August 16-18, 2016 PNC Conference - ECAI Workshop The Getty Center Los Angeles. By Laura Nguyen University of The West

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1 August 16-18, 2016 PNC Conference - ECAI Workshop The Getty Center Los Angeles By Laura Nguyen University of The West

2 Initial Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist texts Transferring a culture and its language The problems with early Chinese/Vietnamese translations of Buddhism How data shaped the translation of Buddhist Sutras By Laura Nguyen University of The West

The Buddhist Translation Histories of Ancient China 6: 2010) The first sutra was translated in

3 Buddhism spread to China via inner Central Asian states, including Parthia, Kucha, and Sogdia (Raine, Roberta. The Buddhist Translation Histories of Ancient China 6: 2010) The first sutra was translated in the second century by An Shigao, a Parthian. (Raine, Roberta. The Buddhist Translation Histories of Ancient China 6: 2010)

4 Period c CE (during the Eastern Han & Wei Dynasties) CE (during the Jin Dynasty) (Northern and Southern Dynasties) Key Events * Sutra translations began by An Shigao, a Parthian * Large-scale translation work began by Central Asian monks * By 317 CE, over 1,100 sutras had been translated * Period of Ge-Yi (concept-matching) * Large translation forums held * Emperor's support of Buddhism CE * Official sutra translation began in 582 CE (Sui Dynasty) * 2,257 translations recorded in 594 CE * Only 688 extant works recorded in 602 CE (Tang Dynasty) * Kaiyuan recorded list of 1,076 translated works in 730 CE * 176 translators on record from CE (Five Kingdoms period) * Decline of translation activity due to period of political turmoil * No translations of Buddhist texts CE (Song Dynasty) * Revived translation forums as systematic, state-sponsored translation process put in place * 284 tantric texts translated by Indian monks CE * Translation activity ends by the 13th century * At least 2,200 texts in total translated by 194 translators * Raine, Roberta. The Buddhist Translation Histories of Ancient China (c ) and Tibet (c ): A Comparative Study.

5 How might this cultural practice translate?

6 Most important & effective transfer of language and its culture is translation * Is a tool enabling cultural transfer among people via some sources Language & culture are inseparable and presented dependently in the translation process Focus of Cultural Translation on practice of translation as a way to transfer key ideas between cultures *The International Journal of Language Society and Culture fromtrakya University and Translating and Transfering Buddhist literature from University of Vienna

7 How might this cultural practice translate?

8 How might this cultural practice translate?

9 The Liu du Ji Jing ( 六度集經 ) was written and translated in the third century, C.E., by Kang Senghui ( 康僧會 ) The story was modified to include the local traditions and indigenous cultural practices, such as eye fluttering. That belief still exists to this day.

10 The Liu du Ji Jing ( 六度集經 ) was written and translated in the third century, C.E., by Kang Senghui ( 康僧會 ) Dr. Le Manh that mentions in his translation: The story did not originate in India, because burial was not part of the Indian culture but widely popular in China and Vietnam... In addition, the process of burial with gold in the mouth of the dead still remains in some parts of Vietnam.

11 Number of texts translated: o o o At least 2,200 sutras translated together initially More than 200 tantras translated in later periods Impossible to verify Sources Number of texts translated The Taisho edition ( ) 1,692 still extant translations of sutras, texts, and treatises The Kaiyuan records (730CE) Sui Dynasty records (594 CE) Only 1,076 extant works 2,257 translated works

(Nattier: 2008:35)* * A Guide to the Earliest Chinese

12 First translation: The Scripture in 42 Sections ( 四十二章經 ) Translators' names unknown Sengyou's Chu Sanzang Ji Ji (Nattier: 2008:35)* * A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations published by Soka University Tokyo 2008

13 The Problem of Authenticity Most translators' names unknown in early Buddhist Chinese history Small fraction of early translations have survived Foreign monks credited as a chief translator outnumber Chinese monks at a ratio of 10:1 (Hung 2005b: 89) Zhi Qian (Chinese: 支謙 ; pinyin: Zhī Qiān; ( CE) He realized that, the great doctrine was practiced, yet the scriptures were mostly in barbarian language, which nobody could understand. (Zürcher 2007:24)

14 The Problem of Authenticity (some cases) Foreign monks knew nothing of the written language and spoke little Chinese Explanations were based on limited linguistic skills & no idea what his collaborator wrote down Collaborator merely wrote down what he heard, had no idea of content of original text Room for misunderstanding along every step of translation process Foreign monks to recite the text, a Chinese monk would translate orally into Chinese, and another Chinese would record down oral translation (Ch en 1964: 366) The result of such a cyclical process hadrly accurate

15 Single translator: No identity of foreigner who brought original text to China Possibility of Chinese translation produced outside of China Each translator used own interpretations of terms Led to inconsistency of terminology compared with texts prepared by other translators Some of the Chinese translators often translated a Buddhist technical term using a Taoist technical terms.

16 Single translator: Some favored transcribing sounds, rather than translating meaning, of names and Buddhist technical terms (Nattier: 2008:2) Zürcher 2007:39 Nattier 2008:2

17 Source-Languages Buddhist scriptures were not always translated directly from Sanskrit original text The actual languages involved in Chinese sutra translation from the second to the fifth century could have been half a dozen or more. (Hung:(2010: 82)* Buddhist scripture first circulated in a spoken language known as "Prakrit : a specific dialect that served as basis for relay translation transmission (Rainie: 6) Many different versions of the same sutras *Hung, Eva Cultural Borderlands in China s Translation History from The Chinese University of Hongkong

18 Language of translated texts o Some direct from India o Some indirect through Central Asian nations (Zürcher 2007:xix) Teamwork o Virtually all Chinese translations of Buddhist texts were produced from relay translations (St. Andre 2010: 82) Translation Practices: o Ge-Yi technique, often referred to as concept matching. (Wright 1959: 37). o Dao An ( ): rendered the greatest service to Chinese Buddhism by ending the use of Taoist terminology of Ge-Yi. Genders

19 Not a single female translator on record in the history of Chinese Buddhism (Nattier 2008: 27)

20 Rate of incorrect or false attributions (Nattier 2008:6)

22 CULTURE AND CUSTOMS OF VIETNAM by Mark W. McLeod, Nguyen Thi Dieu

23 Vernacular Characters (Chinese modified): Thiền Uyển Tập Anh: (A Collection of Outstanding Figures of the Zen Community) o An extant record that tells the story of Buddhism in Vietnam in medieval Vietnamese Zen written in the 13 th century. o Unknown translator Sutra translations: Dìrghàgama: Thích Thiện Siêu translated but incomplete Madhyamàgama Thích Thanh Từ và Đại Đức Tuệ sĩ translated but unpublished Lanka sutra (2 versions):thích Duy Lực / Thích Thanh Từ VIỆC PHIÊN DỊCH KINH ĐIỂN PHẬT GIÁ O RA CHỮ QUỐC NGỮ GS Nguyễn Vĩnh Thượng

24 Sutras were translated into Romanized Vietnamese by o A translating committee formed in 1973 o Linh Sơn Pháp Bảo Đại tạng kinh formed bythích Tịnh Hạnh in 1994 with 150 members including monks, scholars, and lay people o A translation committee formed bythích Đổng in 2002 o A translation committee formed by Thich Minh Chau in 2003 o o The Tuệ Quang Foundation website formed by Dr. Trần Tiển Huyến using software for sutra translations A Vietnamese translation group from the City of Ten Thousand Buddha Temple, formed by Ven. Master Hsuan Hua in the USA, translated some Chine Sutras into Vietnamese

25 Sutras were translated into Romanized Vietnamese o o The translation of the Pali Tipitaka from Theravada Sri Lanka is almost complete The translation of the Chinese Nikaya ( 大藏經 ) is almost complete

26 Due to more structured process, quality of translation improved with linguistic skills of both foreign monks and Chinese With Kumarajiva s arrival in China in 401, the translation bureau became the accepted organ to carry out the task of large-scale translations (Ch en 1964: 367) During Sui Dynasty, court-sponsored sutra translation academy was set up By Tang dynasty, translation forums were commonplace (Raine Academia.edu:9)

27 Next generation of translators also of Central Asian origins, though raised in China Bilingual and bicultural, which made their translations superior to prior translations Xuan Zang traveled to India to study Sanskrit & Buddhism Upon returning to China, worked with a team to continue translation forums

28 During Song Dynasty, Institute for Canonical Translation (Yijing Yuan) produced 9-step process, which included: (Orzech 2006: 141-2) o chief translator o composer o philological assistant o proofreader o text appraiser o editor o transcriber o stylist o scribe Terminology found in early Chinese Buddhist translations published to date focused on Buddhist names & technical terms Throughout Chinese history, lack of individuals with appropriate linguistic training the main reason for often-convoluted translation processes

Ch'en, Kenneth K.S. 1964. Buddhism in China, A Historical Survey. Princeton: Princeton University Press Durt, Hubert. Early Chinese Buddhist Translations 31, no. 1 2 (2008). Hung, Eva. 2005.

29 Ch'en, Kenneth K.S Buddhism in China, A Historical Survey. Princeton: Princeton University Press Durt, Hubert. Early Chinese Buddhist Translations 31, no. 1 2 (2008). Hung, Eva Cultural Borderlands in China s Translation History. from The Chinese University of Hongkong Sean Gaffney Do the Tibetan Translations of Indian Buddhist Texts Provide Guidelines for Contemporary Translators? SOAS Literary Review 2000 Nattier, Jan A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Translations. Tokyo: Soka University. Nguyen, Thuong Vinh Việc Phiên Dịch Kinh Điển Phật Giáo Ra Chữ Quốc Ngữ Thu Vien Hoa Sen 2016 Le, That Manh. Vietnam Buddhist Literature Volume I: Kang Senghui Life and career. Vietnam: Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, Dr. Klaus-Dieter and Mag Gregory Forgues Translating and Transferring Buddhist Literature: From Theory to Practice University of Vienna, 2014 Raine, Roberta. The Buddhist Translation Histories of Ancient China (c ) and Tibet (c ): A Comparative Study. Academia.edu Yildiz, Isil Gamze. Cultural Transfer through Translation: Turkish Samples ISSN X Zürcher, Erik. The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China. Netherlands, Koninklijke Brill Leiden, 2007.

Computer Translation of the Chinese Taisho Tripitaka

Computer Translation of the Chinese Taisho Tripitaka Buddhism has been propagating in Việt Nam for over 2000 years. Mahayana sutras and other sacred texts have often been taken from the Chinese Tripitaka