90 Days UPSC Mains Optional Answer Writing Initiative

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1 1 90 Days UPSC Mains Optional Answer Writing Initiative Philosophy Paper 1 Question and Model Answers from Subject Experts

2 2 04-Dec-2017 Question 1 In what sense ideas be both immanent and transcendent? Discuss in this context Plato s theory of universals and particulars.(2017) Model Answer Plato was occupied with the question of knowledge(of reality) and like his master Socrates, he believed that that Knowledge was possible. He rejected the contention of Sophists that Knowledge was through perception since if it were so then what appears to a fool is true for him and that is not acceptable. For Plato, knowledge lay in the realm of ideas which he said is possible to be known through rational insight. These Ideas are nothing but the essences of the things which we know in the sensible world. Plato uses the dialectical method to get to them Ideas or forms are the true substance according to Plato. They are indivisible, immutable, eternal and belong to the transcendental realm of existence. They are transcendental in the sense that they are not like the objects of the sensible world which are in a state of constant flux. Here, Plato borrows the concept of Parmenides, according to whom the substances are constant and unchangeable and this he applies to the transcendental Ideas which remain same irrespective of what happens in the sensible world. Then how does Plato explain the sensible world? For this Plato uses the copy theory of ideas(or participation theory of ideas). He says that the things in the sensible world are mere copies of these transcendental ideas. These things imitate the ideas in an imperfect way, whereas the ideas are perfect in themselves. In this way, Plato explains the change and movement which we see in

3 3 the sensible world. Here he borrows the concept of flux from another Greek philosopher, Heraclitus. The ideas are immanent in this world in so far as they in participate in the becoming of things in the sensible world. Thus in this context, Plato explains the transcendence and immanence of ideas. Criticism: Aristotle criticises the realm of transcendental ideas, He says that the ideas cant exist outside of the particular in which they exist. He, therefore, brings these ideas from transcendence to immanence and establishes his theory of substance containing both form and matter.

4 4 04-Dec-2017 Question 2 Explain Leibnit z princple of identity of indiscernibles.(2015) Model Answer Leibnitz was a rationalist philosopher who believed in the use of the mathematical method to explain the nature of the world. Unlike Spinoza, who sacrificed plurality for the sake of Unity, Leibnitz starts with the Plurality. With the help of his law of individuality, Leibnitz looks upon real as selfcontainedness. Each part must be the whole and contains the whole in it. This insistence of Leibnitz leads him to believe in Pluralism. Leibnitz also refutes the idea of atoms as being the fundamental reality of the universe. He claims that the atoms are fundamentally alike and only different in quantity and this can t explain the qualitative difference that we perceive in the world. Besides atoms cant explain consciousness also. Therefore the fundamental reality of Leibnitz is spiritual units called monads which are real, indivisible and self-contained. Each monad contains the whole of a universe in itself. It is a self-contained unit which is windowless and nothing comes in or goes out of it. It contains within it the possibility of everything which happens to it. Through the theory of indiscernibles, Leibnitz tries to explain that no two monads are alike. Each and every monad is unique and it is part of the continuous series where every monad leads to the subsequent monad according to the principle of continuity. But how does Leibnitz explain the unity among these plural and

5 5 multitude of monads? For this Leibnitz uses the principle of Pre-established Harmony where each and every monad is part of the whole as arranged by God in perfect symphony. Since each monad is windowless they can t interact with each other and God provides the order and the arrangement between the monads. Criticism: The Leibnitz theory of indiscernibles will make the monad solipsistic as they are windowless and self-contained. These monads are ignorant about the harmony which exist outside of them and it needs god to explain the harmony. While Leibnitz has given the monad as the fundamental reality he hasn t explained the contradiction of monad pre-existing alongside god. While Spinoza sacrificed the plurality for unity, Leibnitz has sacrificed Unity for the sake of plurality.

6 6 06-Dec-2017 Question 1 Show that how Hume s analysis of experience leaves no ground for belief in any permanent reality either physical or mental.(2017) Model Answer Approach: Hume analysis of substance denial of rational cosmology Hume analysis of self denial of rational psychology Hume was a consistent empiricist who took the psychological empiricism to its logical conclusion. Locke had been inconsistent since he claimed substance as a supposed substratum of qualities and nothing beyond. However, Hume questions this acceptance of substance. He also refutes Locke s epistemological dualism and states that our impressions are not copies of substances. He rejects that we have an impression of substance in us and there is no point in accepting anything without it not having any impression on us. Thus, we can not know what the objects are in themselves and are limited to our impressions. This leads to denial of the material world or rational cosmology. Hume also questions the question of the identity of self which has often been taken granted by rationalist and empiricists like Locke and Berkeley. He again turns back to an impression of self within us and contends that he doesn t find any. All we have inside us is the impression of hot, cold, sad, happy. We never find an objective self, Hume compares it to a stage where characters come and go, and here impressions come and go. It s only due to the principle of association

7 7 and habit that we attribute an everlasting, objective self. Thus, Hume has denied self and led to a denial of rational psychology. It s due to these denials of matter and self (and god) that Hume is referred to as a skeptic. However, Hume did not totally deny knowledge. He did believe in the knowledge of the relation of ideas which can be found in Mathematics.

8 8 06-Dec-2017 Question 2 Critically examine Hume s views on relation of cause and effect.(2016) Model Answer Approach: Explain Hume s refutation of cause-effect Explain Kant s criticism Hume builds his empiricist theory on basis of impressions which form the basis of all knowledge according to him. The notion of cause-effect has always been accepted by philosophers without questioning. But Hume challenges this notion. According to Hume, there is no impression of cause-effect through which we can know it. How then has it been held? It has been held mainly due to contiguous nature of cause and effect, the precedence of the cause before effect and the necessary relation of cause leading to effect. Hume refutes the contiguous and order between cause and effect since both the impressions of cause and effect are distinct and there is no apriori relation between them, He compares it to the one set of objects experienced after other like an object of flame and sensation of heat. Contiguity and succession cannot be sufficient and if there is necessary relation then we must be sure of all future experiences also, but this is not the case. Therefore the cause and effect is not a necessary relation but one due to imagination and past association.

9 9 This refutation is famously referred to have woken up Kant from his dogmatic slumber. Kant accepts with Hume that the cause-effect necessity cannot be proved from experience. But however, Kant does not go as far as Hume to deny it. Kant accepts the cause-effect necessity since it is known to be one of the pure categories of thought. He calls them the concepts of understanding without which we cannot understand any perception which we experience. If we deny these pure concepts of understanding then we cannot have any knowledge at all. Kant proves that these concepts of understanding are objective and independent of individual experiences. Therefore the result of cause and effect are same for everyone. Thus, Kant has denied Hume s refutation of Cause-effect.

10 10 08-Dec-2017 Question 1 Explain Aristotle s theory of form and matter. How does it help him resolve the problem of change and permanence.(2017) Model Answer One of the important questions in front of Aristotle was the explanation of the problem of reality ie the problem of being and becoming. He wanted to resolve the problem of change and permanence. He rejects the earlier explanations, Plato had contended that the true substance of being was in the transcendental realm of ideas and the particular things by copying these ideas explain the change. This was refuted by Aristotle since the ideas can t exist outside of particulars and the explanation of change is highly mythological. Aristotle also rejects the Democritus explanation of the reality of atoms forming the particular things since purposeless atoms cannot give rise to the world which has a telos(purpose) in it. Aristotle takes help of causation theory to explain the problem of being and becoming. This cause is metaphysical and not the scientific cause. He takes the example of human production of the chair and identifies four causes in it. The material cause which is wood, the formal cause which is the design of the chair, the efficient cause which is the skill of the carpenter and the final cause which is the actual purpose for which chair is made. He further reduces the efficient and final cause into formal cause since all three of them explain the becoming of a chair with design, skill and a purpose. The matter, however, can t be reduced. Therefore the two causes or things which explain all the movement or becoming in this world, one is form and other is matter.

11 11 Matter for Aristotle is wider in meaning. It is not something which is red or white or possessing something. In other words, its nothing since it cant be defined. However, it cant be nothing for it can be molded into any form. similarly, the form is most important aspect since it gives a purpose, but the empty form is not present in nature. Therefore what we see in reality is formed matter. Here the parts away from Plato by defining substance as formed matter. The greenness of leaf cant be isolated. What we find in nature is green leaf rather than greenness and leafless. Matter and form are relative. Wood is the matter to chair which in turn is the matter of furniture. Thus the world is arranged in a hierarchical manner with the formless matter at the bottom and matterless form at the apex. The entire system is teleological and thus Aristotle reconciles being and becoming.

12 12 08-Dec-2017 Question 2 Does Plato s theory of Form explain the change and sensibility of matter? Give reasons for your answer.(2017) Model Answer Plato rejects the sophist notion of Knowledge is perception since perception or sensory experiences cannot give knowledge which can stand and justify itself. Worse if knowledge is perception then there will be no knowledge possible. Plato establishes that knowledge is possible through reason and it is possible to know it. He proposes the dialectical method which is the art of thinking in concepts which constitute the essential object of thought. Through this Plato claims that we can understand the realm of forms or ideas which are transcendental in nature and form the true objects of knowledge. Plato warns that these ideas or forms are not thoughts in minds of men. They have an independent existence of their own. They are also not originated through experience. Plato says that these ideas are already known to the soul and rational insight only helps in the clearing of these. THis is often referred to as his theory of reminiscence. If true substances are transcendental, how does Plato explain the change and the sensible world? For this Plato uses the copy theory of ideas and participation theory of ideas. According to the copy theory of ideas, the particulars in the sensible world are the reflection of the true ideas. They try to imitate the transcendental ideas and thereby move in the direction of it. According to

13 13 participation theory, each particular participates in its idea and thereby becomes the idea in participating. Plato also arranges the ideas in a hierarchical manner with the idea of good at the apex. It is like the sun guiding the light and movement of all the other ideas towards itself. Criticism: Aristotle criticizes Plato s theory of forms as it fails to account for the change in the real world. Plato s copy theory is mythological and poetic and hardly logical in its explanation of the particular things in this world. Also, Plato s theory is static in its explanation. For eg: when we abstract the idea of greenness from the leaf, we still can t explain the change which leaf undergoes when it changes its color. The hierarchical explanation of ideas is devoid any true movement. What we see in the real world isn t just abstract greenness but green things. Aristotle further criticises Plato s theory for it separates the matter and form. Ideas are the true substance according to Plato but formed matter is the substance for Aristotle. The ideas cant exist outside of the particulars. Thus Aristotle puts across his theory of potentiality(matter) and actuality(form) to explain the change and sensibility which Plato s theory of form failed to account.

14 14 18-Dec-2017 Question 1 What is Antinomy? Describe the major antinomies discussed by Kant. (250) Model Answer Antinomy, in philosophy, contradiction, real or apparent, between two principles or conclusions, both of which seem equally justified; it is nearly synonymous with the term paradox. Immanuel Kant, the father of critical philosophy, in order to show the inadequacy of pure reason in the field of metaphysics, employed the word antinomies in elaborating his doctrine that pure reason generates contradictions in seeking to grasp the unconditioned. He resolved the four antinomies by drawing a distinction between phenomena (things as they are known or experienced by the senses) and noumena (things in themselves). Kant insisted that we can never know the noumena, for we can never get beyond phenomena. These antinomies are four: two mathematical and two dynamical. The Mathematical Antinomies The First Antinomy (of Space and Time) Thesis: The world has a beginning in time, and is also limited as regards space. Anti-thesis: The world has no beginning, and no limits in space; it is infinite as regards both time and space. The Second Antinomy (of Atomism)

15 15 Thesis: Every composite substance in the world is made up of simple parts, and nothing anywhere exists save the simple or what is composed of the simple. Anti-thesis: No composite thing in the world is made up of simple parts, and there nowhere exists in the world anything simple. The Dynamical Antinomies The Third Antinomy (of Spontaneity and Causal Determinism) Thesis: Causality in accordance with laws of nature is not the only causality from which the appearances of the world can one and all be derived. To explain these appearances, it is necessary to assume that there is also another causality, that of Spontaneity. Anti-thesis: There is no Spontaneity; everything in the world takes place solely in accordance with laws of nature. The Fourth Antinomy (of Necessary Being or Not) Thesis: There belongs to the world, either as its part or as its cause, a being that is absolutely necessary. Anti-thesis: An absolutely necessary being nowhere exists in the world, nor does it exist outside the world as its cause. In the 20th century, more specific suggestions for resolving the antinomies arose. Because the philosophical significance of these possible resolutions continues to be debated, however, the force of Kant s case against pure reason is yet to be assessed.

16 16 18-Dec-2017 Question 2 G. E. Moore s refutation of idealism. comment (200) Model Answer Moore was a realist and common sense philosopher. According to him the existence of an object is real and what our common sense says is true. In his paper Refutation of Idealism, he attempts to refute idealism by refuting their central principle-esse est percipi. To condemn Esse est percipi, Moore employs various methods like- 1) analytic and logical method 2) Metaphysical method Analytic method- Proposition Esse est percipi has following meaning: (a) the existence of a thing is its sense perception-refutes as Esse and percipi are identical in meaning. (b) the existence of a thing is one of the basic qualities of perception-though Esse and percipi are not identical but are so related that Esse is essentially a part of the meaning of percipi Therefore, in either in sense of identity or partial identity, Esse and percipi are coexistent with respect to these two meanings. So, in all propositions, the relation is maintained between Esse est percipi but all distinctions have been removed

17 17 which make them synonymous. Such propositions become tautology but no new information as far as knowledge is concerned. (c) Existence is inferred from perception-here Esse is inferred from percipi and they are distinct but they are sometimes true and sometimes false. Such propositions are not self-evident. So just like in all crows are black a single white crow is enough to invalidate the proposition similarly a single instance in which Esse is not percipi would defeat idealist position. Metaphysical method- refutation can be traced in following arguments (a) It is our common-sense knowledge that existence of X is different from awareness of X (b) According to idealists even if the distinction is made between awareness and its content then also they cannot be separated and hence are indistinguishable. But we know from our experience that when we see blue or red things, our vision our awareness does not become red or blue. (c) To know there must be something to know but if knowledge is wholly mental then it means mind knows but this principle is impossible. (d) There is significant difference between mental images and objective facts. Exvisual images of wild animals do not create terror which we experience when we actually see in the forests. Criticism:

18 18 1. Robert E. Allinson in a non-dualistic reply to Moore s refutation of idealism says- Moore s argument against idealism rests on the dualism of subject-object at every stage which every non-dualist calls into question. Whatever is, is in experience is empty if we assume that experience is the experience of objects and then take away all the objects. How could you have blue without knowing it was blue? It means having a blue is discovering blue awareness i.e. blue and its awareness are not distinct Adverbial theory of experience by Ducasse says someone who has the sensation of blue is someone who senses bluely.

19 19 20-Dec-2017 Question 1 Explain Kant s division of categories. Model Answer According to Kant, for knowledge sensibility and understanding both are necessary. So, we have sensibility and related laws and at the same time, we have the understanding and its laws. He calls later as transcendental logic which deals with a priori concept and principle of understanding. Now to ascertain apriori concepts we need transcendental clue. Kant finds this transcendental clue in the faculty of judgment. While judging we cannot set limit on number of possible judgements but we can determine the possible ways of judging. These possible ways have already been given by philosophers but they could not ask why only these forms of judgements are possible. Here comes the role of categories. If we can identify all of the possible forms of objective empirical judgment, we can then hope to use them as the basis to discover all of the most general concepts or categories that are employed in making such judgments, and thus that are employed in any cognition of objects. So, categories are pure apriori concepts of understanding which synthesize judgements in categorical structure to provide knowledge. there are 12 judgements and corresponding categories. These are: According to Kant without assuming these categories, our experience will be impossible. Their justification lies in the fact that they serve to make experience possible (transcendental deduction). They supply form of our knowledge while sensibility supply content of knowledge.

20 20 Quality Quantity Relation Modality 1. universal- 4. affirmative- 7. categorical-inherence 10. problematic- unity reality and subsistence possibility-impossibility 2. particular- 5. negative- 8. hypothetical-causality 11. Assertoric-existence plurality negation and dependence and non-existence 3. singular- 6. infinite- 9. Disjunctive- 12. apodictic-necessity totality limitation community and contingency Criticism- Kant s categories have been criticised by Hegel. He said that categories are not just 12, butare many. And every individual is free to use his own categories. However, despite these criticism, it cannot be ignored that Kantian categories continue to impact philosophical considerations even of contemporary times. Comparison- Edmund Husserl also starts with general concepts when he gives categories of meaning. P.F Strawson, would defend Kant s approach through descriptive metaphysics which is concerned with describing more general featured of our conceptual structure Aristotle uses term category for all modes of predicates in any judgement whatsoever.

21 21 20-Dec-2017 Question 2 Are G.E. Moore s arguments in defence of common sense satisfactory? Give reasons. Model Answer According to common sense position, our ordinary common-sense view of the world is largely correct. Moore rejected idealist position and accepted realist one which was an affirmation of his belief in common sense. His main arguments in defense of common sense as envisaged in Defence of Common Sense can be traced as follows: 1. Certain propositions are certainly true. The single truism is also known with certainty. E.g. propositions My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from them or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings, I am a human being are certain. 2. There is a distinction between physical and mental facts. There is no good reason to hold that every physical fact is logically or causally dependent on mental facts. 3. He affirms that neither he has good reason to hold that all material objects were created by God nor common sense gives reasons to think that God exists at all or that there is an afterlife. 4. He considers that how common sense propositions like here is my one hand are to be analyzed. As per him, such propositions may be indirect

22 22 realist or phenomenalism or direct realist. Their existence is the external world is not dependent upon our experience. 5. he says that sense data he perceives through his senses are facts about the interaction of external world and himself. He was not satisfactorily able to defend his common-sense arguments as: 1. He did not give any argument for his direct realist position. 2. He did not know how to analyze the interactions of external world and himself. 3. Wittgenstein s critique: 4. a) Moore s use of phrases i know or I am certain is altogether faulty because he has failed to realize their correct use and hence his defence of common sense is not sound. 5. b) If Moore would have informed us that he knew the distance separating certain stars, we might conclude that he had made some special investigations and we shall want to know what these were. 6. As per Alice Ambrose if weighed on scales of reductive thesis, then it becomes clear that Moore was defending ordinary language, not common sense. However, he must be credited for avoiding scepticism and giving a common sense understanding of philosophy which is in itself a challenging task.

23 23 22-Dec-2017 Question 1 How are synthetic apriori judgements justifiable according to Kant? Model Answer Most of the rationalists and empiricists believe that analytic apriori judgements and synthetic aposteori judgements are possible but according to Kant, there is a possibility of synthetic apriori judgements too. As per him, Synthetic judgements are those in which predicate lies outside the subject concept. And apriori judgements are those which do not depend upon sense experience for their validation. So, synthetic apriori judgements are those in which predicate concept exists outside subject and their denial is not self-contradictory, yet their validity is independent of sense experience. Space and time make such judgements possible In order to make such judgements justifiable, he divides the question how synthetic apriori judgements are possible into three 3; (a) How are synthetic apriori judgements possible in maths? -here he shows any arithmetical proposition can be constructed in time without the help of any empirical object. Similarly, geometrical axioms can be conceived in a pure intuition of space. hence, they are possible (b) How are synthetic apriori judgements possible in natural science? -knowledge of natural phenomenon comprises of two elements-sense manifold and pure concepts of understanding. While synthetic apriori judgements are not possible through sense manifold but a pure concept of understanding is independent of sense experience.so they make principles of sciences synthetic apriori

24 24 judgements. Pure concepts are supplied by the mind, not by sense experience. thus, through them, synthetic apriori judgements are possible in natural sciences. (c) possibility in metaphysics-synthetic apriori judgements not possible here as metaphysical entities like God, soul etc are beyond categories of space and time. Thus, by taking help of space and time, Kant makes the synthetic apriori judgements justifiable.

25 25 22-Dec-2017 Question 2 Movement is a contradiction in itself. Examine, in this context, Hegel s dialectical method. Model Answer According to Hegel, the motion itself is a contradiction: even simple mechanical change of position can only come about through a body being at one and the same place and also not in it. Something moves, not because at one moment it is here and at another there, but because at one and same moment it here and not here. This contradiction in motion is not accidental or illogical rather it has taken place as per rational plan. Now, since formal logic can become a law of thought only with respect to static things, it is the dialectic method which should be applied here as it explains the dynamic and evaluating processes. It is only through the process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis reason can arrive at something concrete and finally at absolute ideas. And self-realisation of the reason is the goal of the dialectical movement. So, the logical contradiction lies in the notion of opposites which are distinct from one another while being identical(identity-indifference). Criticisms- 1. Logicians point out that if one accepts contradiction, any statement can be proved to be true.

26 26 2. Hegel violates the principle of contradiction which says that something cannot be true and false at the same time. 3. Stace-many transitions in Hegel s philosophy does not seem to be fit in a triadic pattern well. Comparison- 1. Hegel s dialectical method relies on contradictory processes between opposing sides. Plato s opposing sides were people. 2. closer to Engels dialectic method. 3. In Indian philosophy, Nagarjuna s Madhyamika philosophy and Shankaracharya s Advaita dialectic method. Vedanta are also comparable to Hegel s

27 27 01-Jan-2018 Question 1 Are empirical statements verifiable? Discuss the limitations of verification theory of meaning. (2014/20) Model Answer According to A.J Ayer, existence is of two types- 1. Empirical, which can be experienced through sense-organs and hence, verifiable. 2. Transcendental, which is beyond experience and hence, not verifiable. Through the principle of verification, a particular fact can be verified. Any statement which is neither true nor false and beyond the scope of verification is meaningless. Such propositions are pseudo-statements. Example- God is in heaven. On the basis of the principle of verification, Ayer has classified propositions In three categories- 1.Verifiable 2.Not verifiable but given suitable apparatus, they can be verified. 3.Those statements which are impossible to verify. He further expanded the scope of verifiable statements by classifying them into- 1.Strong verifiable i.e. which are practically verifiable. 2. Weak verifiable i.e. which are not directly or practically verifiable but possible in future. Example- Life on Mars. Hence, empirical statements like All metals expand when heated is strongly verifiable but a statement like Life exists on Mars is weakly verifiable.

28 28 Critical comments- 1. They have deprived philosophy of its traditional functions of being surveyors of knowledge and determiner of what constitutes valid knowledge. 2. They have restricted philosophy to the narrow and technical function of evaluating scientific assertions. 3. They have overvalued science and failed to recognise that philosophy is a science of sciences. 4. The principle of verification is grossly exaggerated and altered or modified as per their requirements. 5. Their concept of knowledge is too mechanical. They are mistaken in rejecting value and importance of imagination and creativity. 6. Concepts like God, Soul, other worldliness etc. have great pragmatic value and give some kind of religious consolation and satisfy the practical interest of man. IMPORTANCE- Promotes humanism and importance of metaphysics is reduced to that of epistemology

29 29 01-Jan-2018 Question 2 Bring out the relationship between language games and forms of life. (2015/20/200 words) Model Answer Language game, according to Wittgenstein, is a description of the slice of human everyday activities including doubting, affirming, believing, following rules and interacting with others. Language games not only refer to individual human activities but also to those that are common to the whole community. Wittgenstein now emphasises that speaking is one sort of activity that takes place within the broader framework of human life. Wittgenstein uses the notion of form of life to capture this insight. To Imagine a language is to imagine a form of life i.e. speaking of language is part of an activity or form of life. Wittgenstein was interested in language in order to understand the nature of the philosophy. The philosophical task is not to correct but to understand properly. All philosophical problems are language generated so we need to understand the language in order to solve the problem. According to them, surface grammar reflects the meaning of the words immediately while depth grammar is the application of the words. Example- 1. All roses have thrones. 2. All roads have length.

30 30 Surface grammar of both is similar but the difference is in the depth grammar. Language is not the uniform thing but is constituted of many divergent activities. It is futile to discover some hidden unity among them. Language game is part of life and may be helpful to gain a deeper understanding of language. The concept of the game can be understood only in terms of rules. There is no single theory by which phenomena of language can be explained. Each language has its own rules and if rules of one are applied to another then philosophical problems arise. It also refers to family resemblance, just as a family member if family resemble one another; similarly, linguistic activity is also resembling one another. They form a family; there is no single essence or common feature. He realises that ideal language is not possible and hence becomes interested in ordinary language. He realises that language is dynamic and evolutionary like an ancient city always growing. It is a continuous process. The meaning changes with form of life and to explain this he takes the help of language games.

31 31 03-Jan-2018 Question 1 Husserl s notion of bracketing. (2015/10) Model Answer Husserl wanted to know the true nature of thing, but this can be only achieved when we are presupposition less. Hence, he applied bracketing or phenomenology to reach this aim. This he called as a-priori and intuitive investigation of phenomena. He first differentiated his phenomenology with Kant s, Hegel s and logical positivist s phenomenology. Further he tried to remove distortions which result in distorted consciousness. Epoche for avoidance of naturalism and reduction for avoidance of psychologism 1. Epoche means bracketing- as a method to purge our consciousness of naturalistic beliefs 2. To suspend judgments for time being- bracket all naturalistic beliefsexternal pollutants 3. All theories concerning object matter must be put under bracket, which we want to study- popular beliefs, prejudice opinion, judgments are also to be bracketed- things actually existing to be bracketed 4. Does not mean annihilation of things- only ignoring these things for time being- detached perspective to catch the pure phenomena 5. Reductions are to purge the internal pollutants- psychological beliefs

32 reductions- Phenomenological- Free our consciousness from psychological presuppositions 7. Transcendental- Subjective inwardness- subjective consciousness- bring into light the objectified form of consciousness 8. Eidetic-Try to understand what is presented in consciousness is universal form Essence 1. Pure phenomenon comes out after epoche and reduction- cannot be further reduced- essence of things 2. Pure phenomenon is given as co-relation of consciousness and not independent of consciousness 3. Neither in thought nor independent of thought 4. Essence is neither real nor unreal- immanent and transcendent 5. Cannot be known by senses or by reason- directly perceived by consciousness- eidetic intuition 6. Essences are nothing but meaning of the objects 7. Whatever appears is pure consciousness after eidetic reduction 8. Basis of all our knowledge

33 33 03-Jan-2018 Question 2 Explain Wittgenstein s arguments against the possibility of private language. (2013/10) Model Answer The private language argument argues that a language understandable by only a single individual is incoherent, and was introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his later work, especially in the Philosophical Investigations. The argument was central to the philosophical discussion in the second half of the 20th century. if someone were to behave as if they understood a language which no-one else can make sense of, we might call this an example of a private language. Wittgenstein sets up a thought experiment in which someone is imagined to associate some recurrent sensation with a symbol by writing S in their calendar when the sensation occurs. Such a case would be a private language in the Wittgenstein essence. Wittgenstein imagines a case roughly like the following. Suppose a person is stranded on a deserted island and has managed to bring along a diary. One day he decides (maybe in order to keep himself sane) to begin recording a mark S for example in his diary whenever he experiences a certain sensation. Whenever the sensation occurs, he focuses his attention upon it (in effect, he tries to mentally point to it) and marks S. Wittgenstein s conclusion is that it is not possible to meaningfully use a term to refer to a private mental state in this way. Thus, there can be no private language.

34 34 Wittgenstein thinks there can be no (meaningful) private language. The reason should by now be clear. If I wanted to use a term to refer to some private mental state, what would be the criteria governing whether I used the term correctly or not? There would be no public criteria (since the state is private) yet all internal criteria have been ruled out. So, there would be nothing to determine when I used the term correctly and when I did not. So, the term would be meaningless The core of Wittgenstein s arguments is that he thinks that we need to appeal to the practice and customs of our linguistic community.

35 35 05-Jan-2018 Question 1 Distinguish necessary from empirical proposition. How is necessary proposition is justified? Explain (2013/10) Model Answer Knowledge-based on sense experience cannot be necessary.2 options- necessary propositions based on experience- Necessary propositions are based on language and nothing to do with empirical object, sense control and matter of fact 1. Knowledge arises out of experience but validity doesn t depend on experience- 2 conditions- Validity based on experience and not based on experience- Synthetic aposteori- Analytic apriori 2. KANT- Synthetic and analytic judgments 3. A. J. AYER- 1. Difference b/w Synthetic and analytic judgments is correct but criterion of difference is incorrect 2. Not applicable to all statements- A>B, B>C, then A>C 3. Psychological criterion- 7+5=12 Logical positivists view- accepted 2nd alternative 1. Accepted difference b/w Synthetic and analytic judgments on linguistic ground 2. Validity decided on basis of meaning of words- analytic propositiondoes not require experience- linguistic content- necessary- Maths and Logic

36 36 3. Validity not decided on basis of meaning of words- synthetic proposition- requires experience- factual content Criticism 1. Quine- Analyticity is based on concepts which are not clear or they involve circularity 2. Reduction is not sufficient 3. Analyticity based on- Meaning of meaning is not clear, based on synonymity

37 37 05-Jan-2018 Question 2 Bring out the significance of Language Games in Wittgenstein s Use theory of meaning. (2014/10) Model Answer In the Tractatus Logico Philosophicus, Wittgenstein argued for a representational theory of language. He described this as a picture theory of language: reality ( the world ) is a vast collection of facts that we can picture in language, assuming that our language has an adequate logical form. The world is the totality of facts, not of things, Wittgenstein claimed, and these facts are structured in a logical way. The goal of philosophy, for early Wittgenstein, was to pare language back to its logical form, the better to picture the logical form of the world. A language game (also called secret language) is a system of manipulating spoken words to render them incomprehensible to the untrained ear. Language games are used primarily by groups attempting to conceal their conversations from others. language is like a game in which the words are used as tools like the pieces of chess. This view is expressed in the philosophical Investigations where he considered language as a form of life, a way of performance and behaviour, a kind of game. Language is not only for picturing facts but also for asking, cursing, greeting, praying, commanding and so on. Such varieties use of language expresses his emphasis on ordinary language. Language is the vehicle of life. The use of words that may be called speech activity plays important role in his theory

38 38 of Language game. Wittgenstein uses the term language game much more broadly than speech activity. The pure speech activities like telling a joke and the activities as constructing an object from a description, obeying orders, which involve non linguistic behaviour, are included in language game as essential components. Thus, the language game is of two types pure language game and impure language game. But pure and impure language games cannot be divided into two watertight compartments; they differ only in degree. Impure means to have slightest regulative force. Wittgenstein considers the impure language game as the basic and holds that pure language games are parasitic upon the impure in a crucial way.

39 39 15-Jan-2018 Question 1 Discuss why Heidegger introduces the concept of Dasein in his metaphysics. (2015/15) Model Answer Dasein is a German word that is often translated as Being-there or Being-here. It represents an existence (a being) that is located in a familiar world, in a mood. The precise reason why Heidegger used Dasein to represent this is that other concepts such as soul, person, consciousness, spirit, are laden with metaphysical consequences. For instance, the usage of soul invokes something religious, and the usage of consciousness takes one towards mind/body duality. Thus, to avoid hinting engagement into any of these convoluted topics, Heidegger employs Dasein as a new terminology. 1. Man is the being-in-the-world. Call man dasein - being there- existencemanner in which human individuals exist 2. Dasein is different from existence of things- it is a range of possible ways to be 3. I determine by my actions what my existence will be 4. Existence is temporal- stretches towards indefinite future limited by death 5. Awareness of mortality is part of dasein 6. Authentic (self-determining and self-revising) and inauthentic life (superficiality and idle chatter, determined by social convention)

40 40 7. By revealing fundamental features of Dasein, we come to understand other kinds of being 8. Shortcomings in traditional metaphysics(single out certain privileged entities like god self, spirit,etc) forgetfulness of being - our understanding of being is based on the way we are in the world- misguided quest SORGE: 3 basic elements of dasein- 1) contingency of one s existence through anxiety, dread 2) thrown-ness or sheer contingency of existence 3) decline, decay Dasein is the pre-reflective state of being, which means that it is simply pure existence without us thinking about what is actually is. The nature of Dasein is inherently social and bounded to this world, with a unique sense of mineness that defines itself as an issue for itself. So one cannot understand Dasein unless it is expressed as a mode of something, for example, Being-in-the-world, Being-foritself, Being-for-others etc., and these modes are the primary tools of analysis in his magnum opus Being and Time.

41 41 15-Jan-2018 Question 2 Strawson s distinction between M and P predicates. (2015/10) Model Answer Strawson was an ordinary language philosopher who first rejects the ownership and no- ownership theories and hence gave his irreducible entity as a person whose aspects material and immaterial aspects are M and P predicates. Person of Strawson is like Monads of Leibnitz and Logical atoms of Russell. A person is a primitive and unanalysable concept. Persons are credited with physical characteristics (M-predicate) ex: weight, solidity and state of consciousness ( P- predicate) ex: Joyful, angry etc. This distinction was necessary after the refusal of Mind-Body dualism i.e cogitation and extension. Strawson s concept of person 1. Concept of person is a primitive concept 2. Primitive means- identification, origin and explanation cannot be explained on the basis of others 3. Cannot be reduced to other concepts 4. Doesn t mean mind without body or body without mind- also not merely a combination of both 5. Here conscious and material qualities are attributed equally 6. Strawson divides these characters into 2 types- M-predicates and P- predicates 7. M-predicates- ascribed to both conscious and material objects

42 42 8. P-predicates- ascribed to only conscious beings 9. Applied to oneself and others in the same sense 2. Problem- One ascribes p-predicates to oneself on one ground and to others on the basis of his observation of body behaviour 3. Two answers- Skepticism and behavioralism- Strawson rejects both 4. Criteria for imposition is different but their meaning is one CRITICAL EVALUATION 1. Theory is applicable to some higher animals 2. Philosophers accepting person as material, to them, memory and knowledge are functions of brain based on mind, brain being part of body decays after death- accepted by Strawson 3. I am able to ascribe to myself, inner state even if we are not able to ascribe it to others at time However, he was criticised for escaping the problem rather than solving it and his distinction is nothing but analysis of the person.

43 43 17-Jan-2018 Question 1 Bring out the relationship between existence and essence in the case of human being. Explain the issues it gives rise to for human beings according to Sartre. (2015/15) Model Answer Essence, in this case, refers to the ancient philosophical idea (most closely associated with Plato) that all things have a predefined, ideal set of characteristics. For instance, the Essence of a chair is that it has four legs, a back, and people sit on it. However, not everything matches its Essence. You might have a chair with three legs, or a broken back, or that no one sits on. The actual details of a particular chair make up its Existence. The idea that Existence precedes Essence is that for human beings there is no predefined pattern that we must fit into. We live our lives, and that in turn defines what we truly are, not any idealized set of characteristics. This idea is the heart of Sartre s version of Existentialism. EXISTENCE- ESSENCE 1. If God has created man, he cannot be free- God created man according to his own conception- essence of man already there in God s mind- essence precedes existence

44 44 2. Man is not related to nature as cause and effect- nature cannot determine consciousness- consciousness first exists- Existence precedes essence 3. Human nature is the product of person s existence 4. Man creates himself the essence of what he is- he is what he wills to beman is nothing but what he makes of himself 5. Human nature does not exist- only that which a man develops himself by his own initiative 6. A born child is non-existent until he realizes his existence- existence comes with feelings of existence 7. Man creates his own essence- defines essence 8. Man is his future possibility- Man is not what he is, he is what he is not The implications are that we must create our own meaning, place our own value on our acts and that our individual freedom is absolute and unbounded. As a side note, Sartre, although an atheist, gave what I consider to be one of the best ever descriptions of God, as the Union of Existence and Essence, meaning that God is the full Existential realization of every perfect, ideal or Essential attribute of God. Sartre, of course, described that as an impossibility, but it is also a good description of what a believer believes God to be.

45 45 17-Jan-2018 Question 2 How far are Quine s arguments in two dogmas of empiricism justified? Discuss. (2014/10) Model Answer Quine was one of the influential American linguistic philosophers. He has given a famous article called- Two dogmas of empiricism. First Dogma-There is a categorical difference between synthetic and analytical judgement. Second dogma-statement regarding objects can be reduced to sense data statements. As per quine, these dogmas are blind beliefs and superstitions of empiricists philosophers and for being empiricist it is not required to accept this postulates. Quine has challenged the first dogma by saying that there is no boundary between the synthetic and analytical statements, there is only quantitative difference but has no qualitative difference. 1. Distinction b/w analytic and synthetic proposition 2. Reductionism of all meaningful statements to statements about immediate experiences (Reductionism) Quine was aware that rejecting these dogmas meant blurring the boundary b/w speculative metaphysics and natural science Distinction b/w analytic and synthetic proposition

46 46 1. Leibnitz- Truths of reason- truths of fact 2. Hume- Knowledge of relation to ideas and knowledge of matter of fact 3. Kant- synthetic and analytic dichotomy 4. Logical Positivists- Linguistic content(analytic) Empirical content (synthetic) In the same way, he argued that all our knowledge begins when an object reflects upon our sense organ. To explain the stability and objectivity of knowledge, we have to accept the existence of objects outside and independent of our mind. In fact, Quine was also empiricist philosopher which can be called as the radical empiricist. He has been criticised also that he was not able to differentiate between the pure mathematics and the practical mathematics.

47 47 19-Jan-2018 Question 1 Explain the arguments of Carvaka to reject transcendental entities. (2015/15) Model Answer Charvaka rejected the idea of transcendental entities like soul and God. He refutes the existence of an eternal, unchangeable and immortal soul and stated that the so-called soul is nothing but the body with consciousness. Here, consciousness is regarded as the byproduct of matter. It is produced when material elements are combined in a particular proportion. It is always found associated with the body and vanishes when the body disintegrates. Just as the combination of betel leaves, areca nut and lime produces the red colour, or just as fermented yeast produces the intoxicating quality in the wine, though the ingredients separately do not possess of either the red colour or the intoxicating quality, similarly a particular combination of the elements produces consciousness, though the elements separately do not possess it. This led to the doctrine of Dehatmavada. Charvaka gave following arguments in favour of Dehatmavada- 1. As long as body is alive consciousness is present in it. This shows that consciousness is the attribute of living body. 2. When our body is not alive, consciousness also becomes absent in it. Therefore, consciousness doesn t exist independent of body. 1. Being true Materialist, Charvaka also denies the existence of God because it is not perceived. He believes people believe in God three main reasons- 1.God is creator of the world

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