Democratic Enlightenment

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1 Democratic Enlightenment Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights JONATHAN I. ISRAEL OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Contents List of Plates List of Abbreviations xiii xv 1. Introduction 1 1. Defining the Enlightenment 1 2. Interpreting the Enlightenment: The Argument 8 3. Social Context, Cultural Process, Ideas 17 PARTI: THE RADICAL CHALLENGE 2. Nature and Providence: Earthquakes and the Human Condition The Great Enlightenment Earthquake Controversy ( ) Philosophy and Interpreting Disaster The Encyclopedic Suppressed ( ) Fighting 'la Philosophic Moderne' Diderot Loses his Contributors The 'War' of the Encydopedie after Rousseau against the Philosophes Breaking with the Encyclopedistes Virtue Restored Deism and the Roots of Political Radicalism Voltaire, Enlightenment, and the European Courts Moderate Enlightenment Dominant? Regrouping at Cleves A Faltering Mainstream Anti-philosophes Anti-philosophie as a Cultural Force Catholic Enlightenment against Radical Thought Philosophy, Religion, and the Social Order Anti-philosophie versus Spinoza and Bayle 162

3 viii Contents 7. Central Europe: Aufklarung Divided The Legacy of Leibniz and Wolff Berlin and its Royal Academy Kant: Searching for the Middle Passage Reimarus: Erosion from the Centre 200 PART II: RATIONALIZING THE ANCIEN REGIME 8. Hume, Scepticism, and Moderation Hume's Enlightenment Hume, Aristocracy, and the British Empire Scottish Enlightenment and Man's 'Progress' Smith, Ferguson, and Civil Society Kames, Race, and Providence Reid and 'Common Sense' Enlightened Despotism Radical Enlightenment against 'Enlightened Despotism' The German Small States Joseph II, 'Josephism', and the Austrian Monarchy, N Music, Literature, and the Fine Arts > Aufklarung and the Fracturing of German Protestant Culture Deism besieged Bahrdt and Freedom of Expression Lessing and the Fragmentenstreit Catholic Enlightenment: The Papacy's Retreat Moderate versus Radical Enlightenment in Italy Beccaria and Legal Reform Society and the Rise of the Italian Revolutionary Enlightenment The 'Reform of Italy' Controversy Reforming Austrian Milan Deprivation, Revolution, and the 'Two Sicilies' 364

4 Contents ix 14. Spain and the Challenge of Reform, Remaking a Transatlantic Empire The Jesuits and Carlos Ill's Church Policy The Olavide Affair Spain and the Radical Challenge 395 PART III: EUROPE AND THE REMAKING OF THE WORLD 15. The Histoire philosophique, or Colonialism Overturned The Book that made a World'Revolution' Philosophy and the Indies Transatlantic Impact The Histoire philosophique as a Project of World Revolution The American Revolution Enlightenment and the Birth of the United States Counter-Enlightenment and Modernity Princeton, Harvard, Yale, and Columbia Undemocratic States An Inconclusive Legacy Europe and the Amerindians Aztecs and Incas Reconfigured Amerindians: Saved, or to be Saved? The Tupac Amaru Rebellion Philosophy and Revolt in Ibero-America ( ) The Creole-Peninsular Rift Bourbon Enlightenment in the Americas Radical Enlightenment Diffused across the Atlantic The American Revolution and the Spanish American Revolution ( ) Philosophy and Self-Emancipation from Spain Commercial Despotism: Dutch Colonialism in Asia An Asian Empire The Enlightenment Radiating from Batavia 543

5 x Contents 20. China, Japan, and the West Sinophilia in the Later Enlightenment Chinese Society: Two Incompatible Radical Accounts Enlightenment in Asia: The Case of Japan India and the Two Enlightenments Radical Critique of the British Raj Administration and Law in British India Russia's Greeks, Poles, and Serfs Russia's'Liberation of Greece'( ) Diderot's Clash with Catherine Russia's First Radical 626 PART IV: SPINOZA CONTROVERSIES IN THE. LATER ENLIGHTENMENT 23. Rousseau, Spinoza, and the 'General Will' Towards the Modern Democratic Conception of Sovereignty Radical Enlightenment, Revolution, and Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment Radical Breakthrough D'Holbach's'Bombs' Voltaire's Last Encounter: Battling Spinoza The Trial of Delisle de Sales ( ) Pantheismusstreit ( ) Lessing's Legacy The Early Stages of the German'Spinoza Controversy' Mendelssohn, Jacobi, and the Public Rift Kant's Intervention Later Stages of the Pantheismusstreit Kant and the Radical Challenge Dilemmas of Moderation Critiquing Kant's Critical Philosophy 729

6 Contents xi 27. Goethe, Schiller, and the New'Dutch Revolt'against Spain Drama and Political Philosophy Art as the New 'Religion' 754 PART V: REVOLUTION : The 'General Revolution' Begins Nobility versus the Third Estate The Revolution's Second Phase Books and Revolution The Diffusion Publishers, Booksellers, and Colporteurs Anti-philosophie and the Diffusion of Radical Literature 'Philosophy' as a Maker of Revolutions D'Holbach's Politics Representative Democracy Au/ftZarwng and the Secret Societies ( ) 'Revolution' and the Secret Societies Weishaupt's'General Reformation of the World' Bavaria's Counter-Enlightenment The Deutsche Union Prussia's Counter-Enlightenment Small-State Revolutions in the 1780s The Geneva Revolution of 1782: Democrats versus'aristocrats' Aachen, Liege, and the Austrian Netherlands The Dutch Democratic Revolution of the 1780s How to make Democracy Liberation Movement in Exile The French Revolution: From 'Philosophy' to Basic Human Rights ( ) From the Bastille to the King's Return to Paris (July-October 1789) Ideas and the Revolutionary Leadership Philosophes against the Revolution 933

7 xii Contents 35. Epilogue: 1789 as an Intellectual Revolution The 'General Revolution' as a Global Process Commemorating the Revolutionary Enlightenment's Heroes 944 Bibliography 953 Index 1031

RADICAL ENLIGHTENMENT

RADICAL ENLIGHTENMENT Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750 JONATHAN I. ISRAEL OXPORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Preface Acknowledgements List of Plates List of Figures List of Map and Tables Abbreviations