20: The Emergence of France
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1 20: The Emergence of France The deposition of Charles the Fat brought the first Robertian king to the throne of West Frankia and established a rivalry between the Robertians and the Carolingians which would continue for a century. This period saw the near collapse of royal authority in West Frankia and when the old Carolingian order was finally displaced in 987, the emergent Kingdom of France was a profoundly fragmented state. 20.1: The Rise of the Robertians Around 850 a young Frankish noble named Robert (eventually Robert the Strong ) left the service of Louis the German in East Frankia to seek advancement with Charles the Bald in West Frankia. In 853, Charles appointed Robert as a missus dominicus for the counties of Maine, Anjou and Touraine, a position which made Robert the principal authority within what had been the Frankish subkingdom of Neustria. Robert effectively defended the region against raids from the Vikings and incursions from the Bretons on Neustria s western border and although he rebelled against Charles the Bald in 858 over possession of Neustria, the two were reconciled in 861 at which point Charles revived the Breton March within Neustria and appointed Robert as marquis of the region. Robert continued to oversee the defence of Neustria until killed in the course of a battle with Viking raiders in 866. Robert left two sons: Robert the younger, who was born shortly after the death of his father, and the sevenyear-old Odo. Yet Robert s wife, Adelaide, had a son, Hugh, by her first marriage to Conrad of Auxerre and on the death of Robert the Strong, Hugh became guardian to both of his half-brothers and was awarded the lands and titles of his father by Charles the Bald. Although deprived of the title of marquis of Neustria by Hugh, Odo eventually became Count of Paris in 882. Charles the Bald died in 877 to be succeeded by Louis the Stammerer (reigned ) who was in turn succeeded by his two sons, Louis III (reigned ) and then Carloman II (reigned ). After the premature death of Carloman, the throne of West Frankia passed to Charles the Fat who had ruled East Frankia from 876 and Italy from 880. However, the reunited empire of Charles the Fat proved unworkable: the Viking attacks on the Frankish kingdoms reached their peak in the 880s and when Charles proved incapable of producing an effective plan for the defence of the Empire, the burden of defence fell to the regional magnates. It was under these circumstances that in 886, Odo carried out his successful defence of Paris against Viking siege, despite receiving little material help from Charles the Fat. Odo s resourceful defence of Paris contrasted starkly with Charles the Fat s failures and in 887, the western Frankish magnates deposed Charles and elected Odo as king. In so doing, they bypassed the eight-year-old Charles (eventually Charles the 1
2 Simple), son of Louis the Stammerer, and took the throne of West Frankia from the Carolingian dynasty. Odo s accession coincided with the death of his half-brother Hugh, a development which enabled Odo to confer the title of Marquis of Neustria on his younger brother, Robert. 20:2: The Devolution of Power Although elected to the throne of West Frankia in preference to both Charles the Fat and Charles the Simple, Odo s non-carolingian blood presented him with difficulties in imposing his authority on the principalities south of the Loire. Furthemore, Odo s inability to deal with further Viking raids in West Frankia drove a pro-carolingian faction led by Archbishop Fulk of Reims to install Charles the Simple as anti-king. The supporters of Charles the Simple eventually received the backing of Arnulf, the Carolingian successor to Charles the Fat in East Frankia, and a civil war in West Frankia followed. Peace was made in 898 when Odo agreed to recognise Charles the Simple as his heir but only in exchange for assurances that his brother, Robert, would assume sole rule of the counties he controlled as Marquis of Neustria. Thus, when Charles succeeded Odo in 898, he did so with only marginal control of West Frankish territories south of the Loire and without any effective authority over a large section of the traditional royal lands in the Paris region. The concessions which Odo secured for Robert reflected a widespread trend in West Frankia. The challenges presented to royal authority in the shape of the deposition of Charles the Fat and the civil war against Odo combined with the impact of the ongoing Viking attacks led to the heightened autonomy of the nobility of West Frankia until eventually Odo and then Charles after him increasingly lost the ability to choose their counts and dukes. From the Merovingian Era down to Charles the Fat, the counts and dukes of the Frankish realms had essentially been regional administrators who were, barring instances of separatism, appointed to and dismissed from their positions at the discretion of the Frankish kings. Yet as the defence of the kingdom increasingly fell to local magnates and royal authority declined accordingly, incumbent dukes and counts progressively treated their lands and titles as their own and began to pass them to their own sons on a hereditary basis. During the reign of Charles the Simple, this devolution of power became complete. With his political base within West Frankia critically diminished, Charles spent the 910s attempting to wrest the Duchy of Lotharingia (the rump state of what had been Middle Frankia) from control of Louis the Child, the king of East Frankia and successor of Arnulf. When Louis died in 911, the dukes of East Frankia elected the non-carolingian Conrad to succeed Louis the Child (thereby snubbing Charles the Simple) but the nobility of Lotharingia rejected Conrad and instead chose to attach their duchy to West Frankia, thereby 2
3 accepting the kingship of Charles. Yet having gained overlordship of the ancestral lands of the Carolingians, Charles increasingly became preoccupied with the affairs of Lotharingia and his appointment of Lotharingians to key positions in his court brought him the enmity of the West Frankish lords. The West Frankish nobility subsequently revolted against Charles in 922, deposing him in favour of Robert, brother of Odo. After his deposition, Charles sent his wife, Eadgifu, and his two-year-old son, Louis, to England to seek asylum in the court of Æthelstan, the brother of Eadgifu. Charles then rallied an army of Lotharingians to his cause and also obtained the political and military support of the Duchy of Normandy which Charles and the Danish Viking leader Rollo had established in the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte twelve years beforehand. Charles s coalition met Robert s West Frankish forces in battle near Soissons in July 923. Although Robert was killed at the battle, his army defeated that of Charles who was then taken prisoner by Herbert, count of Vermandois. Charles died in captivity in :3: Toward the Capetian Dynasty After the death of Robert and the imprisonment of Charles the Simple, Robert s son-in-law, Rudolf, Duke of Burgundy, was elected to become King of West Frankia. Rudolf, however, elected to concentrate on the affairs of his duchy rather than make an attempt to revive the fortunes of the muchdiminished throne of West Frankia. When Rudolf died in 936, the obvious Robertian candidate for the crown was Robert s son, Hugh the Great. Like his father and grandfather before him, Hugh held the title of Marquis of Neustria and in contrast to the near-landless Charles the Simple, Hugh s vast estates provided him with the potential power to restore genuine authority to the throne of West Frankia. However, Hugh feared that his kingship would not be accepted by his many rivals and, given the fate of his father and uncle, he determined that acceptance of the crown would present too much of a risk to his existing status. Having declined the crown, Hugh sought to prevent his rivals from gaining the throne by recalling Louis from the court of Æthelstan. Hugh s intention was to make the young Carolingian a puppet monarch and solidify his pre-eminence in West Frankia, in 937 Hugh married Hedwig of Saxony, thereby becoming brother-in-law to Otto I, King of West Frankia. Louis IV, known to the Franks as Louis d Outremer ( Louis from Overseas ) because of his upbringing in England, was fifteen years old when he returned to West Frankia. His long absence from the realm combined with his young age forced him to accept dependency on Hugh for the first months of his reign and soon after Louis was crowned as king of West Frankia, Hugh convinced Louis to revive the title Dux Franciae (Duke of the Franks), not used since the reign of Charles Martel, and confer it upon him. However, as Louis became more established as king, he struggled to gain his independence 3
4 from his Robertian sponsor. Much of Louis s eighteen-year long reign was absorbed in a struggle with Hugh for control of the west Frankish throne but ultimately, Louis lacked the resources and power to overcome Hugh. After the intervention of Otto I in the late 940s, Hugh and Louis finally made peace in 950. Louis died four years later to be succeeded by his eldest son, Lothar. Hugh the Great died only two years after the accession of the thirteen-yearold Lothar. Hugh s heir, Hugh Capet, was himself only eleven years of age and both boys came under the guardianship of their mothers; Hedwig became guardian to Hugh while Gerberga of Saxony, Hedwig s sister and wife of Louis IV, became regent to Lothar. Gerberga and Hedwig allowed their brother, Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, to intervene in West Frankish affairs with a view to his curtailing the potential rivalry between Lothar and Hugh Capet. However, Bruno acted largely as an agent for Otto I and in an attempt to allow Otto to impose his authority on West Frankia, Bruno allowed some portion of Hugh Capet s hereditary lands to be subsumed into the duchies of Normandy and Brittany while also permitting the counts previously subordinate to Hugh the Great, notably the counts of Angers and Blois, to gain independence of their young overlord and create their own fiefdoms within what had been Robertian land. At the same time, Bruno attempted to steer Lothar toward acceptance that the diminished throne of West Frankia should become subservient to the crown of East Frankia. However, after the death of Bruno in 965, like Charles the Simple before him, Lothar looked to the Duchy of Lotharingia as a means of restoring the power of the Carolingian line in West Frankia. As Lotharingia had been brought back under the control of East Frankia in the 930s, this policy brought Lothar into conflict with the magnates of East Frankia and a series of ill-advised interventions in the duchy between 976 and 985 yielded little enduring gain for Lothar but enabled Hugh Capet to acquire a reputation amongst the West Frankish nobles as a competent leader. Lothar died in 986 and was succeeded by his son, Louis V, who outlived his father by only fourteen months before he was killed in a hunting accident. On the death of Louis in May 987, an assembly of West Frankish magnates elected Hugh Capet as king in preference to the Carolingian candidate, Charles, uncle of Louis and brother of Lothar. The accession of Hugh Capet marked the final end of the Carolingian monarchy. The Capetian dynasty was to rule over France for four centuries. 20.4: The Feudal Revolution The end of Carolingian rule and the beginning of the Capetian dynasty is traditionally held to be the point at which West Frankia became the Kingdom of France. However, the early Capetian monarchs were kings in little more than name. On the accession of Hugh Capet, royal lands in France were limited to the Île-de-France, estates centred on Paris and bordered by the Seine, 4
5 Marne, Oise and Beuvronne rivers. Thus, in terms of the lands which they held and the authority they wielded, the early Capetian monarchs were little more than crowned lords with fewer resources and power than the rulers of the principalities which took shape north of the Loire: Brittany, Anjou, Normandy, Blois-Champagne and Flanders. However, the devolution of power which had taken place in West Frankia between the 880s and the end of Carolingian rule did not find an end with the erosion of royal authority. The accession of Hugh Capet coincided with the beginning of a so-called Feudal Revolution in which some of the counts and dukes of France lost control of their own subordinate nobles who in turn established smaller lordships, each with their own localized political, military and judicial powers. In its origins, France was a fragmented state almost entirely bereft of genuine centralized authority and it would take the Capetian dynasty more than a century to impose its authority on the kingdom. Indicative Reading Jean Dunbabin, France in the Making , Chapters 3-5 Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome, Chapter 18 5
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