follow such examples by establshng dplomatc and relgous relatons wth Bejng whle severng dplomatc tes but mantanng relgous lnks wth Tawan. 134

148 found to work satsfactorly. In the Olympc formula both the Chnese Olympc commttee and the Tawanese Olympc commttee are members of the IOC enjoyng the same rghts and status, although the Chnese team s recognzed under the name Chna whereas the Tawanese team s recognzed under the name Chnese Tape. 313 Msgr Russell, current chargé daffares, a.. of the Holy See n Tape, n an ntervew wth Rado Tawan Internatonal on March 25, 2010, sad: Dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and the Republc of Chna-Tawan are stable.indeed, from a prevous chapter, we have underlned the great cooperaton between Tawan and the Holy See. These past years have been partcularly frutful between the two states and ther tes have been consoldated wth sgnfcant events and agreements.dr. Tou Chou-seng, former ROC ambassador to the Holy See, once sad: Natonal When I entered the Foregn Servce 30 years ago, my frst job was to track affars n Europe, ncludng the Vatcan. I remember people tellng me, Look out, somethng s about to happen, the Vatcan s gong to move ts embassy to Bejng. It s thrty years later, and were stll watng. I dont beleve ths s gong to happen anytme soon. 314 Unversty Cardnal Jean-Lous Tauran, the Holy Sees former foregn mnster, stated that f the Vatcan does eventually move ts embassy, t wll leave behnd some dplomatc representaton n Tape. On ths statement, Dr. Tou sad: That way, at least the people of Tawan wll not feel lke theyre beng sacrfced. 315 If Chna normalzes ts relatons wth the Holy See, Bejng authortes could ncur potentally sgnfcant rsks to ther hegemony by engagng n formal dplomatc tes. Wth a 313 Chan, G. (1989, December).op. ct., p Allen, J. (2005, November 25), op.ct. 315 Ibd. 135

149 permanent Papal representatve n Bejng, who would be requred under Canon Law to send nformaton to the Vatcan about the status of the Chnese Church, authortes may struggle to fnd ways to check the flow of nformaton. 317 It s unclear as to whether or not Bejng wll be wllng to sacrfce ths element of soveregnty for other poltcal gan. Smlarly, the sze (and potental authorty) of a unted Church n Chna could prove to be a challengng force to the CCPs authorty. Not only would potental exst for clashes between the CCP and the Catholc Church but also for the Church to act as a mechansm through whch voces of dssent could be ared - the destablzng potental s evdent Relgous Freedom and Appontments of Bshops Due to cultural and poltcal encroachment by mperalsts n the past, Chna, on grounds of natonalsm and patrotsm, has reterated that the Catholc Church Natonal should be ndependent of any foregn control, a Chnese Church self-governng and self-admnstratn; and t has not allowed the Supreme Head of the Catholc Church, the Pope, and the admnstratve body of the Church, the Vatcan, to have any relatons whatsoever wth the Chnese Catholcs. In other words f the Chnese Unversty 316 Code of Canon Law (1983), Can. 364 The prncpal task of a Papal Legate s contnually to make more frm and effectve the bonds of unty whch exst between the Holy See and the partcular Churches. Wthn the terrtory assgned to hm, t s therefore the responsblty of a Legate: 1 to nform the Apostolc See about the condtons n whch the partcular Churches fnd themselves, as well as about all matters whch affect the lfe of the Church and the good of souls; 2 to assst the Bshops by acton and advce, whle leavng ntact the exercse of ther lawful power; 3 to foster close relatons wth the Epscopal Conference, offerng t every assstance; 4 n connecton wth the appontment of Bshops, to send or propose names of canddates to the Apostolc See, as well as to prepare the nformatve process about those who may be promoted, n accordance wth the norms ssued by the Apostolc See; 5 to take pans to promote whatever may contrbute to peace, progress and the unted efforts of peoples; 6 to work wth the Bshops to foster approprate exchanges between the Catholc Church and other Churches or ecclesal communtes, and ndeed wth non-chrstan relgons; 7 to work wth the Bshops to safeguard, so far as the rulers of the State are concerned, those thngs whch relate to the msson of the Church and of the Apostolc See; 8 to exercse the facultes and carry out the other nstructons whch are gven to hm by the Apostolc See. 317 Luehrmann, L. Ibd. p Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement, p

150 Catholc Church, wth the backng of the Chnese government, has full autonomy, only the Chnese government can exercse authorty over the Church. By arrangng ths, Bejng ntends to negate completely the very specal feature of the Catholc Church of havng communon wth ts hghest sprtual leader. 319 Chna strongly requests to have the authorty over the appontments of bshops. But as prevously mentoned, the frst paragraph of the Can. 377 stpulates that t s the prvlege of the Holy Father to select and appont a bshop. In addton, paragraph 5 of the same canon stpulates: Can. 377, 5. No rghts and prvleges of electon, nomnaton, presentaton, or desgnaton of bshops are granted to cvl authortes. It s therefore clear that the appontment of bshops ssue s non-negotable and that Natonal ths power of the Pope cannot be relegated to another authorty. The appontment of bshops, who are pastors of the ecclesal communty, belongs to the Holy Father. The Holy See can certanly express ts hope that the bshops elected would receve the consensus of the local Churches, and even of the local cvl authortes. But ths must Unversty absolutely not come to the pont of lmtng the Popes prerogatves, or of grantng negotaton or veto rghts over canddates. It seems very dffcult that the Vatcan wll concede to Chna ths authorty on appontng bshops. However, f a possble negotaton on these nomnatons s found, other problems wll appear. Indeed, n case of dplomatc recognton, both Chna and the Church wll have to face the poston of the Catholc leaders wthn the CCPA. Where wll they stand wth Rome? Ths wll also nclude the reconclaton of excommuncatons and clarfcaton as to 319 Leung, B. (1992). op. ct., p

151 whether past polces toward formal Church separaton reman n force. 320 There are precedents whch both the Vatcan and the Chnese government can draw on to break the present deadlock and mprove Sno Vatcan relatons.in fact, n an ntervew wth Catholc News n 2007, Archbshop Mglore ponted out the stuaton n Vetnam where, several years ago, a smlar dsagreement was resolved, wth the Vatcan agreeng to consult wth the government over the appontment of bshops but stll havng the fnal say. Other examples can be found: some regons n Swtzerland, Germany, and Austra each have the ablty to nomnate hopeful canddates, who then receve the approval of the Holy See. In Paraguay, Peru, Hat, Monaco, and the French docese of Alsace and Lorrane 321, the governments each smlarly nomnate bshops for Papal approval as well. In the case of France and the Alsace-Lorrane regon, the government nomnates the Bshop. Ths prvlege has been granted to France snce Napoleon by the so-called Concordat of Ths Natonal Concordat was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pus VII, sgned on July 15, It soldfed the Roman Catholc Church as the majorty Church of France and brought back most of ts cvl status. Whle the Concordat restored some tes to the papacy, t was largely n favor of the state; the balance of Church-State relatons Unversty had tlted frmly n Napoleon's favor. The man terms of the Concordat of 1801 between France and Pope Pus VII ncluded: 1/ A declaraton that Catholcsm was the relgon of the great majorty of the French but not the offcal state relgon, thus mantanng relgous freedom, n partcular wth respect to Protestants. 2/ The Papacy had the rght to depose bshops, but ths made lttle dfference, 320 Luehrman,, L. (2009, July/ September), op. ct., p The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pus VII, sgned on 15 July It soldfed the Roman Catholc Church as the majorty Church of France and brought back most of ts cvl status.whle the Concordat restored some tes to the papacy, t was largely n favor of the state; the balance of Church-state relatons had tlted frmly n Napoleon's favour. 138

152 because the French government stll nomnated them. 3/ The State would pay clercal salares and the clergy swore an oath of allegance to the State. 4/ The Roman Catholc Church gave up all ts clams to Church lands that were confscated after / The Sabbath was reestablshed as a "festval", effectve Easter Sunday, 18 Aprl The rest of the French Republcan Calendar, whch had been abolshed, was not replaced by the tradtonal Gregoran calendar untl 1 January By the law of 1905 on the separaton of Church and State, the Concordat was abrogated n France. However, some terms of the Concordat are stll n effect n the Alsace-Lorrane regon under the local law of Alsace-Moselle, as the regon was controlled by the Holy Roman Empre at the tme of the law's passage. Therefore, Natonal under ths Concordat, the French government stll has the rght to nomnate Bshops and the clergy s stll pad by the State. In Vetnam, where n recent years there has been great progress n promotng Unversty blateral relatons wth the Vatcan, the recent arrangement has been that Hano nomnates three canddates from whch the Pope chooses one.what wll happen to the unregstered Church f dplomatc relatons ndeed develops? Is t possble to brng together the government-sanctoned Churches wth unregstered ones? Wll partcpants n the formerly regstered Churches be welcomed wth Chrstan charty by those who used to condemn them n the so-called underground movement? Whle there has been more crossover than conflct wthn these communtes, some dvsons and outspoken groups have also soured relatons wthn some Churchcommuntes. For many of these questons, the move toward reconclaton 139

153 and recognton are not wthout detractors. Some may see the Vatcans overtures toward Bejng as acceptance of a schsmatc Church and may consder ths path as an nsult to those who have suffered persecuton because of ther commtted loyalty to the Holy See. 322 Some Catholcs beleve the worsenng persecuton s due to sgnals of dalogue between the Chnese government and the Vatcan, whch are beng ncreasngly hndered by the Patrotc Assocaton. Even others cauton that dplomatc relatons wll provde few solutons to the dlemmas faced by Catholc Chrstans n Chna. As Maryknoll Sster Betty Ann Maheu observed, Dplomatc relatons would be helpful, but they consttute only one element n the overall well-beng of the Church n Chna Concluson The Church exsts for the sake of evangelzaton, and the only thng t asks s Natonal freedom. Dplomatc relatons take ther meanng n the context of the evangelzng msson of the Church, whch s not a poltcal entty among others, and does not seek dplomatc affrmaton. Dplomacy does not of tself brng to the Church the freedom to carry out fully ts msson. Excessve fath n dplomatc results rsks not Unversty only beng a real lluson, but also brngng undue manpulaton of the Churchs prortes. For the good of evangelzaton, t must reman clear that the Churchs msson s sprtual. The Holy See establshed ts Nuncature n Tape n The Vatcan has been present n Tawan for 61 years. Durng ths long perod of tme, many tes of trust, cooperaton and frendshp were created. Indeed, the Internuncodd not plan to come to Tape but tred to stay at hs post n Manland 322 Luehrman,, L. (2009, July/ September), op. ct., p Maheu, B. A. (2005, November 7). The Catholc Church n Chna.Amerca Press News, 193(14), p

154 Chna. However, after such a long tme among the Tawanese, t snt far to abandon Tawan. It s rght that the Holy See has ths sublme msson of proclamng the Gospel n all the corners of the World and especally n Chna where many Catholcs are not yet free to beleve and practce ther fath. Why treat Tawan as a hstorcal remnant, as a sort of traffc accdent to be shaken off? Of course, Tawan s small, and Chna s bg: but s ths argument really vald? In Tawan, the Church s free and at peace. There s an ar of freedom and pluralsm on ths sland. The second pre-condton of Chna on the appontment of Bshops cannot be acceptable for the Vatcan accordng to ts Canon law. A constructve dalogue has to be establshed n order to fnd a possble soluton that respects the authorty of the Holy Father but also wont rrtate Chna. Pope Benedct XVI does really care about Chna and hs great desre s to fnd a soluton to ths stalemate. Despte the Natonal dffcultes and because of hs love for the Chnese, the Holy Father hasnt gven up and contnues to thnk of possble ways to reach Chna. Snce he became Pope Benedct XVI n 2005, the Pontff has always shown that he cares for Chna. He elevated to the Cardnalate, Bshop Zen n 2006, he wrote a letter addressng Unversty Chnese Catholcs n 2007, and he establshed the Commsson on the Church n Chna n late Even though llct ordnatons took place recently n Chna, the Pope was not dscouraged because of hs concern for the freedom of Catholcs on the Manland. In order to have a better understandng of Chna, Pope Benedct XVI has ordaned Archbshop Savo Hon, a natve of Hong Kong, and apponted hm as secretary of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples. In addton, the Holy Father apponted Archbshop Fernando Flon, an expert n Chnese affars and on the Mddle East, as prefect of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples, on 10 May 2011; he was made cardnal at the consstory of February 18,

155 Numerous are the dffcultes but great s the desre of the Holy See normalze the relatons wth Chna. However, ths has to be done n a proper way and accordng to the prncple, the moral and belefs of the Church. Natonal Unversty 142

156 7. Scenaros on Sno-Vatcan Relatons 7.1. Introducton The ssue of Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons s far from easy to solve. Tme and constructve dalogue wll certanly help for a better mutual understandng. The Sovet Unon / Russa and the Socalst Republc of Vetnam had, n the past, dffcultes n ther tes wth the Holy See. However, Russa has recently created full dplomatc relatons wth the Vatcan and Vetnam has accepted a Papal non-resdent envoy. These two cases may serve as models to thnk about a possble way to normalze the relatons between the Vatcan and Chna. In hs address on January 11, 2010 to the members of the dplomatc Corps, Pope Benedct XVI sad: I formulate the hope that the Successor of Peter keeps hs door open to everyone n the hope of mantanng relatons whch can contrbute to the progress of the human famly. It s a reason for deep satsfacton that, just a few weeks ago, full dplomatc relatons were establshed between the Holy See and the Russan Federaton. The recent vst of the Presdent of the Socalst Republc of Vetnam was lkewse very sgnfcant; Vetnam s a country close to my heart, where the Church s celebratng her centures-long presence wth a Jublee Year. In ths sprt of openness, throughout 2009 I met many poltcal leaders from all over the world; I also vsted some of them and would lke to contnue to do so, nsofar as s possble. 324 Natonal Unversty 7.2. The Model of Russa-Vatcan Relatons Perestroka and Glasnost Durng the Cold War, the Holy See and the Kremln went through decades of sprtual and phlosophcal conflct. The Sovet leader Mkhal Gorbachev, who 324 BenedctXVI. (2010, January 11). Address of Hs Holness Pope Benedct XVI to the Members of the Dplomatc Corps for the Tradtonal Exchange of New Year Greetngs. Retreved March 14, 2012, from _dplomatc-corps_en.html 143

157 came to power n 1985, naugurated a new era by promotng perestroka 325 for the restructure of hs countrys poltcal and economc system and by leadng hs major polcy reform: the so-called glasnost 326, meanng openness. Wth Gorbachev, hostlty wth the Vatcan came to an end when he came to Rome for a hstorc meetng 327 wth Pope John Paul II n December The Sovet leader wanted to offer to the Sovet Unon another orentaton for a brght future by adoptng new polces both on the domestc level as well as on the nternatonal level. Ths became realty when n March 1990, the Sovet Unon and the Vatcan establshed offcal dplomatc relatons at the level of permanent mssons; ths was a year before the collapse of the Communst regme. The Holy See wanted Gorbachev to restore relgous freedom to the Sovet Catholcs. The Ukranan Catholc Church was drven underground by Staln n It was forcbly dssolved, and ts parshes were closed or merged nto the Russan Orthodox Church. Centered n the western Natonal Ukrane, the Ukranan Catholcs follow the Eastern lturgy but profess allegance to the Pope. Gorbachev promses the Pope new law on relgous freedom. The Pope has nssted repeatedly that the Ukranan Catholc Church be made legal agan; and he got an mportant start toward that goal when Gorbachev promsed hm that a new Unversty law guaranteeng freedom of conscence would soon be enacted. In turn, the Sovet leader won somethng he had come for: legtmacy from the leader of the world's 900 mllon Roman Catholcs. It came n the form of a Papal blessng for hs plans to restructure Sovet poltcal and economc lfe. John Paul sad the Holy See ''wshes you success and declares tself ready to support every ntatve that wll better 325 Perestroka (meanng restructurng or reconstructon) refers to the seres of poltcal, economc, and socal reforms and foregn polcy changes undertaken by the Sovet Communst Party n the years 1985 to Glasnost (meanng openness) was a polcy whch called for ncreased openness and transparency n government nsttutons and actvtes n the Sovet Unon. 327 Ths was only the second tme a leader of Russa had met wth a Pope, the frst beng the meetng between Tsar Ncholas I and Pope Gregory XVI n

158 protect and ntegrate the rghts and dutes of ndvduals and peoples. 328 Durng hs second meetng wth the pontff n November 1990, Gorbachev told hm about new Sovet relgous freedom legslaton, whch was followed by the reestablshment of Roman Catholc structures n Russa. Bors Yeltsn accepted the tradton to ntensfy contacts wth the Vatcan n the mdst of poltcal changes and met John Paul II twce n the pontffs personal Apostolc Lbrary,; the frst tme was on December 19, 1991, only a few days after the Belavezha Accords 329 were sgned. The leader of the new Russa proclamed hs post-sovet reformng strategy before the sprtual leader of countless Chrstans. 330 Then, n January 1992 the Vatcan recognzed Russa as the U.S.S.R.'s legal successor and also establshed relatons at the level of msson The Vatcan and the Russan Orthodox Church The new detente follows decades of mstrust between the Roman Catholc and Natonal Russan Orthodox Churches under the offcally athest USSR. Wth an agreement to begn offcal relatons and a pledge of expanded relgous freedom for Sovet ctzens, Presdent Mkhal S. Gorbachev joned hands today wth Pope John Paul II. Indeed, snce the early 1990s, the Catholc Church was able to normally functon n Unversty Russa. But the lftng of restrctons on relgon led to new tensons wth the Orthodox Church, whch accused the Vatcan of poachng for souls n tradtonal Orthodox terrtory. The Vatcan dened ths charge. The standoff prevented John Paul II from fulfllng hs wsh to make a plgrmage to Russa. Indeed, the step forward 328 Haberman, C. (1989, December 2). The Kremln and the Vatcan; Gorbachev Vsts Pope at Vatcan; Tes Are Forged. The New York tmes. Retreved Aprl 17, 2012, from can-tes-are-forged.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm 329 The Belavezha Accords s the agreement whch declared the Sovet Unon effectvely dssolved and establshed the Commonwealth of Independent States n ts place. It was sgned at the state dacha near Vskul n Belovezhskaya Pushcha on December 8, 1991, by the leaders of Belarus, Russa, and Ukrane. 330 Zhosul, E. (2007, March 13). Russa and the Holy See: a new aspect n dplomatc dalogue. Interfax. Retreved March 16, 2012, from 145

159 on the dplomatc front comes at the same tme as a warmng n prevously tense relatons between the Russan Orthodox Church and the Vatcan. The Orthodox Church has long accused the Catholc Church of seekng to convert Russans to Catholcsm. For the Vatcan, ts actvtes n the country cater largely tradtonal Catholc mnortes lke Poles, Germans and Lthuanans, who have faced dscrmnaton and persecuton n the past. Property dsputes between the Churches have also put them at odds. Relatons between the Vatcan and the Russan Orthodox Church have been tense under Patrarch Alexy. There were dffcultes n the relatonshp between the Russan Orthodox Church and the Vatcan, especally snce 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholc docesan structure for Russan terrtory. The leadershp of the Russan Church saw ths acton as a throwback to pror attempts by the Vatcan to proselytze the Russan Orthodox fathful to become Roman Catholc. Ths pont of vew was based upon the stance of the Russan Natonal Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome s n schsm, after breakng off from the Orthodox Church. However, relatons have mproved snce the new Metropoltan Krll assumed the leadershp of the Orthodox Church followng the death of hs predecessor n December Unversty Full Dplomatc Relatons Between Russa and the Holy See Thanks to the peaceful ecumencal dalogue between the Orthodox Church and the Catholc Church, dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and Russa have been rased to a further step. In 2009, Russan Presdent Dmtry Medvedev sgned a decree to establsh dplomatc relatons wth Vatcan Cty, and met wth Pope Benedct XVI. Under the decree, the Kremln stated that Russa's msson n the Vatcan wll be transformed nto an embassy. Durng hs vst to Vatcan Cty, Presdent Medvedev also held talks wth State Secretary Cardnal Tarcso Bertone. 146

160 The Russan Presdent and the Pontff both gave a postve assessment to the Russan-Vatcan dalogue. The decree sgned by the presdent reads: The Russan Foregn Mnstry wll hold talks wth the Vatcan to establsh dplomatc relatons at the level of the embassy of the Russan Federaton n the Vatcan and the ApostolcNuncature n the Russan Federaton. Included wll be dscusson on the transformaton of the Russan msson n the Vatcan nto Russa's embassy to the Vatcan. 331 The Holy Father and Presdent Medvedev also dscussed challenges to securty and peace n the world and themes of mutual nterest such as the value of the famly and the contrbuton of belevers to the lfe of Russa. Natonal 7.3. The Model of Vetnam-Vatcan relatons The Hstorcal Vst of Vetnams Prme Mnster to the Vatcan On Aprl 30, 1975, the Communst Vetnamese reunfed North and South Vetnam nto the Socalst Republc of Vetnam. From that day, the foregn Unversty mssonares were expelled from Vetnam as well as the ApostolcDelegate Archbshop Henr Lematre. At that pont, dplomatc tes between the Vatcan and Vetnam were severed. However, the Holy See has never ceased to seek dplomatc relatons wth Vetnam. In fact, relatons have mproved snce 1989 wth regular vsts by Vatcan cardnals and delegatons to Vetnam. The Holy Sees push to restore dplomatc relatons wth Vetnam took an mportant step forward as Pope Benedct XVI met wth Vetnamese Prme Mnster Nguyen Tan Dung on January 25, 331 RIA Novost. (2009, December 3). Russa establshes dplomatc relatons wth Vatcan. RIA Novost. Retreved March 21, 2012, from 147

161 2007 n the Apostolc Palace. The encounter n the Papal lbrary was the frst of ts knd n decades, thawng tensons that date back to the rse of Vetnamese communsm 332. Indeed, ths was a hstorcal meetng snce Nguyen Tan Dung has become the frst leader of the Socalst Republc of Vetnam to meet and hold talks wth the Head of the Roman Catholc Church. The Vetnamese leaders have always consdered the Church as an ntegral part of French colonalsm, and later of South Vetnam's ant-communst government. In a communqué, the Holy See expressed ts satsfacton for the vst, whch marks a new and mportant step towards the normalzaton of blateral relatons. 333 In the late 1980s, Vetnam started ts do mo (renovaton) polcy and has proven ts ablty to ntegrate nto the nternatonal communty. It s obvous that dplomatc tes wth the Vatcan wll not drectly brng economc or poltcal benefts to Vetnam but wll help rase Vetnam's status n the world. Then, n order to normalze dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and Natonal Vetnam, t had been decded by both states to create a Jont Workng Group The Popes Non-Resdent Envoy to Vetnam In 2009, accordng to the agreement between the Vetnamese Government and Unversty the Holy See, the frst meetng of the Vetnam-Holy See Jont Workng Group was held n Hano on February 16 th and 17 th. The meetng was for the exchange of vews on the establshment of blateral dplomatc relatons. The meetng was co-chared by Nguyen Quoc Cuong, Vce Mnster of Foregn Affars and Monsgnor Petro Paroln, Holy See Under-Secretary for Relatons wth States. Monsgnor Petro Paroln recognzed that postve progress has been made n the relgous lfe n 332 TheChrstanCentury. (2007, February 20). Vatcan strengthens tes wth Vetnam but not wth Chna. The Chrstan Century. Retreved March 22, 2012, from BBCNEWS. (2007, January 25). Vetnamese leader meets pontff. BBC News. Retreved March 29, 2012, from 148

162 Vetnam and wshed that the remanng unsolved matters n blateral relatons between Vetnam and the Holy See could be settled wth goodwll through sncere dalogue. Then, on December 11, 2009, Pope Benedct XVI meetng wth the Presdent of Vetnam, Nguyen Mnh Tret proved to be another sgnfcant stage n the progress of blateral relatons wth Vetnam. The Second meetng of the Vetnam-Holy See Jont Workng Group took place n the Vatcan on June 23 rd and 24 th 2010, to strengthen and develop blateral relatons. In January 2011, Pope Benedct XVI apponted an envoy to Vetnam, Msgr. Leopoldo Grell 334 and Natonal expressed hs satsfacton n hs address to the members of the dplomatc corps: I would lke to pont out wth satsfacton that the Vetnamese authortes have accepted my appontment of a Representatve who wll express the solctude of the Successor of Peter by vstng the beloved Catholc communty of that country. 335 The Vatcan's appontment of ts frst offcal representatve to Vetnam sgnals a detente between the country's communst rulers and the Catholc Church that could represent the frst step towards establshng formal dplomatc relatons. Archbshop Unversty Leopoldo Grell, currently the Vatcan's Nunco to Indonesa, has been named by the Holy Father as non-resdent pontfcal representatve for Vetnam, extendng hs poston as Nunco n Sngapore and ApostolcDelegate to Malaysa and Brune. The appontment also concdes wth the concluson of the 50th Jublee annversary of the Catholc herarchy n Vetnam and the 350th year snce the frst two Apostolc vcarates were establshed there. Hano's agreement to the appontment ams to ease 334 Pangan, G. (2011, January 13). Vatcan: Envoy to Vetnam Apponted. The New York tmes. Retreved Aprl 12, 2012, from BenedctXVI. (2011, January 10). Address of Hs Holness Pope Benedct XVI to the Members of the Dplomatc Corps. Retreved Aprl 14, 2012, from _dplomatc-corps_en.html 149

163 pressure from the Unted States and the European Unon to allow for more relgous freedom. Accordng to a 2010 US State Department report, the Vetnamese consttuton provdes for freedom of worshp; however, government restrctons on the organzed actvtes of many relgous groups contnued. The European Unon also wants to see greater flexblty from Hano towards practcng Catholcs the ffth-largest congregaton n Asa. 336 The thrd meetng of the Vetnam-Holy See Jont Workng Group was held n Hano, on the 27 th and 28 th of February 2012 wth the presence of Msgr. Leopold Grell. At the concluson of the meetng, the two sdes came up wth an assessment that the Vet Nam Holy See relatonshp has attaned postve developments on the bass of good wll and constructve dalogue, as well as respect for prncples n the relatonshp. 337 The two sdes agreed to facltate the work of Archbshop Grell, the non-resdental pontfcal representatve so that he can better fulfll hs msson. Natonal Nomnatons of Bshops n Vetnam The process of nomnaton of Bshops n Vetnam s very nterestng and may be appled to Chna. As a matter of fact, regardng the Chnese government's desre Unversty to appont bshops, Archbshop Celestno Mglore, currently the ApostolcNunco to Poland, compared t to the stuaton n Vetnam whch occurred several years ago; a smlar dsagreement was resolved, wth the Vatcan agreeng to consult wth the government over the appontment of bshops but stll havng the fnal say 338. In Vetnam, the Government techncally mantans veto power over Vatcan 336 Tofan, R. (2011, February 3). God and state draw closer n Vetnam. Asa Tmes. Retreved from News.va. (2012, February 28). Holy See-Vetnam conclude meetng. News.Va the Vatcan today. Retreved Aprl 21, 2012, from Puet, T. (2007, March 13). Vatcan dplomat expresses hope for normalzng relatons wth Chna. CatholcNewsServce. Retreved November 4, 2011, from 150

164 appontments of bshops. In early 2007, t exercsed that veto authorty over the nomnaton of two bshops. For the most part, however, the Government has, n practce, cooperated wth the Catholc Church n nomnatons for bshops' appontments. Though the Vatcan s free to nomnate bshops n Vetnam, the Vetnamese government nssts that the Holy See nform t about potental bshop nomnatons. In Vetnam, the Holy See presents several approprate canddates to the Vetnamese government, whch chooses one of them. After consderng opnons expressed by the government, t s stll the Pope who makes the fnal decson. Actually, Vatcan offcals, for years, made annual trps to Vetnam to work out detals of the Church's lfe and freedom to functon n the country. The trps ncluded a dscusson of every potental bshop's appontment wth government offcals. The Vatcan always nssted that needng government permsson to name a bshop was not the usual Vatcan procedure, but that t could be tolerated temporarly as Natonal Vatcan-Vetnamese relatons mproved Can Sno-Vatcan Relatons Follow One of These Two Models? Dffcultes n Applyng the Russan-Vatcan Model Unversty In Chna, the Open Door Polcy that was part of the modernzaton program ntated by Deng Xaopng at the Partys Thrd Plenum n December 1978 provded the Vatcan wth a longed-for opportunty to fnd out about the real stuaton n Chna and formulate a warmer relatonshp wth Bejng. The Sovet leader Mkhal Gorbachev took the same path of openness when he promoted the perestroka and ntated the glasnost. Ths overture from Gorbachev has permtted n 2009, full 339 Wooden, C. (2012, February 28). Vatcan says relatons wth Vetnam contnue to mprove. Catholc Regster. Retreved Aprl 21, 2012, from ontnue-to-mprove 151

165 dplomatc relatons between the Holy See and Russa to become a realty. It s therefore legtmate to consder the Russan-Vatcan relatons as a model to be adopted for Chna. However, despte Chnas Open Door polcy n 1978, the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan dplomatc tes are not yet establshed. The culture and hstory of Russa have been shaped by Chrstanty therefore t doesnt consder the Holy See as an mperalst foregn nvader. On the contrary, Chna does not fnd ts roots, essence and sprt n the Chrstan fath or culture. There s, therefore, a wde cultural gap between the Vatcan and Chna. Indeed, the PRC was founded on the Communst deology of Karl Marx and Lenn. Pope John Paul II who came from Poland, a communst country, was one of the man actors n the fall of Communsm n Eastern Europe. The fact s the so-called Ostpoltk and the strategy that the Vatcan used for the European countres Natonal s not adaptable to Communsm wth Chnese characterstcs. Deng Xaopng knew the nfluence of Pope John Paul II and ddnt want Chna to experence the collapse of Poland and the other Eastern European countres. As a result, Chna s very careful n ts overture and the Chnese authortes wont let the Tanamen June Unversty 4 th ncdent happen agan. The relgous freedom ntated by Mkhal Gorbachev n the Sovet Unon and the partcpaton of the Orthodox Church toward a frutful ecumencal dalogue, have wdely contrbuted to the establshment of dplomatc relatons wth the Holy See. Ths seems mpossble for the Patrotc Church of Chna to play the same role of medator snce t s under the control of the Chnese Communst authortes. The Holy See has a great sprtual msson and ts am s the servce of humanknd. However, the PRC consders the Vatcan only on a poltcal level and n terms of power. 152

166 Lmts of the Vetnam-Vatcan Model for the Chnese Case For the Vatcan, good relatons wth Vetnam are also a sgn that they mght also be able to reach some agreement wth Chna's Communst leadershp. Vetnam and Chna are both Asan countres and were nfluenced by the teachngs of Confucus. Unlke Russa, Vetnam s culturally closer to Chna whch s why one may suggest takng t as a model. It s even sad that the Foregn Mnstry, the Mnstry of the Unted Front of the Central Commttee and the Natonal Offce for Relgous Affars, should send a delegaton to vst the cardnal of Hô Chí Mnh Vlle to get a better understandng wth hs help, of the ssue of the nomnaton of bshops n Vetnam. 340 The man obstacle to the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons, for Chna, s on poltcal control, even though the am of the Holy See s solely relgous. The PRC does not want the Holy Father to have any say on the nomnaton of the Bshops. Indeed, Chna consders the nomnaton of Bshops as a poltcal strategy Natonal because the Bshops, by ther mnstry, have an nfluence on the people. Ths desre for exclusve poltcal control s not necessarly connected wth conflcts between Communsm and Catholcsm. To Chna, t just makes good poltcal sense to make sure that t does not share domestc poltcal authorty wth another government or Unversty authorty. For ths reason, the Chnese government refuses to consder the Vetnam model, whch nvolves the Vatcan submttng a lst of canddates for bshops to the Vetnamese government, wth the Pope makng a fnal decson based n part on the government's opnons. The Chnese government s unlkely to compromse sgnfcantly on ths ssue. However, t may be possble for the Catholc Patrotc Assocaton to agree to provde a lst of canddates to the Vatcan, and then to make a decson based, n part, on the Vatcan's opnons. If so, then the queston s whether 340 Andreott, G. (2007, May). Chna. The Popes letter and the future of the Catholc Church.30days. Retreved Aprl 23, 2012, from 153

167 the Vatcan would be wllng to accept ths approach. But assumng for a moment that the relatonshp between the Holy See and the Chnese government s able to overcome ths major obstacle and become a normal dplomatc relatonshp, what effects would that have on the stuaton facng Catholcs n Chna? Vetnam, unlke Chna, doesnt have a Patrotc Assocaton lke the CCPA, whch s why the nomnaton of Bshops s not such a large ssue. For Chna, t remans a real conflct of authorty wth the Holy See for the choce of Church leaders. As long as there s no soluton for the ssue of the nomnaton of Bshops, t s mpossble for the Vatcan to send a representatve, even a non-resdent envoy, to Chna. Chna wll not gve up ts so-called two pre-condtons for ntatng Sno-Vatcan relatons. Other scenaros have to be developed n order for tes to be created between the Vatcan and Chna. Natonal Prospects and Ways Forward Vetnams Vce-Mnster of Foregn affars once expressed hs wsh for the Holy Sees actve contrbuton to the lfe of the Catholc communty n Vetnam, the strengthenng of soldarty between relgons and of the entre Vetnamese Unversty populaton, and the strong coheson of the Catholc Church n Vetnam wth the naton through practcal contrbutons to natonal constructon. Indeed, Pope Benedct XVI sad n one of hs letters to Chnese Catholcs: The cvl authortes are well aware that the Church n her teachng nvtes the fathful to be good ctzens, respectful and actve contrbutors to the common good n ther country, but t s lkewse clear that she asks the State to guarantee to those same Catholc ctzens the full exercse of ther fath, wth respect for authentc relgous freedom Pope Benedct XVI.(2007). op. ct. 154

168 The Church wth ts socal teachngs can be helpful n assstng the poor and dsabled, n the admnstraton of kndergartens and health facltes. In fact, the Church can take care of all the socal tasks theoretcally reserved to state nsttutons. In partcpatng actvely wth ts chartable catholc sprt, the Church can play an mportant part n Chnese socety and wtness that she has the sole desre to be at the servce of all men and women. Wth the economc growth n Chna and all the problems generated by ths phenomenon, the Church can offer her sprtualty for the good of the people. Dalogue and patence are certanly hghly desrable to persuade Chna that the msson of the Church s relgous and not poltcal. The Church can persuade Chna to let her partcpate n socety by takng on the socal ssues. It may help the Chnese Communsts realze that the Church has much to offer for the good of Chna and ts people. Chna may therefore recognze that Catholcs are good Natonal ctzens, wllng to contrbute to the prosperty and peace of the country. Actng lke ths, there wll be more mutual understandng that wll brng mutual trust n order to normalze Sno-Vatcan dplomatc relatons. In order to reach dplomatc tes, t s certanly mportant to create tes of cooperaton, of trust and of frendshp on the Unversty practcal terran. If Chna would allow Catholc communtes to collaborate on socal peace and socal development, t would see how much the Church could do for the common good. As a result, wth a better pont of vew of the Church, Chna may have more trust and accept the Holy See as a good partner for the constructon of Chnese socety and Chnese prosperty Concluson The real problem remans on Relgous Freedom. If the Sovet Unon/Russa and Vetnam have succeeded to create tes wth the Holy See, t s manly because 155

169 they have permtted more relgous freedom. That s why t does not seem possble to apply these two models to Chna. The Holy See can offer a socal project to Chna n order to show ts good wll to not only buld a harmonous socety but also a sprtual socety. Wth ts wsdom and long experence on the socal level, the Church has so much to offer to Chna. Dong ths, the Holy See can create a relatonshp based on cooperaton n an atmosphere of confdence. As mentoned n the prevous chapter, the Pope has apponted many specalsts on Chna to the Roman Cura n order to create a Brdge wth the PRC. Thus, he has apponted Cardnal Flon, an expert n Chnese affars, as prefect of the Congregaton for the Evangelzaton of Peoples and Archbshop Savo Hon, from Hong Kong, secretary of the same Congregaton. In February 2012, the Holy Father chose to create Cardnal the Bshop of Hong Kong, John Tong. Ths Natonal decson underlnes the mportance of the Church of Hong Kong n helpng the Church n Chna. In addton, Cardnal John Tong s workng n the same Chna commsson wth Cardnal Zen (Hong Kong) and Cardnal Shan (Tawan). Thus, Pope Benedct XVI shows clearly ths goodwll to understand Chna and to ntate a Unversty dalogue based on frendshp, peace and trust. 156

170 8. Concluson The Republc of Chna founded n 1911 establshed dplomatc relatons wth the Holy See n Then, the Natonalst government of the ROC had to leave Manland Chna n 1949 followng the Chnese Communst Partys vctory n the Cvl war. Mao Zedong, after proclamng the Peoples Republc of Chna n 1949, expelled the ApostolcInternunco, Antono Rber n From that day, Sno-Vatcan relatons have been severed and have not yet been reestablshed. Then, Archbshop Rber moved to Tape where he nstalled the Internuncature. Snce the foundng of the Peoples Republc of Chna, many foregn states gradually shfted dplomatc recognton to Bejng acknowledgng that Tawan was part of Chna under the One-Chna Polcy. Ths culmnated wth the Peoples Republc of Chna dsplacng Tawan n mportance at the Unted Natons, n Natonal The Vatcan remans currently the only state n Europe that recognzes the ROC. Relatons between Tawan and the Manland have been turbulent, full of tensons and crss-flled. For the Holy See, dplomatc relatons wth the PRC were severed Unversty n 1951 wth the expulson of Archbshop Rber. Indeed, the Holy See wants to normalze dplomatc relatons wth Manland Chna because of ts vocaton to serve all men and women and to proclam the Gospel n all corners n the World. Throughout the years, the Popes have sent numerous messages to Chna to ntate a dalogue and normalze Sno-Vatcan relatons. Pope Benedct XVI wrote a prophetc letter n 2007 to express hs care and love for Chna but ths was not warmly receved by the Chnese authortes. The PRC has repeatedly answered the calls of the Holy See wth the same two pre-condtons. These so called two pre-condtons are: 157

171 - The severng of Vatcan-Tawan relatons and the recognton of the Chnese Government n Bejng as the sole legtmate government of Chna - The non-nterference n Chna's nternal affars whch relates prncpally to the nomnaton of bshops The PRCs man concern n engagng rapprochement wth the Holy See s to solate Tawan. Many have speculated that the Vatcan, n order to normalze ts dplomatc tes wth Chna, wll relocate ts Nuncature n Bejng. However, even f the Vatcan breaks ts relatons wth Tawan, t wll not be able to establsh dplomatc relatons wth Chna. Indeed, these two pre-condtons are just a smoke screen, an alb for Chna's unwllngness to open a dscusson wth the Holy See 342. Natonal These pre-condtons, especally the frst one, are not the real problem. As Dr. Tou Chou-seng, former ROC ambassador to the Holy See, sad: Chna uses Tawan as a pretext, whle the real problem s that of relgous freedom. 343 Unversty In ths thess, we have ponted out the real problems that block the normalzaton of Sno-Vatcan relatons. Before such a rapprochement between Bejng and the Apostolc See, numerous problems have to be dscussed and solved. Wth dfferent motvatons n mnd, the Vatcan and Chna expect dfferent, even seemngly rreconclable, outcomes from the same negotatons. Therefore t s not 342 Crveller, G. (2005, Summer). John Paul II and Chna.Trpod, XXV(137), p Eunce, K. Y. (2005, May 19). Tawan Remans a Queston as Vatcan-Chna Relatons Progress. Chrstan Today. Retreved January 12, 2012, from /2922.htm 158

172 surprsng to fnd that there are some major ssues blockng the way for Sno-Vatcan reconclaton. On the negotaton table, ssues and cases can be summarzed nto the followng four categores: - The arrangement to share power between the Vatcan and Chna n appontng Chnese bshops. - The method n unfyng the offcal and non-offcal sectors of the Chnese Catholc Church. - The ways and means whereby the Papal representatve n Bejng relates to local Bshops n the future. - The means for movng the PapalNuncature n Tawan to Bejng wth mnmal dsturbance and embarrassment to Tawan. 344 Natonal All these are techncal problems; once the basc prncples are resolved n the sprt of tolerance, one can consder ntatng the normalzaton of the Sno-Vatcan relatons. Despte engagng n dalogue wth Chna and the goodwll of Pope Benedct Unversty XVI to adapt to the realty of the Church n Chna, the stuaton between the two states has deterorated 2011 wth the llct epscopal ordnatons at Leshan (June 29) and Shantou (July 14). Bejng wll contnue on ts path to ordan bshops wthout Papal mandate Leung, B. (2002). Sno-Vatcan relatons on the thresold of the twenty-frst century.in The Internatonal Symposum on the Hstory of Sno-Vatcan Dplomatc Relatons (pp ). Tape, Tawan, ROC: Insttute of Catholc Hstory, Fujen Catholc Unversty. 345 Cervellera, B. (2011, July 25). Bejng pontfcates aganst Vatcan "threats".asannews.t. Retreved Ma 15, 2012, from 159

173 The rght to freedom of relgon s a fundamental rght for the Holy See but ths rght s not respected n Chna. In ths thess, we have underlned the lmts of relgous polcy n Chna and ts practce. Snce June 2011, Chna has created dffcultes for the foregn mssonary. The PRCs authortes have blocked nne Catholc prests from enterng the Manland, even though they all had vald vsas. Seven were blocked at border control ponts on the Manland, and had ther entry vsas cancelled wthout explanaton. Two were stopped at Bejngs nternatonal arport, had ther vsas cancelled and were put on the next flght back to where they had come from. News of these latest retalatons crculated n dplomatc and Church crcles over the summer months. Several of the prests have opted for anonymty, or chosen not to speak publcly about ther experences lest they prejudce ther future chances of returnng to Chna, or further aggravate the stuaton. 346 Natonal There are certanly stll many ssues to solve before consderng any tes between the Vatcan and the PRC. The two models of Vetnam and Sovet/Russa seem not applcable to Chna whch presents dfferent realtes, hstory and context. In the present stuaton, t s defntely not easy to hypothesze the concrete Unversty possblty of a wn-wn soluton. Dplomacy and dplomatc relatons mght be useful but are not essental to the msson of the Church, whch s essentally relgous and sprtual. The Chnese Church, lke many other Churches n the world n dfferent eras, has survved wthout dplomatc relatons. Bejng remans wary of Vatcan nfluence and the Vatcan remans dstrustful of the CCPA. In order for dplomatc-relatons to succeed an element of trust and predctablty would be 346 O'connell, G. (2011, October 11). Chna retalates aganst the Vatcan over the queston of bshops. Vatcan Insder. Retreved from 160

174 requred. Ths s somethng that has been lackng so far 347. As a path toward dplomatc tes, the Church can try to lead more and more socal and cultural actvtes n Chna. As a result, there wll be more understandng of the Chnese authortes on the pastoral and relgous characterstc of the Holy See. At the present tme, dplomatc relatons between Tawan and the Vatcan are stable and there wont be any change n a foreseeable future. Consderng all the ssues that the Vatcan and PRC are confronted wth, there wll certanly not be any move of the ApostolcNuncature n Bejng. Natonal Unversty 347 Smth, H. (2011). The Peoples Republc of Chna (PRC) and the Vatcan: Prospects for Rapprochement. Workng Papers, Current Issues n Relgon and Poltcs, Unversty of St. Andrews, the Centre for the Study of Relgon and Poltcs (CSRP), Scotland, UK. Retreved February 10, 2012, from 161

175 Annexes Annex 1 : The Dplomatc Representatves of the Republc of Chna and the Holy See Papal Representatves. Archbshop Celso Cardnal Constantn Archbshop Maro Zann Archbshop Anthony Rber Archbshop Joseph Capro ApostolcDelegate ApostolcDelegate ApostolcInternunco ApostolcInternunco Archbshop Lug Accogl Apostolc Pronunco ApostolcPronunco Archbshop Edward Cassdy ApostolcPronunco Msgr. Francesco Colasuonno Chargé daffares a Msgr. Thomas Whte Msgr. Paul Gglo Msgr. Pero Bggo Natonal Msgr. Adrano Bernardn Msgr. Julusz Janusz Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Unversty Msgr. Joseph Chennoth Msgr. Adolfo Tto Yllana Msgr. James Patrck Green Msgr. Ambrose Madtha Msgr. Paul Ftzpatrck Russell ROC Ambassadors Shou-Kang Hseh Chng Hsung Wu Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Chargé daffares a.. Mnster Plenpotentary Mnster Plenpotentary

176 Yng Chu Mnster Plenpotentary Shou-Kang Hseh Mnster Plenpotentary Ambassador Chang-Huan Shen Ambassador Chh-Ma Chen Ambassador Shu-Ka Chow Ambassador Seou-Je Hoang Ambassador Edward Tzu-Yu Wu Ambassador Raymond R. M Ta Chou-Seng Tou Ambassador Ambassador Larry Yu-yuan Wang Ambassador 2008 Natonal Unversty 163

177 Annex 2 : Tawan Catholc Church Statstcs n Tawan Catholc Church Statstcs n 2009 Personnel & Insttutes No. Inst. Persons Catholcs 299,938 Bshops 15 Docesan 259 Prests Relgous 423 Chnese 327 Foregn 357 Brothers Chnese 33 Foregn 60 Ssters Semnarans Natonal Chnese 775 Foregn 278 Major 2 65 Mnor 1 21 Men 162 Unversty Catechsts Women 159 Deaneres 51 Parshes Statons 348 Sem-Publc Churches

178 Annex 3 : Map of Tawan and the Tawan Strat Natonal Unversty Source: Tawan Strat Area (Shaded Relef) The map was produced by the U.S. Central Intellgence Agency and retreved from 165

179 Annex 4 : Terrtory clamed by the Republc of Chna Natonal Source: Wkmeda. Retreved from Unversty 166

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