Chapter 1 - Highlights

Transcription

1 Chapter 1 - Highlights Cleopatra - Trevor Fear 1.1 IMPRESSIONS: Cleopatra is probably one of the most recognised figures from the ancient world. Some of the things that the author Trevor Fear associates with Cleopatra are: temptress ; seduction ; beauty ; doomed lover ; suicide ; Antony & Cleopatra ; Egypt ; Elizabeth Taylor ; Carry on Cleo ; Luxury & Extravagance. In this chapter we move across time from the twentieth century to the first century CE, and across space from Hollywood to Rome and then to Egypt, looking at a wide variety of evidence from movies, histories, biographies, coinage, sculpture and poetry. Think critically about the accuracy of REPUTATIONS built by historians, biographers & poets. 1.2 CLEOPATRA IN HOLLYWOOD It was the performances of the gorgeous and most famous Hollywood actresses (Theda Bara, for the first time in 1917, then the famous Elizabeth Taylor in 1963, and so forth) that contributed to the public s impression of Cleopatra as a seductress. Examine the DVD based ACTIVITY on page 5. Constructing Cleopatra: Spin at Rome 1.3 CLEOPATRA AND ROME Narrative History written down by the Roman historian Cassius Dio If Cleopatra had not come into contact with the Roman world, then in the West at least she would be just another peripheral historical figure whose name would mean little. Her fatal interaction, though, with such prominent figures in Roman history as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian (who became Rome s first emperor under the name of Augustus), and her various roles as the lover, ally and bitter enemy of these men, have served to define her in the western tradition. According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, Cleopatra captivated the two greatest Romans of her time, and because of the third, she destroyed herself.

2 We are familiar in our own time with the manipulation of public opinion by the media and politicians, of how things can be made to look a certain way through putting a spin on them. Cleopatra was the victim of a vicious propaganda campaign that was waged between Octavian on the one hand, and Mark Antony and herself on the other, in the lead-up to the decisive battle of Actium. Unfortunately for Cleopatra she lost and, as the winners in conflicts tend to write history, it is their images of the losers that prevail. If you can imagine the sort of stories that appear in our tabloid press about modern celebrities being delivered about rival politicians with the rhetorical skill and gravity of a Winston Churchill in the House of Commons, then you start to get an idea of the verbal brutality of Roman political life. Examine the Reading 1.1 ACTIVITY on page 7. A speech said to be delivered in the Roman senate by Octavian, in order to convince them about the reasons for his war against Antony in Actium - written by the historian Cassius Dio after two hundred years. Writing over two hundred years later, exactly how did Cassius Dio know what Octavian said in this speech? The explanation is almost certainly that Cassius Dio made up the speech himself. Then historians used their own judgement to put a speech into the mouth of a historical character, but plausible fictions. They don t seem to be reliable facts, but the values and attitudes of the Romans. Plutarch s Antony: the fallen hero Historical Biography by the Roman biographer Plutarch Plutarch s Life of Antony is the principal ancient source for the events surrounding Antony, Cleopatra and Octavian. This biography written by Plutarch dates some 150 years or so after the events concerning Cleopatra and Antony. Examine the two ACTIVITIES on page 9 How Plutarch presents Cleopatra ACTIVITY on page 10 Plutarch s account of the meeting between Antony & Cleopatra at the ancient city of Tarsus. It suggests about Cleopatra s ability to manipulate her appearance to influence others. The Roman world did not value romantic love, and Antony s infatuation with Cleopatra was simply another indication, to Plutarch, of self-indulgence and a lack of self-control.

3 The only aspect of Cleopatra s life that draws grudging admiration from Plutarch is the manner of her death. Cleopatra in Augustan poetry Source: Horace - Ode Poetry is a special use of language; generally it involves fitting the sound of words to certain rhythmic patterns. Ancient lyric poetry was a form of performance art for the community. The voice of the poet represented an expression of the community. The poem conveys feelings and impressions that may give us some insight into what people at Rome thought of Cleopatra and the events that had transpired, but we must not lose sight of the fact that poems such as this are verbal works of art; they are of historical value, but they are not objective historical records. Examine the READING ACTIVITY- (1.2) on page 12 The varying moods of Horace s Ode Definition: 1. Poetry: a special use of language, fitting the sound of words to certain rhythmic patterns. 2. Lyric Poetry: A kind of poetry that presents the singular perspective of an individual, the "I" or speaker of the poem. Most often, in modern poetry, the speaker talks about a fairly intense emotion experience or mood. The speaker does not usually address the reader directly, but rather we seem to overhear this voice as it appears to talk to itself about its deepest feelings and experiences. However, in ancient Greece, it was a form of performance art for the community. It was a public event, and the voice of the poet represents an expression of the community rather than that of an isolated individual. Contrast between Rome and Egypt as seen by Romans: Rome: manly, austere, disciplined, and principled Egypt: effeminate, reckless, indulgent, and debauched

4 1.4 IN SEARCH OF CLEOPATRA Her real history and images of herself Here we turn away from the Roman depiction of Cleopatra and look at this historical figure in her own right as the last of the Hellenistic queens of Egypt, and also the last of pharaohs. Definition: Hellenistic is the period of history usually defined as stretching from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to the battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Who was Cleopatra? In the study of Cleopatra, there is an emphasis on the Romans point of view, mainly due to the lack of any Egyptian evidence such as narrative histories or biographies of Cleopatra written by ancient Egyptians. This forces us to put bits and pieces of information available from the Roman records. What we do have, however, is some material evidence in the form of statues, inscriptions and coins. A Short Biography of Cleopatra: Cleopatra VII was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty, ruling Egypt from 51 BC - 30 BC. She is celebrated for her beauty and her love affairs with the Roman warlords Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Cleopatra was born in 69 BC - 68 BC. When her father Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC, Cleopatra became co-regent with her 10-year-old brother Ptolemy XIII. They were married, in keeping with Egyptian tradition. Whether she was as beautiful as was claimed, she was a highly intelligent woman and an astute politician, who brought prosperity and peace to a country that was bankrupt and split by civil war. In 48 BC, Egypt became embroiled in the conflict in Rome between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Pompey fled to the Egyptian capital Alexandria, where he was murdered on the orders of Ptolemy. Caesar followed and he and Cleopatra became lovers. Cleopatra, who had been exiled by her brother, was reinstalled as queen with Roman military support. Ptolemy was killed in the fighting and another brother was created Ptolemy XIII. In 47 BC, Cleopatra bore Caesar a child - Caesarion - though Caesar never publicly acknowledged him as his son. Cleopatra followed Caesar back to Rome, but after his assassination in 44 BC, she returned to Egypt. Ptolemy XIV died mysteriously at around this time, and Cleopatra made her son Caesarion co-regent. In 41 BC, Mark Antony, at that time in dispute with Caesar's adopted son Octavian over the succession to the Roman leadership, began both a political and romantic alliance with Cleopatra. They subsequently had three children - two sons and a daughter. In 31 BC, Mark Antony and Cleopatra combined armies to take on Octavian's forces in a great sea battle at Actium, on the west

5 coast of Greece. Octavian was victorious and Cleopatra and Mark Antony fled to Egypt. Octavian pursued them and captured Alexandria in 30 BC. With his soldiers deserting him, Mark Antony took his own life and Cleopatra chose the same course, committing suicide on 12 August 30 BC. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire. Source: The last of the Ptolemies Cleopatra has become legendary, but the numerous legends that surround her have actually distorted the actual Cleopatra. One important aspect that is underplayed in the Roman sources and also in modern representations of Cleopatra is her status, not only as an Egyptian but also as a member of Hellenistic (Greek) elite within her own country. Like all the Ptolemies, Cleopatra was both a pharaoh and a Hellenistic monarch. Romans portrayed her as the figurehead of a strange and barbarous Egyptian culture. Although the propaganda of Octavian made Egypt an alien and debased culture, the fact is that the Egypt of the Ptolemies was a direct heir to the Hellenic (Greek) culture that was so much prized among Rome s aristocratic elite. Rome saw itself as the heir to the intellectual culture of ancient Greece. Cleopatra was reputed to have been the first if the Ptolemies who could speak Egyptian, after nearly three hundred years of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. The Alexandria of Cleopatra was in many ways a more urbane, sophisticated and intellectually refined place than Octavian s Rome. Alexandria was a great metropolis of the ancient world which possessed stunning architecture and the famous lighthouse which was an ancient world wonder. Its antique library housed the largest collection of scrolls and was a hive of artistic and intellectual activity. Cleopatra as politician and ruler By the time Cleopatra became ruler of Egypt, the once mighty Ptolemaic kingdom had lost all of its overseas possessions. The political world that Cleopatra grew up in was one of uncertain and violent intrigue. She found herself in the centre of a hotbed of conspiracy and sudden violent deaths. She had survived a very tough world. The traditional Roman viewpoint on Cleopatra overrides any realistic appraisal of Cleopatra s actions in the light of her own political reality in Egypt. Examine the ACTIVITY on page 17 Plutarch describes how Cleopatra first met Julius Caesar - A trick which captivated Caesar, and showed her provocative impudence, according to Plutarch.

6 This act was not simply a flirtatious whim on her part, but a matter of both political expediency and self-preservation. Her associations with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony created astute political alliances. Through her children with Caesar and Antony, she forged dynastic ties with the most powerful nation in the Mediterranean. These were pragmatic and political decisions and unions that brought stability to the region and restored the power of Ptolemaic Egypt. Through her liaisons with Caesar and Antony, Cleopatra attempted to steer a shrewd path among shifting sands of the violent civil conflicts of Rome. Cleopatra s images of herself Cleopatra left behind objects (coins, statues, sculptures) which present images of herself. These ancient Egyptian artefacts can restore some of Cleopatra s own voice as a counterpoint to how she was represented by others. The few examples studied here are; a sculptural relief, two coins and two portraits. Examine the ACTIVITY on page 19 Fig 1.3 a relief sculpture at Dendera in Egypt Her initiatives and her clever moves to establish Caesarion as a legal heir a pharaoh - Caesarion is placed in a more important position (closest to the gods) as a fully adult male pharaoh and the legitimate ruler of Egypt. She is also emphasizing her own status and authority as not only a pharaoh, but also as the mother of a pharaoh. As Cleopatra and her son faces the goddess Hathor and her son, she obviously tries to draw a parallel between the goddess of fertility and herself. The relief sculpture in the Temple of Hathor in Egypt shows Cleopatra embracing the ancient traditions of Egypt. She appears in a timeless portrait as an integral cog in the line of pharaohs. She also displays herself as dutifully providing a link between the divine and the human worlds and expresses her adherence to Egypt s past but also uses this past to stress her own authority and legitimacy. She also employs it to look to the future by investing Caesarion with all the authority of a pharaoh. It was important for Cleopatra to be seen to respect the traditional ways of her country, but she also knew how to make those traditions work to promote her own designs and ambitions. She was the first Ptolemy to speak Egyptian and she also used the title of Philopatris, which meant fatherland-loving. Cleopatra on Coins While she exhibits the timeless tradition of the Egyptian pharaohs (as their Queen) in the relief at Dendera, she has an entirely different look of a Greek on the coins that

7 would have circulated through different territories. She knew how to impress the audience at different places. Examine the ACTIVITY on page 21 The 32 B.C. silver coins depicting Cleopatra as a Greek. Aside from the facial features, Cleopatra is represented very much in the manner of a Hellenistic queen. Her hairstyle, with the pulled-back braids and a bun was typical of the royal Ptolemy family. The hair band too is a traditional part of the portrait of Ptolemaic queens. The coins represent an image of Cleopatra that was perhaps primarily intended for the audience of the Roman Empire. On them she depicted herself as a strong and forceful leader, a natural female counterpart to the Roman general Mark Antony, a figure worthy of alliance with Rome and of ruling with Rome. If the sculptures at Dendera were intended to impress the Egyptian population, the coins were designed to present Antony and Cleopatra as viable rulers of the Roman Empire. For the Egyptians, Cleopatra appears as a timeless female pharaoh, but for the Roman Empire she appears as a powerful and formidable dynast. She appears to have been a shrewd manipulator of public opinion and a skilled promoter of her own image. 1.5 Reassessing Cleopatra Cleopatra has been portrayed in a variety of poses, from a glamorous Hollywood star to a depraved foreign tyrant, to a determined stateswoman and patriot. As a powerful, historical, female figure from the African continent, Cleopatra is always likely to remain a controversial figure. Cleopatra has been caught up in the academic debate on Afrocentrism. Afrocentrism was brought into the picture to promote the primacy of African civilisation and for the readjustment to an intellectual history of the world that has misrepresented the contributions of the African civilisation. Cleopatra serves as a famous figure in this debate as some have argued that she was black. The fact that history has generally viewed Cleopatra as Greek and not African is a clear indication to the proponents of Afrocentrism that the writers of history wanted to promote European culture over African. Cleopatra has become a symbol of the suppression of African heritage.

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