Originally. Natural Philosophy Philosophers and Scientists. Record Keeping. Fire and Cooking
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1 Originally Natural Philosophy Philosophers and Scientists Humans and Atmospheric Change Met 320 Knowable and Unknowable No tools for Research Interest in Natural Phenomena Eventually Systematized Thinking Records Required so not lost or misquoted with time papyrus (2000 BC) better than bamboo or clay Medicine Men using herbs developed everywhere as vegetation tends to be local Fire and Cooking Fire first observed, then controlled, then made Observation of cooking dates to 800,000 BCE It is now believed that our large brain came from eating cooked food as it is easier to chew and we retain more calories so that we do not need to spend as much time eating and have more fuel for our brains We now think cooking dates to 2,000,000 BCE in Africa Spice (mustard) used in N Europe by 4000 BCE Record Keeping Clay balls for counting (3,300 BCE), cuneiform on clay tablets (3,000 BCE) in Mesopotamia Making papyrus in Egypt started shortly after Papyrus disintegrated rapidly in humid Greece so parchment was made from animal skins starting around 250 BCE Paper invented in China around 200 BCE (used first for wrapping and by 8 BCE used for writing) First Libraries were archives in Sumer (Iraq) 2600 BCE, Greek library in Alexandria, Egypt around 300 BCE, and Pergamon, Greece ~200 BCE Mathematics Evidence of counting Neanderthal ~50,000 BCE Metal ruler in India 2650 BCE Place notation base 60 in Sumeria ~ 2400 BCE This gave us 60 min/hr. and 360 in a circle Place notation base 10 from India ~ 1800 BCE Use of zero in arithmetic from India Deductive Geometry from Greece 585 BCE Pythagorean Arithmetic and Geometry 518 BCE Knowledge Earth is a sphere 450 BCE Agriculture Use of wild grains in SW Asia & N Africa ~20,000 BCE The drying of climate after the ice age in Eastern Mediterranean Region (~11,000 BCE) causing less food to be gathered may have caused the domestication of plants and animals allowing more people to be fed in a small area Rice and millet planting in China ~ 8000 BCE Cotton cultivation in India BCE Extensive corn cultivation in Mexico 3500 BCE Animal drawn plough in India 2500 BCE 1
2 Agricultural Breeding Plant breeding started BCE by selecting seeds from the best plants Roman description of animal breeding was written ~ 0 BCE These are precursors of genetic engineering Medicine Earliest known Surgery Egypt 2750 BCE Earliest known physician Hesy-Ra Egypt ~2670 BCE Imhotep (Egypt) wrote (2650 BCE) medical text on anatomical observations, ailments and cures Plastic surgery ~ 2000 BCE in India Earliest Babylonian medical texts ~1600 BCE Earliest India medical text 1050 BCE Cataract and kidney stone surgery (cutting up through the bladder) in India 500 BCE Hippocratic Oath Greece ~390 BCE Fortification Originally dirt and wood, but masonry walls are much longer lasting Long walls to defend a region Great wall of China started 220 BCE Hadrians (Roman) wall in England started 122 CE Walls surrounding a city Jerico (West Bank, Israel) 7000 BCE Sesklo (Greece) 6800 BCE Solnitsata (Bulgaria) 4700 BCE Uruk (Sumeria Iraq) 4000 BCE Millares (Spain) 3000 BCE Heuneburg (Celtic Germany) mud brick 600 BCE Technology India Use of buttons from shells 3000 BCE Ivory ruler 2650 BCE Writing 2600 BCE Stepwell into bathing pool 2500 BCE Furnace (for ceramics) 2000 BCE Iron working 1400 BCE Indigo dye ~ 1000 BCE Muslin fabric ~800 BCE Stirrup on saddle 500 BCE India ink ~ 400 BCE Technology China Pottery 14,000 BCE, Wine Making 7000 BCE Lacquer (clear wood finish) 4500 BCE Rowing Oars 4500 BCE Silk Farming 3030 BCE Crossbow 2500 BCE, Catapult 707 BCE Cast Iron 480 BCE, Wrought Iron 200 BCE Traction Trebuchet 450 BCE Compass 100 BCE, Chain Pump 80 CE Woodblock Printing 220 CE, Matches by 577 CE Gunpowder 850 CE (purify saltpeter 492 CE) Greek Gastraphetes (421 BCE) 2
3 Catapult Staff sling on right and traction trebuchet on left Traction Trebuchet Chain Pumps Counterweight Trebuchet These machines could throw 350 lb. boulders over or into walls, but were not made until the 1100 s CE that they appeared in use by both the Arabs and Europeans Technology Mesopotamia Kiln 6000 BCE Wheel ~4000 BCE Bronze 3000 BCE Abacus ~2500 BCE Glass Beads 2500 BCE Water raising screw 703 BCE First Aqueduct 690 BCE 3
4 Water Raising Screw Technology Egypt Cosmetics 4000 BCE Hieroglyphics 3000 BCE Measure position of sun at sunrise by 3000 BCE First specified 12 months in year 3000 BCE First Pyramid finished 2611 BCE Dock for ships 2400 BCE Evidence of beds and tables in tombs 2550 BCE Ancient Suez Canal lock ~ 280 BCE Alexandria Lighthouse 280 BCE Technology from Other Places Shelter Construction Japan 500,000 BCE Spears Germany 400,000 BCE Beads Israel 110,000 BCE Bedding South Africa 77,000 BCE Sewing Needle South Africa 61,000 BCE Flute Germany 35,000 BCE Flax Fibers Republic of Georgia 34,000 Rope Fragments France 15,000 BCE Wheelbarrow Greece 407 BCE Blast Furnace using Monsoon Winds Sri Lanka 250 BCE By time of Greeks Both oral and written traditions Civilizations existed - allowed educated people City-state rather than Priesthood state allowed more freedom to investigate Farmers had experience - selective breeding Astronomy - sun, moon, seasons, follow stars Religion - astrology, mythology Knew earth was sphere - not flat disappearing horizon, eclipse of moon Knew about Egyptian medicine, science in India & Middle East Pre Greek Babylon Astronomy Place Notation (base 60) Clay tablets for writing Egypt Medicine, Geometry, Astronomy Papyrus India Number System (base 10) & Concept of Zero (first called Hindu Numerals, Natural later Philosophy Arabic Numerals) Geometry, Trigonometry Philosophers and Scientists Humans and Atmospheric Change Met 320 Thales ( BC) Father of Western Science Traveled to and brought knowledge back from Egypt and Babylon Used direct observation of nature Geometry (distance to object) Astronomy ( predicted solar eclipse) Base angles of isosceles triangles are equal Circle bisected by diameter Belief that nature governed by natural laws Use of mathematics became important 4
5 Pythagoras ( BC) Right triangle: (a 2 + b 2 = c 2 ) Student of Thales Studied many years in Egypt and Babylon Not write books so control who gets knowledge Started a Brotherhood (Pythagoreans) that did not encourage writing of books or sharing knowledge with non-initiated Hippocrates ( BC) Father of Medicine People sick because of physical disorder -not because of divine reason Thus look for cure Used Beer to relax person Visited Egypt & studied Imhotep ( BC, priest and medical doctor Socrates ( BC) Followed Pythagorean thinking Also didn t write books Thinking based on abstract thought and mathematics Use mind to obtain new knowledge - not observation Not teach truth, but allow others to find their own truth Plato ( BC) Real world is an illusion Not trust physical senses God created perfection - no evolution Wrote books - Parchment Started Academy - Over gate let no one unversed in geometry enter here platonic love - illusionary - not real Aristotle ( BC) Put things in logical order - methodical approach to explain unknowable Use nature to explain universe (natural philosophy) Philosophy and Theology the same Use of logic and proofs Beginning of Scientific Method Archimedes ( BC) Studied in Alexandria When gold crown put in water, water rose equivalent to volume of crown - Eureka Archimedes Principle: Object weighs less equal to weight of fluid displaced Worked with levers - said give me a place to stand on and I can move the world 5
6 Eratosthenes ( BC) Lived in Alexandria Knew Earth was round Measured Diameter of Earth Difference in shadows - one farther North At time of Columbus, scientists knew earth was round and how big it was. Columbus thought it was smaller so that he could put enough food etc. on ship to reach Asia Roman Empire Little interest in Natural Philosophy They wrote simplified, watered down translations of Greek Natural Philosophy for casual reading by upper classes Romans added little to Natural Philosophy though technology was important to them (aqueducts, irrigation, roads, architecture) Early Christian e.g. St. Augustine ( ) Natural Philosophy is servant of religion Natural Philosophy must not contradict what is known (e.g. religion) Literal translation of Bible [but not as literal as some today as he said creation did not take 6 literal days, because what is a day before the movement of the sun defined a day. (Sun was created on the 4 th day.)] Early Muslim Use knowledge where ever they could find it Thus translate from Greek, Hindu, Persian, Egyptian etc. to build libraries Main library near Baghdad (later destroyed) Copies from main library in Spain (thus most knowledge of Greeks etc. came through Spain) Learned paper manufacture from Chinese prisoners of war in 751 AD, centuries before Europeans Needed geometry to locate direction of Mecca from anywhere between Spain and India Mathematics, Astronomy Later during Dark Ages Consolidation of Roman Empire and spread of Christianity made faith more important than Greek Philosophy Greek thinking considered Pagan Details of Greek Philosophy unknown since they had only watered down Latin translations before spread of Arabic translations Science seen as a threat to Religion Thomas Aquinas (1225?-1274) First Churchman to openly discuss and write about Aristotle and other philosophers Philosophy not a threat to Religion Separate Theology, Science and Philosophy Study Theology from standpoint of nature Good to seek knowledge for sake of knowledge Natural Law - basis for living & non-living Explained things independent of God God set in motion but didn t normally intervene Tried to prove existence of God - circular argument 6
7 Universities (around 1200 s) Before this, learning took place in monasteries If not theologically based, there was no reason to study it Thus new fields of inquiry open in secular universities Johannes Gutenberg (c ) Invented the printing press Printed the Bible and works of Aquinas so that many people could make their own interpretations and the church no longer controlled the spread of knowledge Previously the church decided what monks would copy by hand Mistakes occurred during copying - no 2 copies of manuscripts identical The Church (around 1500) Church lost political control - this was desired by aristocracy who encouraged new ideas Religion became more nationalized Peoples lives further separated from church Church wanted to remain in control so it became repressive This drove some people farther from the church Leonardo da Vinci ( ) Hands on analysis - did autopsies in secret since they were illegal Separate theology from science Well versed in theology, but thought God was irrelevant Secularization of education Got into trouble with the Church The uneducated could understand paintings & drawings so his ideas became more accessible to the masses Michelangelo Buonarroti ( ) Sculptor, painter, architect Like Leonardo da Vinci, he also got into trouble with the church and had to defend his work and thought He furthered accessibility of ideas to the masses Nicholas Copernicus ( ) Proposed heliocentric (sun centered) model of the universe (rather than earth centered like Aristotle had proposed) This went against teachings of the church since the church thought Earth was most important (man was on it) so it had to be in the center He lived far from Rome so church ignored him 7
8 Galileo Galilei ( ) Used telescope to see spots on sun and mountains on moon so they were not perfect - Showed Jupiter had 4 moons so it was also center of rotation - This supported Copernicus Stood up to church - said scientific research & Christian faith not mutually exclusive & science would help promote understanding & interpretation of scriptures and the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes He was eventually excommunicated Francis Bacon ( ) Studied the body Independent of Church Proponent of Induction - Use observations to form conclusions - not need a hypothesis (as in deduction) which could be in error Problem is that observations may not lead to conclusions By 1700 s: formulate hypothesis and test it Disprove a null hypothesis Isaac Newton ( ) Highly religious but no mention of theology in scientific works Complete separation from church No reason to justify anything to church Faith is separate from science Rules of Universe dictate orderly progression of events Universities were becoming more secular Charles Darwin ( ) Formulated theory of evolution Wrote Origin of Species Catholic Church had no problem with evolution as consistent with religion Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, a contemporary of Darwin, is the father of Genetics (published work in 1860) Biblical Literalists however had a problem with both They wanted to go back to pre-galileo Albert Einstein ( ) He thought science, philosophy & theology were different aspects of truth One need not justify the other They do not conflict By his death, he thought God was a centralizing force - the atomic bomb was against the ideas of the Creator Carl Sagan ( ) Astronomer and Author Couldn t believe in God without proof Faith a nonentity At death, he thought no afterlife, so he would never learn if there are extraterrestrials 8
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