Historical. Fall of Caesar

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2 Introduction Salvēte, delegates! We are entering debate during an extremely tumultuous time in the history of our Republic. Gaius Julius Caesar has been declared Dictator of Rome by the Roman Senate. Although he has implemented a number of effective and far-reaching reforms, many feel uneasy about the direction in which the Roman Republic is headed. This is a crisis-oriented committee. It is our duty to come together and, in accordance with each participant s own political, moral, and militaristic views, decide the action that must be taken. You shall shape history. You shall decide how the world will carry on. You are the future of Rome... Caesar s Rise to Power Caesar sauntered into Roman politics in 77 BCE, when he prosecuted Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, a corrupt former Consul and lieutenant of Lucius Cornelius Sulla - a Roman general who had revived the dictatorship and seized power four years earlier. The case ultimately signaled Caesar s position in the Popularis camp a Roman faction that passed their laws through assemblies of the people and focused on extension of voting rights, relieving poverty, and advocating popular support for agrarian laws and bolstered Caesar s political position. The Populares counterparts, the Optimates, advocated adherence to old conservative and oligarchic practices and viewed the Populares as promoters of tyranny. 7 Later, seeking to polish his rhetoric, Caesar embarked on a journey to Rhodes in 75 BCE to learn from the renowned Apollonius Molo. On the way, he was captured by pirates. The pirates held him captive for 38 days, setting his ransom to twenty talents. Enraged at such a modest price for his greatness, Caesar famously demanded that this ransom be raised to fifty. 13 While in captivity, Caesar wrote poetry and speeches that he would read out loud to the pirates, all the while letting the pirates know that he would return at some point and have them hanged. Once the ransom arrived from Miletus, he immediately set out from that same harbor, found his prior captors, captured them, and threw them into prison. 13 When King Mithridates of Pontus initiated his Third Mithridatic War, Caesar set out for Asia, raised an army of regional troops and defeated Mithridates forces. Both his actions, the crucifiction of his captors and the protecting of Asia during the war, were technically illegal, as Caesar was a private citizen without any legitimate imperium granted by the Senate. Notably, however, no charges were made against him, signifying his clear influence and power over Roman government. 8 In 67 BCE, after proving both his military and rhetorical prowess, Caesar married Pompeia. Pompeia was related, albeit distantly, to Gnaeius Pompeius, who is better known to history as Pompey the Great, an important and powerful figure who had been elected consul with Marcus Licinius Crassus a few years prior in 70 BCE. This union was perhaps one of the first indicators that signalled a potential alliance between Caesar and Pompey. While Pompey was both a pretty poor speaker and politician and Crassus was scorned by many Romans for helping to banish Sulla all those years ago, Caesar was immensely popular with the Roman people. 7 Caesar worked with Crassus and Pompey because he needed the immense wealth of the former and the influence of the latter. Crassus and Pompey needed Caesar equally as much for his ability to handle the Plebeians. 8 However, it was not until 60 BCE that these three influential men formed the First Triumvirate. A political coalition cemented by marriages, the Triumvirate was established primarily to handle specific administrative tasks that would have normally be handled by the Roman Magistrates. 5 In 65 BCE, Caesar was elected Curule Aedile, a political office tasked with the maintenance of public buildings and enforcement of public order. An Optimate, Marcus 2

3 Calpurnius Bibulus, greatly aided him as his colleague. 5 Throughout the year, he showed support for two major laws, the Lex Gabinia and the Lex Manilia. The Lex Gabinia granted Pompey extraordinary power to deal with the pirates who were ravaging the Mediterranean. In a spectacular display of military prowess, Pompey concluded his campaign against the pirates in just 40 days, solving in a matter of weeks a problem that had plagued Rome for decades. The lex Manilia gave Pompey the military commission to wage war against Rome s constant enemy, Mithridates of Pontus. While Caesar s tenure as Curule Aedile did see Pompey s emergence as a military force to be reckoned with, it was also characterized by extravagant spending for public entertainment, often paid for by loans. By now, Caesar was a hotly debated politician in Rome. During their times in office, Pompey and Crassus had successfully reinstated most of the rights of the People s Assembly. Caesar, for his part, once again established in the Forum the statues of Marius, a former Roman general, that Sulla had ordered to be taken down during his reign. Consequently, the Optimates were infuriated: they decried any and all praise of generals (i.e. Marius) who used their military influence to gain power over the Senate. Even so, they refused to act in any way that would threaten their approval with the public. On account of his prodigality in the previous year, Caesar s office was plagued with instability between 63 and 62 BCE. With his debts having skyrocketed, Caesar was losing his creditors much needed patience. Still, Caesar was elected Praetor in 62 BCE, which mollified his creditors for the time being, as a Praetorship was most often followed by a lucrative governorship. Caesar s Gallic Conquests Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres... Caesar began the De bello Gallico, his personal account of his conquest of Gaul, with these memorable words. Caesar spent seven years in Gaul and Britain. Through yearly dispatches to the Roman Senate (later compiled together in the De bello Gallico), public infrastructural projects (like constructing public buildings) in Rome, and frequent donations to Italian communities, Caesar became very well known among the Roman public. At the start of 58 BCE, however, Caesar had no way of knowing that he would soon be fighting a war in Gaul. Before war broke out, there had been some instability in Gaul between 61 and 60 BCE, but Caesar had helped alleviate the dangers of the situation by forming an alliance with the German king Ariovistus who had taken over the Gallic frontier. Caesar believed that the Dacian tribe s expansion of power towards the north-eastern border of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria, a Roman province, was the true threat. In fact, his fear of this threat is what prompted him to establish three of his four legions in that region at the start of his Proconsulship. Caesar was thus extremely concerned when he learned that the Helvetii (one of the various Gallic tribes) had been forming plans to attack Rome s Transalpine province. Even so, in light of this new information, Caesar reacted smoothly and effectively, acquiring two legions and moving his army north to meet and fight the threatening tribe. The speed and decisiveness of these actions were significant in showcasing Caesar s strong leadership qualities. Although the Helvetii fought back and attacked the substantially smaller Roman army, they were, in time, thoroughly defeated. 1 With this victory against the Gauls and then later the Germans, Caesar established his role as Marius heir, which served as a reminder of Marius victories over the 3

4 Germanic Cimbri and Teutones tribes. By this time, Caesar wished to attain two additional legions in the hopes of conquering Gaul. In the next year, Caesar overcame the problems posed by the Belgic tribes located up north. During this situation, his lieutenant, Publius Crassus (the son of Marcus Licinius Crassus), quelled similar situations in what is now Normandy and Brittany. After two years of campaigning, Gaul (extending from the Rhine River all the way to the Ocean) had finally relinquished power to Rome through the clear efforts of Caesar and his army. Caesar s dispatches to Rome were happily greeted with much admiration and the Senate voted him a 15-day Thanksgiving (Pompey had previously only gotten 10). Crisis of the Triumvirate - Lucca Publius Clodius, a Roman politician, had previously become a member of the plebeian party in 59 BCE in the hopes that he could run for the plebeian tribune against Cicero in following year. Elected tribune, he soon passed laws that exiled anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a fair trial. 15 Thus, during Caesar s tenure as consul, for bringing about the deaths of some conspirators earlier during the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy, Cicero was forced into exile. 3 Publius Clodius then established himself as the people s hero while Caesar was occupied with the Gallic Wars. In essence, Clodius acted as a surro- gate for Caesar in his absence (thus supporting the Populares faction), while Titus Annius Milo, his rival, rallied behind Pompey in the Optimates faction. 4 Lacking any need for flexibility, Clodius then counted on his former contributors. Pompey reacted by securing Cicero s return. Cicero s first decisive action following his return was to solicit the grain distribution rights (or cura annonae) for Pompey for 5 years. This action corresponded with the appearance of Caesar s dispatches. For now, it appeared as though the members of the triumvirate were secure in their power. Such a sense of control, of course, was an illusion. Crassus and Pompey had soon receded into their former enmity, arguing fiercely and falling out over the Egyptian succession question. As the grain shortage progressed, Pompey became more and more unpopular among the Roman populace. The debates between Crassus and Pompey came to a head when Clodius incited his supporters to heckle Pompey and praise Crassus at the trial of Titius Annius Milo. Cicero, too, joined Clodius, Cato, and Biblius in harshly critiquing Caesar s works and legislation. Caesar s command was actually threatened by one of the consular candidates during this time. During April 56 BCE, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus met at Lucca (just inside the borders of Cisalpine Gaul), where Caesar succeeded in solidifying up their shaky partnership. At Lucca, Caesar arranged that Pompey and Crassus would be consuls in 55 BCE, and Caesar was assured of his command in Gaul for five more years. Crossing the Rubicon Alea iacta est... Caesar s exploits in Gaul were well received back in Rome and his popularity among the Roman people soared. His outstanding military and tactical prowess raised the 4

5 spirits of the people and to them Caesar seemed emblematic of a true leader. Caesar s increasing popularity did not sit well with the Roman Senate. Caesar seemed now more than ever a threat to the very institutions of the Roman Republic a threat to the Senate and especially to Pompey, who still wielded considerable power in Rome. Accordingly, the Senate ordered Caesar to resign command and disband his army or risk being declared an Enemy of the State. Caesar would not be welcomed back warmly should he choose to ignore this edict (which was to be enforced by Pompey). Moreover, an ancient Roman law forbade any military commander from crossing over into Roman territory and entering Italia with a standing army. 2 In January of 49 BCE, Caesar, who was currently residing in Ravenna, just south of the Rubicon River, had a decision to make: acquiesce to the Senate s wishes and face the end of his political career (and possibly his own life) or march on Rome with his army and plunge Rome into a civil war. In the end, Caesar chose to disobey both the Senate and old Roman law, and crossed into Italy proper with the words, The die is cast. Backtracking - Prelude to the Civil War/ Civil War Pompey, Crassus and Caesar had significant roles in the first Triumvirate. However, after the death of Crassus in 53 BC, the Triumvirate began to fall apart. Because anarchy slowly seemed to take hold of Rome and Caesar was overseas, Pompey was appointed as the Sole Consul (for the state of emergency) and restored order in the state. For his efforts in restoring stability, he was thought to be the savior of society. 12 From here on, Pompey became more attached to the values of the Senate. In return, the Senate extended his rule in Spain for an additional five years.15 Consequently, when it came to the war, the Patricians supported Pompey s forces. All the way in Gaul, Caesar was under the impression that he would receive the con- sulship when he returned from his occupations in Gaul. Until this appointment however, he wished to maintain control over his army the control of his army. The senate disproved Caesar s wishes and thought that it would serve Rome best if he was seen as a private citizen before the election took place. However, Caesar was aware that if he was seen as an ordinary citizen by the people, he would be seen as weak by the enemies that wished to destroy him. 12 Caesar said that he would nevertheless comply and give up his army (and province), if Pompey would follow; but Pompey declined such a proposition. The senate then asked Caesar to give up control of two of his legions for the Parthian war, another war Rome was fighting against the Parthians. Caesar agreed to give up a number of his valuable legions of his army (8 legions) as long as he was permitted to keep two legions in Cisalpine Gaul until the time of his election. Not surprisingly, the Senate repudiated his offer and declared that Caesar must relinquish his province and his entire army, or be declared a public enemy. The senate had made Caesar choose between dishonor and war. Caesar ultimately chose war, and crossed the Rubicon (B.C. 49), the stream which separated hi province of Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. 15 Caesar s crossing of the Rubicon catapulted Rome into a brutal civil war between two opposing forces: Caesar and the Populares, and Pompey and the Optimates. The civilians greatly approved of Caesar s action and perceived him as a hero. However, the senate was very fearful and expected the worse from Caesar s crossing of the Rubicon. Though the Populares and the Optimates were significant forces in the civil war, this war was mainly between two of the best soldiers in Rome: Caesar and Pompey. Pompey s forces were greater and outnumbered those of Caesar s and Caesar was surrounded by Pompey and his forces in Spain and Greece. However, Caesar won the decisive Battle of Pharsalus and later destroyed Hispania s army at the Battle of Ilerda (49 BC). 12 5

6 Though Caesar did ultimately win the war, he nonetheless faced various obstacles throughout the war. In his struggle and efforts to obtain maximum power, Caesar s problems most often revolved around whether he should put himself at his enemies mercy or gain the monopoly of power (of which he was often accused). Attempts at negotiations were made and Caesar s problems at the time heightened with his jealous opponent, Pompey, and the Optimates. Caesar wished to weaken the position of his enemies in two ways. 6 First, he wished to neutralize Pompey because Pompey had total control over the senatorial forces and was therefore capable of causing serious damage to Caesar s efforts to rise to power. His second method was his policy of clementia in which, through clemency, Caesar wished to receive the recognition of the senatorial class and possibly establish cooperation with them (which he thought would be much needed after the war). The Optimates obtained a senatorial resolution and forced Caesar to lay down his command at its determined terminal date. However, if Caesar backed down, Pompey would be declared Dictator and Caesar would be made the public enemy. Although it is likely that Caesar didn t wish for a Civil War, he had a well-prepared and loyal army behind him. Caesar The Reformer During the time of Caesar s rule, the citizens of Rome had evolved into a proletariat which relied heavily on electoral bribery, feasts, triumphs. Therefore, Caesar was a Populist and often used the people of Rome as a means to power; however, he did not trust them. He was wary of them because of their fickle nature. Fitting into the electoral nature of the time, during the Gallic Wars, Caesar sent his troops home to vote for him. The corruption of the time was great, with people such as Clodius and Milo who organized Collegia (clubs) to disturb elections and terrorize the populace for a desired outcome. Actions such as these often led to a rise in violence, unrest, and social distress. Caesar began a program of radical reforms to try to manage and deal with these problems. One of these reforms was the Grand Program of Colonization. This was created to improve the social conditions in Rome as citizenship spread throughout the empire. He forbade Collegias that were suspected of having corrupt political aims. Another one of Caesar s important creations was the Census of Civic Lists in which the recipients of corn were reduced from 320,000 to 150,000. This wasn t so much for saving money as it was for preventing the people of Italia from coming to the city. The goal of this action was to make the life in the provinces of Italia more attractive to the citizens. 8 To further carry this out, ⅓ of the workers of the free state were freed, along with slaves, to decrease unemployment in the region. Newly founded Roman Colonies from the rebuilt cities of Carthage and Corinth provided new life for many Roman families and Civil War veterans. However, Caesar enacted Romanization to the settlers of the region (Gaul, Spain, Africa ) where he lavishly granted citizenship to an array of people. He also created new laws determining the method by which these new towns would be governed. The law Lex Julia Municipalis was imperative in this process because it would become the foundation for not only municipal, but also provincial, administrations that would last until the fall of the Roman Empire. 8 Along with this law, he also carried out the codification of all Civil laws of the time. One of Caesar s greatest concerns was the reformation of the city-state of Rome into an empire. Along with his contemporaries, Caesar recognized that Rome would not reach its full potential as a city state and that the state 6

7 could in fact no longer survive. He wished that the people would not only be bound to the city of Rome, but the Roman Empire. Working towards this aim, Caesar increased the number of people in the senate from 600 to 900 including people from new provinces. Many of the additional senators were supporters of Caesar and therefore automatically his clients who owed Caesar for their political and financial success and therefore owed him their loyalty.6 The new Senators ensured Caesar a majority vote for whatever political proposals he might have. With guaranteed political support in the Senate, Caesar would be able to control the creation and rule of the expanding Roman empire. In addition to his numerous political ambitions, Caesar also wished to implement various reforms to solve Rome s debt problem. This debt had always been present in the city-state because of the increasing interest rates during war time. Caesar took steps to lower the interest rate and actually arranged for 1/4 of all debts to be cancelled. He also wished to get money flowing again and increase the circulation of money which would increase liquidity (allowing the quick sale of an asset without having to reduce its price very much or even at all). Additionally, before Caesar s reign, the Senate had been dominated by the Roman aristocratic families seeking special business concessions or monopolies in trade. This added to the corruption of the once great Roman Republic. The economic standards and conditions had greatly declined and the economy was headed for a serious downfall. Real estate values had plummeted and lenders refused to accept property in return. It is also very important to note that a large number of the money lenders were these corrupt Senators. Caesar tried to decrease the corruption of the Senate by expanding it and hoping to dilute the power it had. Because Caesar took these precautions to address the economic and social situation of the time, the groundwork was established for an economic boom and 300 years of monetary stability in the empire. 1 This expansion of the Senate, including the rebuilding of the Curia, could also be interpreted as an act to break the monopolies that had existed within the Senate. 1 However, some saw this project as a way for Caesar to maximize his own power and not truly put an end to corruption. The benefit would logically produce a better and much more representative form of government. It was around this time period that Caesar was selected to rule as Dictator by the senate. A dictator in the eyes of the Roman Republican government was: a temporary magistrate with extraordinary powers, nominated by a consul on the recommendation of the Senate and confirmed by the Comitia Curiata (a popular assembly). In Rome, dictatorship was a last resort, to be used only in times of military, and later internal, crises. The dictator s term was set at six months, although he customarily laid down his powers as soon as the crisis passed. 2 Another aspect of Caesar s reforms were public works projects in which he carried out to improve the condition of Rome and Italia. Some of these reforms included the rebuilding of the Senate building, new temples, commercial centers and state libraries in Hellenistic Style. To further improve the unimpressive city of Rome to conform to the more ornate Greek standards, he extended the Roman Forum. It is important to note that in order to carry out such reforms and impart such changes, Caesar extended his term as dictator. Many patricians saw this action as a threat to their own power; therefore, the term extension(and eventually deletion) further aggrandized the patricians dislike for Caesar. Regardless, Caesar wanted to ensure that Rome would become the center of culture, certain privileges were granted to teachers and educators of Philosophy and liberal arts. 7

8 Caesar s Character Like Sulla, Caesar had won his power with the aid of his army, yet he had no intention of building his empire upon his army. Caesar has often been characterized by many historians as one who was hated by the aristocracy regardless of the amount of clemency he showed them. 4 They felt as if their power was being threatened by the dictator in rule. Many of Caesar s followers supported him solely in the hopes of gaining wealth from his victories (which was not very probable and didn t occur often) thus, many supported Caesar for personal profit rather than for improving Rome. Personal dignitas was one of the strongest desires of the Roman people at the time. To achieve fame was the ultimate goal for many, and this ambition is finally what led to the development of Rome from a city to an empire. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, he invoked personal infringements as one of the reasons for going to war. In his ambition and quest for glory and fame, Caesar was not unlike other Romans at the time who were willing to put their honor over the safety and security of the state. Though he was ruthless when needed, he was generally a generous and forgiving man. Several of his government appointees were appointed because of their humanity and incorruptibility. Caesar attempted to stay above many of the prejudices of the time including class, race, or party. This trait of his was not commonly found in many other associates/opponents. Though many did not share this view, Caesar did not think that his power was monarchical in role and knew that the time of his death would call for the renewal of a Civil War. Caesar s numerous military, literary, and legislative achievements prove his wealth of knowledge and wits. As a conqueror, reformer, and politician, Caesar stands out as one of the most influential men of all time. The senate had control over certain legions of Italia at the time. Pompey s plan was to seize control of Rome and Italy from Caesar and to shift his command to the sea and the East to weaken the Caesarians. Pompey also had legions in Spain; these legions were imperative in threatening his rivals. In late April of 48, Caesar followed Pompey and his men closely and managed to get the city of Dyrrachium from Pompey by cutting him off from the city. 8 Caesar s men in Greece were able to gain more support from important cities. Caesar was now in Macedonia and Pompey was now running out of resources. Many thought Pompey had lost a fight he should have won. This defeat for Pompey and victory for Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus August 9, 48 BCE effectively ended the Roman Republic. 10 Caesar in Egypt From BCE, Caesar wished to extend his influence to further consolidate his power. For this reason, as well as his developing relationship with Cleopatra, Caesar travelled to Egypt. In Egypt at the time, Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra were in the midst of a civil war to determine the Egyptian Pharaonic succession. With Caesar s help, Cleopatra gained the position of co-ruler of Egypt. As a result of his intimate companionship with Cleopatra, he was often involved in matters of the Egyptian court. For this reason, many Egyptians disliked Caesar and expressed this dismay through violent riots. Ptolemy, who was threatening Cleopatra s rule in Alexandria, was one of the powerful figures who greatly disliked him. However, Caesar finally defeated Ptolemy s forces and made Cleopatra the only ruler of Egypt.8 Though Caesar s life was threatened during his time in Egypt, his occupations overseas provided a break from the impending Civil War in Rome. After his affairs in Alexandria, Caesar returned to a chaotic Rome. Mark Antony, Publius Dolabella and Caesar s other lieutenants had not been able to keep peace 8

9 among the people. This lack of effective authority had caused severe unrest and anarchy among the Roman people. Caesar attempted to take control once again and fortified city gates to prevent the demobilization of the city by the tenth legion. The senate then appointed Caesar as the dictator of Rome for a period of 10 years and disaster soon followed. Conclusion That Caesar angered many people in both his rise to power and during his reign is a severe understatement. His policies both belittled the Senate and angered patricians who had previously exercised vast power over Roman politics and thus, Roman life. It should be noted, however, that Caesar s policies did significantly benefit the lower class citizens of Rome. This discrepancy has given rise to much conflict and debate throughout the course of Caesar s rule. Ultimately, the populus next step is unknown. Debate will take place in a secret underground catacomb beneath the Roman Senate. The future is very uncertain; Caesar is gaining more and more power, Senators are growing restless concerning the future of the Republic, and other leaders are either involved in conspiracy, salivating at the rewards of the aftermath if there were to be more war, or very loyal to Caesar. Soldiers and generals remain loyal to Caesar and his rule, but not blindly. Ultimately, the future path can take a number of different twists and turns, and you as a committee must decide how to progress. What will be done about Caesar s reign, if anything at all? Questions 1. What risks are involved in taking drastic action against Caesar? 2. Is drastic action even necessary? 3. What do you believe should be done about Caesar s rule? 4. What are the problems that you have with Caesar s rule, if any at all? 5. Do you believe Caesar s actions are for the betterment of Rome or for his own personal gains? Is he a tyrant or a leader that truly had the best interest of the people in mind? 6. Analyze Caesar s motives closely. 9

10 Delegates Pompey Crassus Cassius Longinus Marc Antony Octavian Lepidus Sextus Aurelius Sabinus Maximus Cicero Brutus Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis - Cato the Younger Gaius Marius Cleopatra Marcus Minucius Thermus Tillius Cimber Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus Sallust Servilius Casca Trebonius Publius Cornelius- Dolabella Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus Marcus Caelius Rufus Quintus Sertorius Lucius Sergius Catilina Titus Labienus Publius Clodius Pulcher Titus Annius Milo Lucius Licinius Lucullus Lucius Cornelius Sulla 10

11 Works Cited 1. Caesar, Julius, and John Henderson. Caesar s Bellum Gallicum, (B.I., Chapters I.-XXXIII) with Introductory Notices, Notes and Complete Vocabulary, for the Use of Classes Reading for Departmental and University Examinations. Toronto: Copp, Clark, Print. 2. Dictator Roman Official. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 18 June Web. 18 Jan < Gaius Julius Caesar - 44BC. Armstrong Economics. N.p., 28 Mar Web. 23 Dec Jahnige, J. Publius Clodius Pulcher. Clodius. N.p., Oct Web. 11 Jan Jahnige, J. Titus Annius Milo. Milo. N.p., Oct Web. 11 Jan John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), p ; O.F. Robinson, Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration, p Jones, Jim. ROMAN HISTORY TIMELINE. ROMAN HISTORY TIMELINE. West Chester University of Pennsylvania, Web. 09 Jan Julius Caesar Crosses the Rubicon, 49 BC, EyeWitness to History, (2002). 9. Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec < 10. Keppie, L. J. F. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. London: Routledge, Print. 11. Kidd, Elizabeth. Ancient History. HSC Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Jan < 12. Lendering, Jona. Gaius Julius Caesar. C. Julius Caesar. Livius.org, n.d Web. 19 Jan < 13. Lendering, Jona. Julius Caesar and the pirates. C. Julius Caesar. Livius.org, n.d Web. 1 Feb < caa-can/caesar/caesar_t01.htm>. 14. Long, George. P18 Aediles. LacusCurtius Roman Law. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Jan Morey, William C. Outlines of Roman History, Chapter 21. Outlines of Roman History, Chapter 21. American Book Company, 11

12 Committee Name Topic Web. 01 Feb Osgood, Josiah. Caesar s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, Print. 17. Wake, Heather. Optimates and Populares. Etrusia. Etrusia, 21 Oct Web. 11 Jan Watkins, Thayer. A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar. A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar. San José State University, n.d. Web. 23 Dec < 19. Wheeler, Kevin. The Life of Gaius Julius Caesar. Life of Gaius Julius Caesar. Geocities, n.d. Web. 23 Dec Images Figure 1:.Kamm, Antony. The Romans. The Classics Pages: Antony Kamm s : 3.1 Julius Caesar 12

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