# 2009 University of South Africa. All rights reserved. Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria

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2 # 2009 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria EC1015/1/2010± B2 A4 6pica style

3 (iii) EC1015/1/2010±2012 Contents Unit INTROUCTION Page 1 THINKING CLEARLY AN LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE: THE BEGINNING OF OUR NEW WORL 1 2 ASKING QUESTIONS: CHALLENGING WHAT THE WORL TELLS US 7 3 HOW IN THE WORL CAN WE GIVE OUR LIVES MEANING? 12 4 WHAT OF AN AFRICAN WORL? 17 5 CAN WE CHANGE OUR WORL? 22 6 RETHINKING A WOMAN'S WORL 30 7 WHO IN THE WORL AM I? 34 8 IS THERE A WORL THAT SPEAKS TO US? 38 9 WHERE IN THE WORL ARE WE GOING? 43 iv

4 (iv) Introduction We want to welcome you to this module in Theoretical frameworks in Education. We sincerely hope that you will enjoy working through the prescribed book with its interactive text, with the additional assistance of this wrap-around guide. We hope you will find the content interesting and informative. Above all we hope that this module will inspire you to think about yourself, your teaching, your own context and the wider world around you. We use a pluralistic (more than one), problem-centred approach to expose you to several life views and the practical application of these frameworks in your specific situation. We want to emphasise that there is not one single solution to life's problems and questions; and there certainly is not one person with all the answers. In the introduction to your prescribed book, Philip and Jane tell us that philosophy wants us to rethink, recreate and transform. Philosophy starts when people start asking questions. We want you to ask questions while you work through this module. Play around with ideas, and include fellow students in your journey. If you want to contact your lecturers, use the web page (myunisa), or telephone to continue with the conversations started in the prescribed book and the study guide. In this study guide we literally guide you through the nine units of your prescribed book; you should therefore use this guide in conjunction with the prescribed book. We give learning outcomes at the start of each unit. We will give the outcomes of the whole module, as well as the assessment criteria in your Tutorial letter 101. Good luck with your studies Your Lecturers

5 1 EC1015/1 UNIT 1 Thinking clearly and learning from experience: the beginning of our new world LOGICAL EMPIRICISM SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Philosophy of logical empiricism Main divisions Linguistic analysis Logical symbolism Empiricism Teaching and learning Theory of behaviourism Objectives and results Reinforcement Ð positive and negative Main ideas Verification Objectivity Experience Logical truth Analysis Factual truth Measurement Experiments Quantitative research Scientific/mathematical statements Main proponents B Russel AJ Ayer J Locke Hume RS Peters BF Skinner & Vienna Circle Advantages isadvantages Encourage disciplined thinking Ignore human values iscourage prejudice Considers emotions as unim- Help with clear thinking portant Verifies knowledge Places too much emphasis on science

6 LEARNING OUTCOMES 2 After working through this unit, you will be able to. give an explanation of linguistic analysis, logical symbolism and empiricism. explain the kind of problems these theories will be able to solve. apply these theories in a teaching/training environment. give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking KEY CONCEPTS Keep the following key concepts in mind when reading through your prescribed book Rethinking our world (RW). We will explain the meaning of the concepts as we work through the prescribed book.. Linguistic analysis. Logical symbolism. Empiricism. Verification. Objectivity. Experience. Analysis INTROUCTION We are going to look at logical empiricism (logical positivism) in this unit. This metatheory/philosophy consists of three branches, namely linguistic analysis, logical symbolism and empiricism (see RW [Rethinking our world Ð we will use the abbreviation throughout the guide] p 16). ACTIVITY 1a Logical empiricism has two basic ideas: logic and empiricism. Without looking in a dictionary, try to explain what you think these words mean: ACTIVITY 1b Now get the dictionary and write down the definitions you get from it:

7 3 EC1015/1 We give concept clarifications as we work through this unit, and explain the three points of view included in logical empiricism. Briefly, a logical idea is an idea that can be defined precisely. A sentence is logically true if its truth can be determined by an appeal to the meaning of words and its grammatical structure. Empiricism claims that a statement is empirically true if the truth can be determined through sense experience. OVERVIEW Logical positivism thrived during the early part of the 20th century, especially in Britain and the USA. The main objective in this metatheory is to practise science as objectively as possible, and to try and verify all statements. The point of departure was that personal values, which are subjective, are not important enough to include in research projects. Values are regarded as meaningless, seeing that one cannot verify them. It is proposed that if the research object cannot be proved to be right or wrong, it is not researchable. Emotions like hope, fear, love, religious beliefs and political commitment are seen as not important, because they cannot be measured and checked in the same way scientific statements can be checked. Plato was the first philosopher who tried to get people to think clearly. Read more about his views in RW p 7. We are now going to discuss the three main divisions of logical empiricism or positivism. Linguistic analysis (RW pp 9±11) The history of linguistic analysis is discussed on p 10 of RW. It is proposed that the main aim in linguistic analysis is to clear our minds of all words that muddle us and confuse the scientific enterprise. You can read a lot about the meaning of words in pp 1±7 in RW. An example of a statement that would be usable in linguistic analysis could be: ``Metal expands when heated''. ACTIVITY 1c Give an exact definition of each of the words in the statement. You might be able to do this by using a dictionary:

8 4 We can give a very clear and precise definition of all the words in the statement Ð we know the meaning of ``metal'', ``expand'' and ``heat''. An example of a statement that is not so easily explained could be ``God is love''. ACTIVITY 1d Try to define the different words in the above statement as precisely as possible. The dictionary definition will probably not give you a satisfactory explanation, because our personal values are involved in a statement like this. What is your scientific clarification of the concept of ``God''? We as humans cannot give a clear and precise definition of the words ``God'' or ``love''. This kind of statement would be meaningless in linguistic analysis. The general advantages and disadvantages of using linguistic analysis are onp10ofrw. Logical symbolism (RW pp 11±13) Factual and logical statements are important in logical symbolism. A factual statement would be something like ``It is raining outside''. This statement can be proved right or wrong. Factual statements are different from value statements in the sense that they cannot be proved right or wrong (see pages 12±13 in RW). Values are something important to you personally. However, values do not fit the thinking paradigm of logical positivism, because there is no scientific clarification for values. Objective truth is of importance in this frame of reference, and subjective truth is seen as less significant. Mathematical statements are logical statements, eg = 4. Empiricism (RW pp 13±16)

9 5 EC1015/1 The Shorter Oxford ictionary defines empiricism as ``the theory that regards experience as the only source of knowledge''. In other words, empiricism refers to the belief that the only real knowledge one has comes from experience Ð either one's own or those of others. Empiricists propose that knowledge gained from our senses (eg seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting) is the most reliable kind of knowledge. PROBLEMS RESEARCHE BY LOGICAL POSITIVISTS OR EMPIRICISTS ACTIVITY 1e What kind of problems do you think we could solve by using any of the above points of reference? Give an example from your field of interest. The most straightforward problems would be from the natural sciences or in mathematics or language analysis. One could also approach problems in the human and social sciences from this perspective, as long as one uses scientific methods (eg observation, testing, induction or deduction). If we want to research the question: ``Why is the divorce rate so high in South Africa?'' we will probably follow some of these steps:. Set hypotheses. efine precisely what the different cultural/religious groups in the country see as divorce. Find statistics already done on the subject. Get a sample from the population to study. raw up carefully worded questionnaires APPLICATION IN PRACTICE This way of thinking often reduces human beings to purely physical organisms (a bit like plants and rats in a laboratory). Researchers who study human beings through the theoretical framework mentioned above are convinced that they can find out why people behave in a certain manner. These scientists believe that they can control human behaviour. This way of thinking is especially part of the theory of behaviourism. Logical empiricism gave rise to this theory. The theory of behaviourism claims that human beings are entirely physical; that our minds are no more

10 6 than our brains and that our brains are simply complex electronic devices like computers. This ``computer'' receives input from the world around us and then responds to this input Ð its response is our behaviour. The theory of behaviourism is associated with three people in particular, namely IP Pavlov, BF Skinner and J Watson. Pavlov was the researcher who performed the well-known experiments with dogs, studying stimulus and response reactions known as ``unconditioned behaviour''. This theory can be applied with great success in teaching and training. The basic purpose of human sciences is to solve problems by changing people's behaviour. With positive (reward) and negative (``punishment'') reinforcement, one gets results. Objectives are important in order to get results. ACTIVITY 1f Give examples of behaviourism in your field of interest. In teaching and training one would make use of the concept of ``reward'' and ``punishment''. For instance if you are the teacher/trainer and you need to get your students to attend classes and pass examinations, you could give ``debits'' for failure to attend class and deduct marks from their test scores; or you might give ``credits'' for class attendance and maybe award bonus points in tests. iscuss the advantages and disadvantages of practices such as these.

11 7 EC1015/1 UNIT 2 Asking questions: Challenging what the world tells us CRITICAL RATIONALISM SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Theory of critical rationalism Theory of critical analysis; theory of constant questioning Teaching and learning ebate/dialogue Explanation Rational problem solving Questioning Main ideas ebate Criticism Freedom of expression Explanation Falsifiability emocracy Questioning Anti-authoritarian Open society Non-dogmatic Some supporters Socrates K Popper S Hawking W Brezinska Advantages isadvantages Encourage questioning Makes people feel insecure Promote justice and fairness No help with quick decisions/ Basis for democracy immediate action Help with problem solving Cannot help with finding meaning in life

12 LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit you will be able to 8. explain what critical rationalism entails. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by critical rationalists. apply this theory in a teaching/training environment. give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking KEY CONCEPTS. Critical rationalism. Falsification. Trial and error. Open-mindedness. Antidogmatic. Anti-authoritarian INTROUCTION Like logical empiricists, critical rationalists emphasise that scientists must be objective. Scientists espousing this philosophy are prepared to have their views criticised and challenged by other scientists. But, unlike logical empiricists, critical rationalists say that values should not be ignored, because values and meaning are important. ACTIVITY 2a Let's do the same exercise as previously and try to explain the two words ``critical'' and ``ratio'' without a dictionary. ACTIVITY 2b Use the dictionary and see whether you could find the abovementioned words there:

13 9 EC1015/1 Critical rationalism emphasises the importance of clear thinking and the asking of questions. The driving force behind critical thinking is rationality, that is, the readiness to learn from mistakes and false theories. OVERVIEW Socrates was one of the first philosophers who challenged ideas and beliefs, and he encouraged his students to do the same. Critical rationalism as a philosophy, however, is a 20th century philosophy. The history of critical rationalism is on p 22 of RW. Karl Popper was the most important supporter of critical rationalism in the 20th century. Critical rationalists believe that nobody starts scientific research with a blank mind. One always starts off with theories or ideas in mind that one needs to test for falsity (read scenarios 1, 2 and 3 in RW pp 21±22). According to Popper, we can find that a statement is definitely false, but not that it is definitely true. This is known as the ``principle of falsification''. We usually try to prove something wrong in critical rationalism by using the trial and error method. ACTIVITY 2c Questioning is really important in critical rationalism. Many people do not question things. People generally accept what religious ministers tell them, what the papers say and what advertisements tell them to believe. Even consumers do not like to complain Ð they accept badly made goods and poor service. o you agree or not? Sketch a scenario from your own life depicting how you allowed yourself to be brainwashed, accepting something uncritically. Read pp 22±23 in RW for a summary of critical rationalism. The whole aim of critical rationalism is to make sure we do not come to

14 10 believe in an idea that is false. According to critical rationalists, it is only by testing our ideas using the most stringent tests that we can begin to progress in our knowledge. The principle of asking questions and of falsification makes critical rationalism a very open-minded, antidogmatic and anti-authoritarian philosophy. It is only in open societies that problems are discussed and solved through the free exchange of ideas. Critical rationalists claim that values, like scientific discoveries, must be open to debate. We must be prepared to have our values challenged (read pp 24±26 in RW about values in critical rationalism). If we are not prepared to respond to these kinds of challenges, we do not support the principle of an open society and democracy. Critical rationalists are bitterly opposed to regimes that silence and intimidate people. Values guide scientific research, but science and objectivity should be used to examine our values. Values that are important in scientific research would for instance be honesty, reliability and truthfulness. If the people doing the research are not honest and reliable, the research results will be meaningless and often even untrue. The advantages and disadvantages of espousing critical rationalism are given on p 27 of RW. PROBLEMS RESEARCHE IN CRITICAL RATIONALISM Scientists, in critical rationalism, are said to start their research by trying to prove existing theories or research false. In fact, we all do this as we go through life. We grow up believing certain things (usually what our parents, teachers or religious leaders have told us). The experiences we have in life then tell us whether these beliefs and traditions are true or false. Most people modify their beliefs as they grow older. Most of us, including scientists, find things out by trial and error. In science we will talk about a hypothesis that we check against reality to find out whether it is wrong. The difference between scientific statements and nonscientific statements is that scientific statements can be proved wrong; nonscientific statements cannot be proved wrong. If scientists start asking ``why?'' then they start searching for the answer to their question. For instance, why does a stone fall to the ground if I let it go? Why do some people succeed in business while others fail? Why do some managers get the best out of their staff while others provoke hostility and resentment? Why do some people work more effectively than others? All these ``why'' questions need some explaining. According to critical rationalism, the aim of science is to find satisfactory explanations Ð we do this by trying to reject that which is false and then find a more acceptable explanation. People often do not argue in a rational way, and so their explanations will be unacceptable/unsatisfactory.

15 ACTIVITY 2d 11 EC1015/1 The classification of various types of false arguments can be found on pp 27±29 in RW. Read through this section and try to think of your own examples of the different types of false argumentation. Read the statements on p 23 of RW and answer the questions. APPLICATION IN PRACTICE In the classroom or lecture hall the principles of open-mindedness, debate and dialogue could be practised with great success. ACTIVITY 2e Take a theme that is important in your field of interest and explain how you would apply the above principles in practice:

16 12 UNIT 3 How in the world can we give our lives meaning? EXISTENTIALISM SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Existentialism Theory on the meaning of life Teaching and learning Individuals should find their own meaning in life Main ideas Self-examination/Self-discovery ecisionmaking/choicemaking Meaning of life Understanding of existential purpose Opposed to nihilism Some proponents Jean-Paul Sartre, Frantz Fanon, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques errida, Frederick Nietzsche, WEB du Bois Advantages Questions people's ideals and values Seeks openness about ourselves Requires us to trust our instincts Helps us to spot fakes Encourages us to enjoy life more isadvantages May make us too trusting Can be confusing at times May lead to despair Can cause anger and helplessness May be disruptive

17 LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit, you will be able to 13 EC1015/1. explain the central assumptions of existentialism. compare existentialism and hermeneutics. describe ways in which existentialism can/cannot help us understand problems. draw on existentialism in your teaching practice KEY CONCEPTS. Existentialism. Nihilism. Self-examination. Self-discovery. ecisionmaking. Choicemaking. Meaning of life INTROUCTION ACTIVITY 3a Let's do the same exercise as previously and try to explain the word ``existence'' without a dictionary. ACTIVITY 3b Use the dictionary and see whether you could find the abovementioned word there:

18 14 Existentialism asks the question ``what is the meaning of life?'' or ``why do I exist?'' Individuals need to find meaning for their own existence. There is no single answer to the above questions. Every person will find a unique answer to the questions. The way people respond to this question will depend on factors including their cultures and belief systems. Existentialists believe that people should not be told what their unique lives mean. Freedom of choice/decision is very important. OVERVIEW Socrates already talked about the risk of living an ``unexamined life'', but the philosophy actually only gained momentum in the 20th century in reaction to modernism, reliance on technology and the two World Wars. Read more about existentialism and its proponents on pp 34±37, 40 and 42 in RW. Nihilism is the opposite of existentialism Ð read about nihilism on p 39 in RW. The general advantages and disadvantages of espousing existentialism are onp40ofrw. PROBLEMS RESEARCHE IN EXISTENTIALISM In this unit we look at the different ideas and concepts of existentialism mentioned in the schematic overview. The different activities below are meant to guide you to discover these ideas and concepts. You will also discover how existentialism can/cannot help you solve your everyday problems. ACTIVITY 3c Read p 35 (RW) on Michel Foucault's thoughts on the influence of institutions such as schools, churches, the family and the civil service on human existence. Tell us which of these institutions influenced you, whether in a positive or negative way. ACTIVITY 3d On the same page, Foucault argues that ``human beings are essentially free and unformed''. Another philosopher who advocated the freedom of human

19 15 EC1015/1 beings is John Locke. He argues that ``we are all by nature free and equal''. But how valid are these claims about freedom and equality? In what ways do you feel that you are human, free and equal? ACTIVITY 3e Perhaps the questions asked in 3d are a bit depressing, more like nihilism, which is described on p 39. How would you respond to the following question: ``What is the purpose of your existence?'' ACTIVITY 3f Read the section, ``Existentialism in a nutshell'', on p 42 (RW). If you were to follow Socrates and examine your life, within your culture and belief system of course, how would you describe it? ACTIVITY 3g Existentialists do believe that there is purpose and meaning to life, and that we should try to discover them for ourselves (p 40 RW). Tell us how you would want to spend your life, and why.

20 16 APPLICATION IN PRACTICE ACTIVITY 3h Reflect on how your knowledge of existentialism could assist you in trying to help a learner/student in your class/lecture hall who has lost both parents to HIV/AIS. He or she probably has to take care of his or her younger siblings, which is a huge responsibility. He or she might feel that there is no freedom of choice or meaning in his or her life.

21 17 EC1015/1 UNIT 4 What of an African world? AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW African philosophy ifferent strands/kinds/modes of inquiry Ethnic philosophy Sage philosophy Political philosophy Pure philosophy Teaching and learning Use different ethnic and cultural groups in examples Tolerance, respect Group work Transmission of culture and traditions Main ideas Oral tradition Indigenous knowledge systems Anticolonialism Cosmos eity Community Ubuntu Humanness Some proponents Kwame Anthony Appiah, Kwasi Wiredu, Leopold Senghor Advantages isadvantages Promotes African identity Not widely accepted Considers tradition to be important Relies too much on tradition Provides cultural unity Comprises more than one Orientated towards participatory/ philosophy group

22 LEARNING OUTCOMES 18 After having studied this unit you will be able to. explain the central assumptions of African philosophy. explain the different strands of African philosophy. differentiate between African philosophy and Western philosophy. describe ways which African philosophy can/cannot help us understand societal problems. draw on African philosophy to apply in your teaching practice KEY CONCEPTS. Cosmos. eity. Humanness. Community/communalism. Ubuntu. Indigenous knowledge systems INTROUCTION ACTIVITY 4a o you consider yourself as an African? Why or why not? African philosophy has its roots in oral tradition. Its written form dates back to the pharaohs in Egypt. In Africa south of the Sahara, written African philosophy emerged as a response to the way colonialism and imperialism subjugated (controlled or dominated) the cultural, scientific, economic and political lives of Africans. The post-colonial era in Africa revolves around the continued struggle for an African identity. African philosophy developed because African intellectuals sought to disprove the belief held by western philosophers that Africans cannot develop a fullyfledged philosophy. African traditional thought was concerned with the nature of the cosmos, conceptions of deity, the philosophy of the mind, a communalist and humanistic notion of moral responsibility and a consensual philosophy of politics. In the overview we talk about the four types/strands of African philosophy. OVERVIEW The most important aspect of African philosophy is that, unlike western philosophy, which regards the individual as the centre of life, it puts the community first. This is evident in Julius Nyerere's idea of ujamaa; Kenneth

23 19 EC1015/1 Kaunda's humanism; Kwame Nkrumah and Sekou Toure's scientific socialism; Leopold Senghor's negritude, and Steve Biko's black consciousness. Now go back to your RW and read pp 44±46. In these pages you will read about the different types/strands of African philosophy. These include: sage, ethnic, political and pure philosophy. African philosophy emphasises the community and the sense of communalism that we as human beings should have. Tradition and culture play a mayor role in this way of thinking. Ubuntu is considered as the central ethical idea of traditional African thought. Read about ubuntu from p 47 to the top of p 48 in RW. Use the activities below to help you to discover by yourselves the importance of African philosophy in our lives. ACTIVITY 4b Other than the example given in the text you have just read, can you think of any other classic example of ubuntu that has become part of South African history since the advent of democracy? ACTIVITY 4c Most traditional African communities have religious rites and rituals through which they communicate with their gods, ancestors or spirits. Can you briefly describe a set of religious rites and rituals that your community practices? ACTIVITY 4d Over the years the Basotho people developed a joint communal practice of working together as a team on family fields known as the Letsema. escribe a similar activity/activities that your community practices.

24 20 ACTIVITY 4e In most traditional African cultures the political and social decisions are made by a gathering of senior men known as the Lekgotla (national assembly). In modern-day democracies the Lekgotla is likely to come under heavy criticism. Can you think of any reasons why this might be the case? ACTIVITY 4f One of the characteristic features of African philosophy is the oral tradition. This is the practice of storytelling that gets passed down from generation to generation, and has a specific moral purpose. Can you describe some of the morals that oral tradition seeks to uphold in your culture? PROBLEMS RESEARCHE BY AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY ACTIVITY 4g A central component of African philosophy is generally referred to as indigenous African knowledge systems (IKS). This encompasses a broad range of issues, eg indigenous technologies, indigenous medicines, indigenous games, etc. Can you list examples in each of these categories that are still being practised in either your community or a community you have knowledge of?

25 21 EC1015/1 APPLICATION IN PRACTICE There is a lot of talk about ``Africanisation of the curriculum'' in education and training. This is a call for an African-centred approach to educational discourse, for it is argued that all education in Africa must have Africa as its central point and focus, or else such education becomes alien, oppressive and irrelevant. The term ``Africa'' does not mean a homogeneous conception of the term, but includes a variety of indigenous cultures characterised by diverse languages, beliefs, cultures and social practices. ACTIVITY 4h Imagine that you are a teacher at the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for girls. How can you draw on African philosophy to instil a sense of ubuntu among the girls at a school that has raised concerns about its potential to alienate learners from their communities by exposing them to excessive luxury and privilege?

26 22 UNIT 5 Can we change our world? SYSTEMS THEORY AN CRITICAL THEORY SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Critical theory Teaching and learning Critical pedagogy Everybody has a voice Critical thinking Ð against marginalisation Main ideas Ethics are important Criticism of power structures Focus on power games Wants to liberate everybody from oppression Knowledge created by humans Some proponents Karl Marx M Foucault P Freire J Habermas H Marcuse T Adorno Frankfurt School Advantages Realistically assess power structures Morals and ethics are important Unmask the powerful Opposed to marginalisation Encourage emancipation isadvantages It may lead to despair Language is often difficult It can become fanatical It can be too idealistic

27 23 EC1015/1 Systems theory Life = huge number of complex systems Teaching and learning Understanding of systems Analysis of systems Changing of systems Main ideas Analysis Complexity ynamic relations Problem-solving Systematic approach Wholeness Functionality Some proponents Bertalanffy T Parsons Engineers in general Advantages Encourages logical analysis isciplined thinking Analytical, thorough approach isadvantages No focus on ethics Ignores problems of power No focus on emotions LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit you will be able to. explain what critical theory and systems theory entail. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by critical theorists and systems theorists. apply these theories in a teaching/training environment. give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking KEY CONCEPTS. critical theory. oppression. emancipation

28 24. critical reflection. systems theory. wholeness. complexity. functionality. input x output INTROUCTION ACTIVITY 5a Systems theory and critical theory both comment on the systems in which we live and how these systems influence our lives as a whole. How has the system (community/society) you live in influenced your life? We will discuss both theories in more detail below. We will concentrate on critical theory in all the examples. OVERVIEW Systems theory Bertalanffy (see p 64 RW) attempted to develop a new way of doing science by looking at everything (including human beings) in a system. A short summary of systems theory is on p 64 of RW. The first thing of note is that systems theory sees things as wholes. It does not believe that one would understand something better by splitting it up into parts. Modern systems theory is based on the idea that all systems share certain concepts. The following essentials are mentioned:. The parts of the system work together in some way.. The system is a whole.. All systems have goals.. All systems have inputs and outputs.. All systems take inputs and turn them into outputs.. All systems absorb and generate some form of energy.. Systems work in a certain order. In many ways systems theory is problem-centred. It sees the world and human activity largely as a process of problem solving.

29 25 EC1015/1 Systems theory is not social critique Ð it is not idealistic in the sense that it criticises, for example, the capitalist system in the way critical theory would. Systems theory merely says there are different ways of looking at a problem. It also emphasises that problems are very complex and that our understanding of these problems is always incomplete. Although systems theory does not set out to reform the world, its questioning approach often reveals inconsistencies. It claims that social reformers often take an overly simplistic approach to society and the workings of society. Any system is part of the wider world. The education system, for instance, is a good example. It does not exist by itself; it takes place in a society. Education and training are carried out within a certain social system, as well as a particular education system. The purpose of education and training is to change and improve individual students' own systems. What makes it so difficult is that these systems always feed on each other and the effect of this is impossible to predict. The learner's own system contains so many possibilities that the education system cannot cater for all the needs of any one student. Then the whole class still needs to be taken into consideration and that makes it an almost impossible task. Furthermore, training and education are carried out deliberately and one cannot predict how a learner will react to the compulsory learning input. No amount of good teaching guarantees any results. ACTIVITY 5b People are also systems. Explain how a person can be a system. We are all made up of different elements which form systems. For instance, our minds and personalities have evolved in response to the problems we encounter in the greater environment around us. We are, however, in constant interaction with other systems, such as the community around us, the bigger society, our friends and our family. The advantages of using systems theory are the following:. It is a simple philosophy in the sense that everything can be described as a system with a function.. It encourages openness in the sense that scientists from different fields of research talk to each other.. Systems theory can be applied to observe anything and everything. It reveals blind spots in people's thinking.

30 26 The disadvantages could be:. It often uses difficult language to say something very simple.. It is sometimes vague and impractical. It is often too abstract to be practical.. It ignores problems of power and prefers things to stay as they are, instead of considering change. ACTIVITY 5c Which specific systems in society influence education and training? In which manner does this influence take place? Critical theory Critical theory started in Germany in the 1930s. Since the 1960s it has developed from a German-based philosophy to a powerful influence throughout the world. The history of critical theory is on p 71 of RW. Critical theorists have a lot to say about power structures in society and their influence on society. They say that all forms of domination stop people from being free. Critical theorists believe they can offer us a comprehensive account of society and the production of knowledge. Their aim is the total emancipation (empowerment) of each and every human being from all forms of oppression. ACTIVITY 5d Critical theory is about society and the way in which we are all dominated by society, the social structures and the power structures at a certain time. Read about power structures on pp 75±79 in RW. If you think about your own life, how were/are you oppressed or discriminated against by people in power?

31 27 EC1015/1 Critical theorists believe that all of us are trapped by modern society. This is because modern society is run by technology which is developing too fast and which has become complex and alien to most people (compare also to the views of postmodernism). Critical theorists feel that the mass media make people passive and resigned about the problems created by authorities, and that they brainwash people to adopt a particular point of view. Critical theorists believe that all societies have inequalities of wealth and status. This happens, because modern democratic societies are dominated and driven by the global money market and the mass media. The mass media encourage us to do things that serve the interests of the wealthy and the powerful, and often people do not even know that they are manipulated. Critical theory wants us to critically reflect on society. We should try to discover the hidden assumptions that maintain existing power relations. We should look at what ``enslaves'' people. Then we should try to alter social reality by the way we participate in it. According to critical theorists, knowledge should not be manipulated by the powerful in society. Knowledge should be part of everyday life. Knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is part of human existence and our need to know is a human need. Science is a human activity carried out only by humans. Wants, desires, emotions and personal convictions guide all human beings and therefore also their scientific endeavour. Science, therefore, cannot be totally neutral and objective. Knowledge cannot be seen separately from everyday practice. Critical theorists talk about praxis = theory-in-practice. Read about the advantages and disadvantages of critical theory on pp 79± 80 of RW. PROBLEMS RESEARCHE IN CRITICAL THEORY Researchers using critical theory will for instance look at the way in which educational and social reform is related to changing power structures in society. They might also look at what happens in classrooms, lecture halls or in society itself and how these practices influence learners' identities. The instrumental and manipulative approach of modern society is seen very clearly in modern education and training institutions. From the age of 6 upwards, children are made to fit into the ``system''. What would your reaction be to the following questions regarding the education system? ACTIVITY 5e How does our way of seeing education lead to discrimination and injustice?

32 28 What are the power relations that form the basis of education? How is the way we think about education the effect of power? Learners today are not the same as they were in ancient Greece. What is regarded as an ``educated person'' today differs a lot from what was expected in the past. What is regarded as an ``educated person'' in any society, however, is very much related to social and political conditions. ACTIVITY 5f In modern educational reform, educators have been eager to turn learners into problem-solvers. Could all learners be moulded like this? Is this not a form of manipulation of learners to become what society wants them to become? What about each individual's unique abilities? What is your reaction to this? The same kind of manipulation becomes part of curriculum development. Think about the following questions: ACTIVITY 5g In whose interest is the development of a specific curriculum? Who decides what needs to be taught?

33 APPLICATION IN PRACTICE 29 EC1015/1 We believe that the most valuable contribution of critical theory to education has been the notion of questioning what is meant by ``knowledge''. Critical pedagogy is the term used to describe critical theories in education. One of the basic beliefs of critical pedagogy is that educational institutions and teaching do not educate people at all. They merely teach people to accept power structures in society. ACTIVITY 5h We live in a society and time of ``quick fixes''. We need to quickly ``grab a bite'' when working, because we do not have enough time to sit and relax or talk to our fellow workers. Luckily we can get plastic containers with all kinds of quick food. Unfortunately these containers are being thrown all over the place and are often not biodegradable. Are you prepared to live with this kind of lifestyle in this kind of society? Somebody makes money out of us, and then we help to mess up the environment. We give little attention to communication skills and to building relations with our fellow workers. What could be a solution to this kind of problem? If you did come up with a solution, you probably reflected critically on the situation and on society. You were thinking like a critical theorist.

34 30 UNIT 6 Rethinking a woman's world FEMINISM SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Feminism ifferent strands African American British European Islamic Teaching and learning Questions traditional social roles Tolerance and respect Main ideas Male domination Female oppression Social roles Sexual stereotyping Power Exclusion Patriarchy Some proponents Mamphela Ramphele, N'ri Assie-Lumumba, Margaret Atwood, Catherine Odora Hoppers, Naomi Wolf, Lindiwe Zulu, Maria Mzamo Advantages isadvantages Encourages re-examination Limits dialogue between men value systems and women Empowers women Tends to portray men as Gives women courage predatory Tends to idealise women

35 LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit you will be able to 31 EC1015/1. explain the central assumptions of feminism. differentiate between different forms of feminism. describe ways which feminism can/cannot help us understand societal problems. draw on feminism to apply in your teaching practice KEY CONCEPTS. Feminism. Power. Male domination. Exclusion/Marginalisation. Patriarchy INTROUCTION Feminism is a cluster of philosophies (see different kinds/strands of feminism on p 88 in RW) whose focus is on sexual stereotyping, in particular the rejection of the assumption that women are inferior to men. It lobbies for the recognition and acknowledgement of the worth of women in society. Feminist theory advocates that women, just like men, have rights that ought to be respected and not violated; that women have valuable talents and strengths; and that they are equally capable of doing anything men can do. Nigerian Afro-beat singer Fela Anikulapo-Kuti captures this more clearly in his heat song, ``Lady'': She go say, she equal to man She go say, she got power like man She go say anytin' man can do himself fit do OVERVIEW The main focus of all forms of feminism is given on p 88 of RW. There is also a description of some of the different forms feminism can take (RW p 88). African feminism is discussed on pp 90±91 (RW) and British and American feminism (First and Second Wave feminism) on pp 91±97. There is also a very concise discussion of Islamic feminism on pp 96±97 (RW). ACTIVITY 6a At your work place, of the people who are in positions of responsibility, how many are male and how many are female? Which group is favoured: men or women? And if the disparities favour men, why do you think this is the case?

36 32 ACTIVITY 6b Which tasks and duties are performed by men, and which ones are performed by women? In your opinion, are there compelling reasons why this should be so? Read your prescribed textbook (RW) from pp 88±96 to find out why feminism came into being and how it proposes to eradicate the issues dealt with in the activities above. ACTIVITY 6c Read on p 97 about patriarchal fundamentalism. What is your response to the claim that the universe was created and is ruled by a male god who created men in his image? ACTIVITY 6d In your opinion should God be addressed as a male, as in ``God-the-Father'', or as a female ``God-the-Mother''? Why?

37 33 EC1015/1 PROBLEMS RESEARCHE BY FEMINISM Explain how feminism could influence the decision of a highly successful career woman who wants to get married, but her husband-to-be believes that a woman does not need to have a career because he will take care of her. APPLICATION IN PRACTICE How would you succeed in getting the boys/young men to sweep and dust your classroom (a so-called women's job)?

38 34 UNIT 7 Who in the world am I? PHENOMENOLOGY SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Philosophy of phenomenology ifferent divisions Phenomenology and the self Social phenomenology Cosmic phenomenology Teaching and learning Learning is the discovery of the self Teaching is helping learners to discover who they are Main ideas Inner being is more important than the outside world Essence of a phenomenon is being researched Important in various religions, such as Buddism iscovery of truth is important Main proponents Husserl M Heidegger M Green J errida Advantages isadvantages Ethical concerns are important Can be authoritarian Enables us to examine our lives Language can be difficult closely It can be too uncritical of Slow down authority Lead less stressful lives Humanitarian and compassionate

39 INTROUCTION 35 EC1015/1 In critical theory we spoke about the way society constructs and forms us. We need to be aware of all the outside influences in our lives if we want to be free from social pressures and if we want to enjoy real freedom. Real freedom in phenomenology lies in discovering ourselves and getting to know who we really are and what we could become. One of many ways people try to discover their true being is by using the philosophy called phenomenology. The word ``phenomenon'' in this philosophy is an indication of how phenomenologists work. They try to get to the essence (the heart) of the thing that they research. They concentrate on one thing (phenomenon) at a time, by putting all prejudices, emotional reactions and labels to one side for the moment. Phenomenology and logical empiricism are the same in the sense that both are concerned with real experience. Phenomenology is different from empiricism in the sense that the researchers concentrate on the essential uniqueness of the individual or the essence of what is being researched. The question asked is ``What is really happening here?'' LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit you will be able to. explain what phenomenology entails. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by phenomenologists. apply these theories in a teaching/training environment. give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking KEY CONCEPTS. phenomenon. essences. being. prejudices. consciousness OVERVIEW ACTIVITY 7a If somebody asked you to describe a typical day in your life, what would you tell this person?

40 36 You will probably describe a day in your life with all the emotional reactions and prejudices you experienced included. You probably wake up, not feeling like going to work but knowing that you have to go, because people would know that you are playing truant if you do not pitch. You will probably include how you drive on the same road as a lot of hooligans who do not know the rules of the road. You work with some good people, but also some idiots, etc. ACTIVITY 7b Try to keep all prejudices and emotional reactions to one side and describe a typical day again by merely focusing on the essence: The emphasis should be on what is ``really happening'' and on going back to ``the things itself'' (essence). We get a description of phenomenology on pp 106±107 and pp 109 and 115 in RW. We also read about the different categories of phenomenology on p 107. Phenomenology started at the end of the nineteenth century with the study of the mind and the development of psychiatry and psychology. It started off as a study of human consciousness (in other words, what is going on inside our heads/minds). To be conscious means to be awake. The experience of ``awakening'' is a thinking experience, or an experience in our consciousness. We actively participate in things when we are awake Ð we are not passive spectators. To be awake means to have the possibility of being change agents. People should not be treated as objects. Social phenomenology focuses on the individual in society. Social phenomenologists will ask questions such as: What is society? What is really happening in society? We all live in a society. We need to be aware of the essences of this society to understand how our ``lived'' world works. We need to focus on the world we live in as it presents itself in the here and now. Social reality is a human

41 37 EC1015/1 invention. The moment we start putting our prejudices and beliefs to one side and actually look at what is really going on, the social world starts to appear as it really is at that moment in time. Cosmic phenomenology focuses even more broadly on the individual's place in the universe. The advantages and disadvantages of phenomenology in general are given on p 113 of RW. PROBLEMS RESEARCHE IN PHENOMENOLOGY Phenomenology asks questions such as: What is actually happening to me? What is actually going on in the world around me? Phenomenology tries to grasp the very nature of existence itself (also see existentialism). Phenomenology wants us to go back to the basics and ``wonder anew'' at life itself. If scientists learn to wonder anew, they will discover the true spirit of science that led to scientific discovery in the first place. APPLICATION IN PRACTICE Educators who believe in phenomenology need to take into account learners themselves and their experience of the world. They should focus on the individual's conscious experience of the educational situation Ð in other words, on the learner's/student's inner, mental experience of education/ training. If educators ignore the inner experiences of their learners/ students, they make it impossible to enter into meaningful dialogue with the students. Educators need to see every individual in their class as he or she really is. Educators need to be concerned with helping students explore the world and develop their own conscious experience Ð that is, their being. ACTIVITY 7c If you are a phenomenologist and you need to get to know the individual learners in your class, what would you concentrate on? Questions for research would be: How does learning affect people in themselves? How can we help young people to find personal meaning? How can education and training be changed to become meaningful to learners/ students?

42 38 UNIT 8 Is there a world that speaks to us? HERMENEUTICS SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW Hermeneutics Theory of life as a process of interpretation Learning and teaching Learning as interpretation Teaching as dialogue Main ideas Culture and history important Art, drama and music important Ð creativity Importance of listening and watching Individual's life experience Understanding of the world Conciliation, peacemaking ialogue Anti-authoritarian Some proponents Carl Jung (Swiss psychologist), Hans-Georg Gadamer (German philosopher), John Mbiti (African philosopher), Ngugi wa Thiongo (African writer) Advantages isadvantages Anti-authoritarian Very subjective Encourages individuals to create Can lead to waffle own meaning Lack of disciplined thinking ialogue important Encourages learning as a life-long process

43 LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this unit you will be able to 39 EC1015/1. explain the central assumptions of hermeneutics. compare and contrast hermeneutics with other theories. describe ways in which hermeneutics can/cannot help us understand problems. draw on your hermeneutical understanding to apply in their teaching practice KEY CONCEPTS. Listening and watching. Life experience. Understanding. Conciliation/peacemaking. ialogue. Anti-authoritarian INTROUCTION Hermeneutics means ``the science of interpretation'', or the ``science of communication''. For instance, when we study history we are listening to the voices of the past, which are communicating with us through the documents and things people left behind. These may be things found by archaeologists, such as pots and tools. Schleiermacher, and other hermeneuticians such as Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer, believed that we could use hermeneutics to understand all forms of human behaviour. Hermeneutics has critical implications for education because when educators and learners listen and communicate with each other, effective learning takes place. OVERVIEW The formal studies of hermeneutics started in the 16th century and concentrated on the interpretation of ancient sacred texts. By the 19th century, hermeneutics was being used for the understanding of both sacred and profane texts. Today hermeneutics is used in our understanding of text, art, music, science etc. Schleiermacher believed it should be used for all forms of human expression. Heidegger and Gadamer claimed that both culture and history are important in hermeneutics to understand other human beings. Some of the history of hermeneutics and its main ideas are on p 123 (RW).