THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

Transcription

1 THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING PODCAST (#16) SERIES: THE TEXT AND TRANSMISSION OF SCRIPTURE (BTS-101) LECTURE: 3 WHAT ARE THE APOCRYPHA? Protestants call the books added in the Roman Catholic Bible Apocrypha, meaning hidden books, whereas the Roman Catholics call it the Deuterocanon, meaning second canon. 1 ESDRAS (TECHNICALLY THE THIRD IN THE SERIES) Esdras is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Ezra. In the Latin Vulgate, there are four books called Esdras (I-IV): Ezra, Nehemiah, I Esdras, and II Esdras. Though included in the Vulgate, the Roman Catholic Church does not embrace 1 Esdras as being canonical. It is designed to be a historical work, reflecting some of the purpose and content of Ezra- Nehemiah. It includes an expansion on Zerubbabel s return to build the temple and the efforts of Ezra in his day. Nehemiah is not so much the focus. Some view it as a translation of some ancient copy of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, at least portions of them. 2 ESDRAS (TECHNICALLY THE FOURTH IN THE SERIES) TOBIT 2 Esdras is not like the first in that it is primarily an apocalypse, following the model of apocalyptic prophets in the Old Testament rather than the historical writers of the Captivity. It also is rejected by the Roman Catholic Church as being canonical. As it stands today, it is made of a primary Jewish apocalypse, pseudonymously attributed to Ezra (that is, it uses Ezra s name but was not written by him). It also contains apparent later Christian insertions at the beginning and end. It is a book about theodicy, that is how to justify God in light of His allowance of evil and suffering, specifically relating to the destruction of Jerusalem. It is divided into seven visions, including dialogues with an angel as well as political and Messianic visions. Clearly written after the prophets yet before Herod s temple, thus written from the fourth, to the second century B.C. It has historical blunders which render it fictional. His story is doubtless written to encourage ordinary Jews in their post-exilic life. The book of Tobit contains a fictional story concerning a man named Tobit who lives in the days of the Assyrian Captivity (late 8 th Century B.C.), having been taken from the land of Naphtali in Israel. He called himself a righteous man, and he practiced charity by burying the executed corpses of his Jewish brethren that had been left without burial. Such brought a death sentence from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who ironically died before he could kill Tobit. Page 1

2 Tobit, though not dead, had his money seized, except for a stash of silver in Media. This prompted him to commission his son, Tobias, to travel with a partner to retrieve the silver. The partner was a disguised angel named Raphael. Tobias married a woman named Sarah during this time. The story ends with healing, restoration, revelation, and song as the multiple plots of the narrative are consummated and resolved. One resolution of the story is the blindness of Tobit being healed. JUDITH The Book relates how Nebuchadnezzar, who reigned over the Assyrians in Nineveh (1:1), failed to gain the support of certain nations, including the Jews, in his conflict with Arphaxad, King of the Medes, and determined to punish them by his general Holofernes (1:1 2:13). At first the Jews decide to resist (2:14 4:15). But when their city Bethulia is besieged and deprived of its water supply, they weaken through the persuasions of Ozias (5 7). Judith, a young and beautiful widow of great piety, upbraids Ozias and promises to deliver her people. (The name Judith means Jewess, and she appears to personify faithful and resistant Israel.) She makes her way to the camp of Holofernes, who is captivated by her charms (10 12), and, having enticed him into a state of drunkenness, seizes a sword, cuts off his head and carries it back in a bag to Bethulia (13). The head is publicly displayed (14), the Israelites are encouraged to advance, and the Assyrians flee in panic (15). The narrative concludes with Judith s hymn of thanksgiving (16), perhaps the oldest part of the Book. 1 ADDITIONS TO ESTHER Composed of six chapters (labelled A-F) added to the book of Esther. They are additions because they are not found in the Hebrew text nor in ancient Semitic translations of Esther. They seem to be added because of a perceived difficulty with the original book of Esther, one being the absence of God s name and the other being little expansion on the details of the story. Thus, the additions try to remedy this by adding a prophetic dream of Mordecai, an exact narration of Haman and Mordecai s edicts, as well as the prayers of Mordecai and Esther. Basically, anything with which one might be uncomfortable in the book is resolved by the additions. Because this is the apparent motivation, they lose historical credibility. WISDOM OF SOLOMON This book uses Solomon s name to give credibility and authority to itself; however, it is clearly not of Solomon. Its writer was a Hellenized (Greek-speaking and Greek-cultured) Jew whose writing style reflects his background. It emphasizes various themes in wisdom. It speaks about the immortality of the soul and even claims the soul s pre-existence. It speaks of final judgment and retribution. It speaks 1 F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone, eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), Page 2

3 of the importance of wisdom. It speaks of wisdom as expressed in God s justice throughout the Exodus. SIRACH / ECCLESIASTICUS Written by Joshua the son of Sirach, a scribe, in the early second century B.C. Called Wisdom of Ben-Sira, Sirach, and Ecclesiasticus. Modeled in style and themes after the book of Proverbs, perhaps to reaffirm the wisdom of the Jewish heritage in a day of aggressive Hellenization. BARUCH AND LETTER OF JEREMIAH Baruch is the main book, while the Letter of Jeremiah is sometimes included as an appendix to the book. Both are pseudonymous. The book is set in post-exile Judaism and was written to encourage and stir up the Jews to worship and prayer who were devastated by the state of their heritage. It was also purposed for liturgical use in Jewish ceremonies. ADDITIONS TO DANIEL The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of Three Youths. Includes a prayer, narrative, and song by or regarding Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery furnace. Susanna. A story of a woman named Susanna who was falsely accused of adultery by two Jews after she refused their demand for sexual intercourse while she was bathing. When she was falsely condemned at the hearing, young Daniel defends her and after examining the separate accounts of the two men proved their story to be false. As a result, the two men were stoned. Bel and the Dragon. Bel was a god worshipped by the Babylonians, and Daniel was threatened to death because he did not bow to this god. Daniel was able to prove that the offerings of food were carried away through a secret entrance by the priestly families. When Daniel had proven this, another challenge was presented to him, this time a dragon that was alive, a dragon worshipped as a god. After preparing a mixture of fat, pitch, and hair, he fed it to the dragon, after which it exploded due to the inability to digest it. Following this, Daniel was thrown into a lion s den and yet was not eaten. During this den experience, Habakkuk brought him food and helped sustain him. 1 MACCABEES Records the struggle of the Jews against the fierce Hellenization and oppression that existed in the time of the Hasmonean dynasty after the reign of terror of Antiochus Epiphanes, a Seleucid ruler. Perhaps it is the most useful book of the Apocrypha, historically speaking. Its first chapter records Antiochus devastation of Jerusalem and desecration of the temple. Scripture was burned. Shrines were erected. He even sacrificed a pig on the temple altar, an unparalleled disgrace. He issued profane commands and threatened death if they were left unfollowed. Some Jews capitulated. Some stood firm. Matthaias and his sons stood firm. His son was named Judas Maccabeus (means, the Hammer ), from which we get the title of the book. Matthaias began a revolt that was Page 3

4 advanced by his son Judas. Thus, the book records his warfare and his efforts to restore proper worship and freedom among Jews. He was succeeded by Jonathan and Simon. It also records a transition point in Israel s history where they appealed to Rome for friendship and protection, which later proved a gateway to Roman domination toward the time of Christ. The book concludes with the rise of John Hyrcanus who made significant advances in the territory of Antiochus. Interestingly, 1 Maccabees 9:27 says, So there was great distress in Israel, such as had not been since the time that prophets ceased to appear among them (NRSV). Even within the apocrypha there is an acknowledgement that the prophetic voice had ceased. 2 MACCABEES Second Maccabees is also a historical work, but its emphasis is not as much on the Hasmonean family as the work of God during the same period in connection with the temple. As with most apocryphal books, it serves to encourage the readers in the difficult transitions of that time. Apparently, it abridges and excerpts a now-lost five volume set by Jason of Cyrene on some of the same period as 1 Maccabees covers. REASONS TO REJECT THE APOCRYPHA THE APOCRYPHA WERE NOT PART OF THE HEBREW CANON The Testimony of Josephus in the first century (Against Apion, Book 1, Section 8) For we have not an innumerable multitude of books among us, disagreeing from and contradicting one another, [as the Greeks have,] but only twenty-two books, which contain the records of all the past times; which are justly believed to be divine; and of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death. This interval of time was little short of three thousand years; but as to the time from the death of Moses till the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia, who reigned after Xerxes, the prophets, who were after Moses, wrote down what was done in their times in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human life. It is true, our history hath been written since Artaxerxes very particularly, but hath not been esteemed of the like authority with the former by our forefathers, because there hath not been an exact succession of prophets since that time; and how firmly we have given credit to these books of our own nation is evident by what we do; for during so many ages as have already passed, no one has been so bold as either to add any thing to them, to take any thing from them, or to make any change in them; but it is become natural to all Jews immediately, and from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain Divine doctrines, and to persist in them, and, if occasion be willingly to die for them. Philo the Alexandrian Jew Ignored the Apocrypha This is significant in that he was prolific and respected in his writings. The Apocrypha Itself Contributes to a Completed Hebrew Canon 1 Maccabees 9:27 says, So there was great distress in Israel, such as had not been since the time that prophets ceased to appear among them. This aligned with what Josephus Page 4

5 said (see above) and what Malachi predicted about the coming of Elijah II (John the Baptist), who was apparently the next expected prophet. Ecclesiasticus speaks of three divisions in the Hebrew Scriptures; it twice references the Law, the Prophets, and the books that follow in its prologue. Why This is Significant The Hebrew Canon is the one assumed by Jesus and the apostles, as well as the religious leaders of that day. There were no canon debates in the Gospels. If there was need for correction among the Jews, would this not have been addressed? Romans 3 tells us that Israel was the steward of God s Word. Thus, they were given the duty of passing on the Scriptures. Thus, the Jewish view of the canon is theologically weighty. On the Council of Jamnia Jamnia was a rabbinic school which apparently held a discussion ( Council overrates the significance of the thing) in the late first, early second century. Some have claimed this was a session to decide which books were part of the Hebrew canon, thus implying the canon was not clear in the late first century. However, the council was not this at all. It rather only discussed the inspiration of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon, maybe only Ecclesiastes at that. The decision made was not universally authoritative, and it served to confirm the already-existent Hebrew canon rather than define it. JESUS AND THE APOSTLES AFFIRMED THE HEBREW CANON AND PROPHETS Luke 11:49-51 "For this reason also the wisdom of God said, I will send to them prophets and apostles, and some of them they will kill and some they will persecute, so that the blood of all the prophets, shed since the foundation of the world, may be charged against this generation, from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zechariah, who was killed between the altar and the house of God; yes, I tell you, it shall be charged against this generation. o The Lord does a complete canonical survey from Genesis to 2 Chronicles, which the Hebrew Bible ended with. o The Lord does a survey of the prophetic period, which clearly ended with 2 Chronicles. Luke 24:27, 44 "Then beginning with Moses and with all the prophets, He explained to them the things concerning Himself in all the Scriptures... Now He said to them, These are My words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled. All the Scriptures were included in this threefold division of the Law, Prophets, and Psalms. It is impossible to say that the varied genres in the Apocrypha are included in the Psalms, whereas it is legitimate to say that the writings are included under this broad banner of the Psalms. 2 Peter 3:2 speaks of remembering the words spoken beforehand by the holy prophets, implying that Old Testament Scripture is defined as being within prophetic utterance. We conclude, therefore, that since prophets ceased after Malachi, the apocrypha are not part of Scripture. Page 5

6 The Apocrypha are not authoritatively quoted in the New Testament. There is an embarrassing absence of proof in the New Testament if the Apocrypha is Scripture. Obviously Jesus and His followers were aware of those books, yet they never looked to them for the voice of God. THE APOCRYPHA CONTAIN HISTORICAL ERRORS AND SLOPPY THEOLOGY One primary example of this is in Judith, where the author speaks of Nebuchadnezzar as being king of the Assyrians and reigning in Ninevah. He was the king of Babylon, reigning there. 2 Maccabees 12:38-45 speaks of alms and prayers for the dead leading to their postmortem atonement. The soldiers were apparently killed for possessing idols, yet Judas desires to pray for them that their sins might be blotted out and that they would still receive the reward of the resurrected righteous. Tobit 1:3-9 records Tobit as being alive when Jereboam set up the golden calf and when Assyria invaded Israel. These events were over 200 years apart, yet Tobit only lived (apparently) 117 years (Tobit 14:14). Wisdom of Solomon 8:19-20 also hints at the pre-existence of the soul. THE APOCRYPHA WERE REJECTED BY EARLY CHURCH FATHERS WHO KNEW JUDAISM Athanasius in his 39 th festal letter says the following Note: Athanasius cites the book of Baruch only because it was included with Jeremiah in the manuscripts he possessed, not because he saw the additions as being canonical. He saw Baruch as being canonical inasmuch as Jeremiah was. Had he known it was a later addition, he would have consigned it with the other apocryphal books. This applies to the additions of Esther and Daniel as well. There are, then, of the Old Testament, twenty-two books in number; for, as I have heard, it is handed down that this is the number of the letters among the Hebrews; their respective order and names being as follows. The first is Genesis, then Exodus, next Leviticus, after that Numbers, and then Deuteronomy. Following these there is Joshua, the son of Nun, then Judges, then Ruth. And again, after these four books of Kings, the first and second being reckoned as one book, and so likewise the third and fourth as one book. And again, the first and second of the Chronicles are reckoned as one book. Again Ezra, the first and second are similarly one book. After these there is the book of Psalms, then the Proverbs, next Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. Job follows, then the Prophets, the twelve being reckoned as one book. Then Isaiah, one book, then Jeremiah with Baruch, Lamentations, and the epistle, one book; afterwards, Ezekiel and Daniel, each one book. Thus far constitutes the Old Testament.... But for greater exactness I add this also, writing of necessity; that there are other books besides these not indeed included in the Canon, but appointed by the Fathers to be read by those who newly join us, and who wish for instruction in the word of godliness. The Wisdom of Solomon, and the Wisdom of Sirach, and Esther, and Judith, and Tobit, and that which is called the Teaching of the Apostles, and the Shepherd. But the former, my brethren, are included in the Canon, the latter being [merely] read; nor is there in any place a mention of apocryphal writings. But they are an invention of heretics, who write Page 6

7 them when they choose, bestowing upon them their approbation, and assigning to them a date, that so, using them as ancient writings, they may find occasion to lead astray the simple. Melito of Sardis as Recorded by Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History, Book 4, Chapter 26) Melito to his brother Onesimus, greeting: Since thou hast often, in thy zeal for the word, expressed a wish to have extracts made from the Law and the Prophets concerning the Saviour and concerning our entire faith, and hast also desired to have an accurate statement of the ancient book, as regards their number and their order, I have endeavored to perform the task, knowing thy zeal for the faith, and thy desire to gain information in regard to the word, and knowing that thou, in thy yearning after God, esteemest these things above all else, struggling to attain eternal salvation. Accordingly, when I went East and came to the place where these things were preached and done, I learned accurately the books of the Old Testament, and send them to thee as written below. Their names are as follows: Of Moses, five books: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, Deuteronomy; Jesus Nave, Judges, Ruth; of Kings, four books; of Chronicles, two; the Psalms of David, the Proverbs of Solomon, Wisdom also, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job; of Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah; of the twelve prophets, one book; Daniel, Ezekiel, Esdras [Ezra- Nehemiah] From which also I have made the extracts, dividing them into six books. Jerome in His Preface to the Books of Kings And so there are also twenty-two books of the Old Testament; that is, five of Moses, eight of the prophets, nine of the Hagiographa, though some include Ruth and Kinoth (Lamentations) amongst the Hagiographa, and think that these books ought to be reckoned separately; we should thus have twenty-four books of the old law. And these the Apocalypse of John represents by the twenty-four elders, who adore the Lamb, and with downcast looks offer their crowns, while in their presence stand the four living creatures with eyes before and behind, that is, looking to the past and the future, and with unwearied voice crying, Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty, who wast, and art, and art to come. This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a helmeted introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style. Giving Similar Testimony, We Have Origen was a textual scholar who said affirmatively that the 22-book canon is correct and that the books of Maccabees belong outside. Gregory of Nazianzus in the 4 th Century Cyril of Jerusalem in the 4 th Century Page 7

8 ANSWERING ROMAN CATHOLIC CLAIMS AN OVERVIEW OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT The Council of Trent was convened from , and the fourth session occurred in The Council of Trent states in its first decree of session IV: And it has thought it meet that a list of the sacred books be inserted in this decree, lest a doubt may arise in any one's mind, which are the books that are received by this Synod. They are as set down here below: of the Old Testament: the five books of Moses, to wit, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Josue, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, two of Paralipomenon, the first book of Esdras [Ezra], and the second which is entitled Nehemias [Nehemiah]; Tobias, Judith, Esther [with the additions], Job, the Davidical Psalter, consisting of a hundred and fifty psalms; the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Canticles, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Isaias, Jeremias, with Baruch; Ezechiel, Daniel [with the additions]; the twelve minor prophets, to wit, Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas, Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggaeus, Zacharias, Malachias; two books of the Machabees, the first and the second. Of the New Testament: the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John; the Acts of the Apostles written by Luke the Evangelist; fourteen epistles of Paul the apostle, (one) to the Romans, two to the Corinthians, (one) to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the Philippians, to the Colossians, two to the Thessalonians, two to Timothy, (one) to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews; two of Peter the apostle, three of John the apostle, one of the apostle James, one of Jude the apostle, and the Apocalypse of John the apostle. But if any one receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema. [Emphasis mine] THE APOCRYPHA WAS IN THE SEPTUAGINT, DEAD SEA SCROLLS, AND VULGATE Let s Understand Some Background The Septuagint manuscripts we possess are Christian manuscripts, not Jewish manuscripts. Even in our Septuagint manuscripts, there is no one collection of apocryphal books; different books are included and excluded in different manuscripts. Since book-making by hand was very tedious and expensive, works would often be compiled into a single production instead of making many volumes. The masses of ancient centuries did not have access to primary research and thus could rarely question the condition of things as passed down to them. One example of this is medieval paintings that portray ancient Jews in medieval garb because they did not know any different. This is called anachronism, which is taking my view of reality and assuming it was just as true in the past. Page 8

9 This Explains Everything Regarding the Septuagint Just because the Septuagint manuscripts we possess contain the Apocrypha, this does not mean the Jews held these books as Scripture. It is likely that the Apocryphal books were included out of convenience due to their continuation of Jewish thought from the Old Testament. Since people accepted what was passed on to them, they received the whole Septuagint and eventually forgot the distinction between Scripture and non-scripture. The Apocrypha was in the Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls tell us that some apocryphal books were written in Hebrew or Aramaic, though formerly thought to have been written in Greek. However, the Dead Sea Scrolls also contain a host of books beside both Scripture and the Apocrypha; therefore, it is certainly not the standard of what is canonical. It merely shows what the Qumran community read, just as we read books other than the Bible. The Apocrypha was in the Vulgate It was included in the Vulgate, not by Jerome s positive affirmation of those books but because of pressure from the higher authority. The Vulgate actually exposes the root of Rome s motivation for including the Apocrypha, as their decree from Trent shows. They were not concerned with scholarship as much as they were with tradition. ALLUSIONS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT The Son of God Allusion in Wisdom. Wisdom 2:18 says, For if the righteous man is God s child, he will help him, and will deliver him from the hand of his adversaries (NRSV). It seems like Matthew 27:43 could be alluding to this: He trusts in God; let God rescue Him now, if He delights in Him ; for He said, I am the Son of God. In fact, the Wisdom passage has very interesting parallels to the concepts of Christ s rejection. These mean nothing for two reasons. o Matthew 27:43 is clearly quoting Psalm 22:8. Commit yourself to the LORD; let Him deliver him; Let Him rescue him, because He delights in him. o The Jews always believed in God s vindication of the righteous and the rejection of the righteous by the wicked. It is no wonder this shows up in the Wisdom passage, for it is a theme through all of Hebrew history. It does not have to be a prophecy of Christ. The Allusions in Hebrews 11 seem to Reference the Apocrypha. Indeed, the author may be appealing to a knowledge of 2 Maccabees 7:1, and other Jewish traditions. However, we must remember: o The author s concern is not the canon, but rather the cloud of witnesses in 12:1. Do we not do the same, quoting from Scriptural examples and then from Church history? o Even in this allusion, he mentions no names, but he gives a general gloss and category of those persecuted. Surely the supremacy is given to the actual Old Testament since it was given the undeniable primacy in sacred history. Page 9

10 o Therefore, this allusion shows that the man was a true Jew, not that he viewed the apocrypha as Scripture. Authoritative quotations are never given from the apocrypha, though they are taken from the three main sections of the Old Testament. Any apparent allusions are either unnecessary, wishful, or vague in proving the Roman Catholic point. Our standard is not allusions or even quotations, but rather what is authoritatively referenced as Scripture. After all, Paul referenced pagan philosophers, and Jude referenced a pseudepigraphal work called the Book of Enoch. These are references given for relevance, not for authority. CHURCH AUTHORITY This is the real issue, and this is the primary reasons Catholics defend the Deuterocanon. The Roman Catholic Church said so, therefore making it true; that is the reasoning. To reject Rome s decision is to be accursed and cut off from God s sacred authoritative body; that is the fear. However, neither the Bible nor history support Rome s view of Church authority. Rome claims that the authority of the popes is a single line traced back to the apostle Peter, yet Scripture nowhere indicates a succession of apostolic authority, nor does it speak of a head on earth. It rather speaks of the foundation of God s Word (Ephesians 2:20) and a heavenly Head, which is Christ (Ephesians 1:22-23). EARLY CHURCH TRADITION Catholic apologists will also claim that the Deuterocanon has been part of Church tradition since the beginning, saying that most Church fathers quote from the Deuterocanon as part of authoritative Scripture. Let s consider a few things in response. Many quotes have been given from early sources that reject the Apocrypha (see earlier in the outline). Thus, there was no unanimous acceptance. Those that did receive the Apocrypha usually did so incidentally, passively, or ignorantly since it was part of the Christian Septuagint and eventually the Latin Vulgate. They used what was given to them, not what they had thoroughly researched. They did not realize the Jews rejected these books. The tradition grew as the Vulgate grew in popularity and as the papacy grew in authority, not as scholarship increased in the matter. It cannot be concluded from the early Church fathers that they received all of the Apocryphal books, for some only quote loosely or partially from them. As well, they were dealing with books that were part of the culture of Judaism; thus, it is reasonable that there would be some mention. However, the New Testament itself does not quote authoritatively. The argument of quotation is insufficient to prove the large conclusion that all the books advocated by the Council of Trent were accepted from the beginning. Page 10