Introduction. A New Model of Christian Origins

Transcription

1 A New Model of Christian Origins Barrie A. Wilson, York University, Toronto, Canada Abstract The traditional Conventional Model of Christian Origins traces a seamless historical development from Jesus, through Paul and his successors, into the Church of the 4 th century shaped by the Empire-building efforts of Constantine. This model is favored in traditional Christianity and by such scholars as David Wenham and John G. Gager who view the message and work of Paul as continuous with that of Jesus. A growing number of recent scholars, however, Hyam Maccoby and Gerd Lüdemann for instance, have argued for a discontinuity between these two religious figures. Building upon recent research into Paul and the author s book How Jesus Became Christian (London: Orion Publishing; New York, St. Martin s Press; Toronto: Random House, 2008), a new model of Christian origins is proposed, one that denies continuity between Paul and Jesus. This model, called the Convergence Model of Christian Origins contends that Paul s was a separate religion, one that became attached to that of Jesus through the historical revisionism of the Book of Acts in the late 1 st century C.E. This paper argues that (1) Paul s Christ religion is not that of Jesus and his first followers, differing in terms of origin, beliefs and practices; (2) the Book of Acts represents a work of historical fiction, falsifying what we know of Paul directly from Paul himself; and (3) Acts links Paul to the religion of Jesus first followers to converge two previously separated religions so as to create an historical pedigree for Paul s cult of the Christ as a dying-rising savior God-human. Introduction Today I ll be speaking about that great triangle of early Christianity: Jesus, James his brother and Paul. It s fitting to be speaking about Paul in Malta. The Book of Acts says that Paul was shipwrecked here; that he was bitten by a viper but suffered no ill effects; that he healed Malta s leading official, Publius; and cured many other people. Then after 3 months he set sail on the last leg of his journey northwards to Syracuse, Puteoli and then finally to Rome (Acts 27:1-28:10). The traditional model of Christian origins is this. First we had Jesus who proclaimed the Kingdom of God. He was killed by the Romans in 30 C.E. While he did have disciples, we know very little about them and their efforts. Jesus real successor was Paul, a genius at organization and at theologizing. He created the infrastructure for the new movement during the 40 s, 50 s

2 and 60 s. Pauline Christians broadened out into mainstream Christianity, with dissidents and heretics on the sidelines. In time, the Pauline Christians, with the efforts of the Roman Emperor Constantine in the 4 th century as catalyst, created the Church. So the model is a linear one: from Jesus through Paul to the Church. I call this the Conventional Model of Christian Origins. We find the Conventional Model of Christian Origins widely taught in Christian circles and in many books on Paul who assume or argue that he was a faithful follower of Jesus. David Wenham and John G. Gager, for example, present Paul as continuing in the tradition of Jesus. 1 In this they are consistent with the order of the New Testament which nestles the letters of Paul just after the four canonical Gospels and the Book of Acts. Hence the impression this ordering creates is that there existed a smooth transition from Jesus to Paul. We are meant to think of Christian origins in this fashion although, historically, the letters of Paul were written well before the canonical Gospels and the Book of Acts. 2 Another line of scholarship has surfaced recently. Hyam Maccoby and Gerd Lüdemann, for instance, argue for a discontinuity between Paul and Jesus. 3 A tribute to the importance of this debate is that, for the first time, an important and widely used introduction to New Testament studies contains a chapter entitled, Does the Tradition Miscarry? 4 I take the discontinuity between Paul and Jesus farther and propose a new model, what I call the Convergence Model of Christian Origins.

3 There are three steps to my argument. Step #1: Paul s Christ religion is not that of Jesus and his first followers. They differ in terms of origins, beliefs and practices. In investigating Christian origins, there are two movements that we need to recognize and carefully distinguish. Jesus first followers the Jesus Movement as scholars call them -- were led by James, the brother of Jesus, headquartered in Jerusalem. These were observant Jews who were faithful to the teachings and practices of the historical Jesus, their rabbi. James led them from the death of Jesus in 30 until his own murder by the high priest in 62. Other leaders included John and Peter. The origin of this movement lay with the historical Jesus. These individuals knew the Jesus of the 20 s. They walked with him, heard him speak, saw him killed and understood what he represented. They, like him, expected the Kingdom of God to be made manifest on earth, soon. In terms of outward practices, the Jesus Movement functioned well within the parameters of the Judaisms of the times. They did not differ from other Jewish groups of the time such as Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots or the members of the Dead Sea Scroll Community (who were likely the Essenes). Members of the Jesus Movement followed the Jewish Law (the Torah) and this included observing the Sabbath and the Jewish festivals, worshipping in the Temple, keeping the dietary laws and practicing male circumcision. Gentiles who wished to join this movement had, of course, to convert to Judaism. In terms of behavior, there were no differences between this group and any other Jewish group.

4 Their beliefs were identical, too, except for one. They revered Jesus as an inspired teacher who would eventually return to complete the job of the messiah. That is, they expected him to act as a catalyst for overthrowing Roman authority. He would help God in establishing an independent Jewish state under himself as the Davidic king, and usher in an era of universal peace. This would reflect the universal rule of God, which Jesus announced was imminent. Other Jewish groups at the time were messianic in nature, the Essenes in particular. The only difference is that the Jesus Movement members identified the returning Messiah as Jesus. 5 In time, the Jesus Movement became known as the Ebionites or Nazarenes. The ancient Church historian Eusebius reported that they viewed Jesus as human and used a form of the Gospel of Matthew that did not include the Virgin Birth narratives. They also regarded Paul as a false teacher. Paul s Christ Movement differed considerably from the Jesus Movement and from the Judaisms of the time. The Christ Movement refers to Paul s congregations of the Christ which he established in today s Turkey and Greece during the 40 s, 50 s and early 60 s. Paul s religion of the Christ owes its origin not to the Jesus of history, the teacher and messiah claimant who roamed the Galilee in the late 20 s. He was not a disciple of Jesus, never met Jesus, never heard him speak and came on the scene in the mid 30 s, after Jesus death. The origins of his religion lie in his own personal mystical experience of the Christ figure. 6 Paul is quite clear that his message was not obtained from any human source -- certainly not from Jesus first followers, whom he says he avoided -- nor, for that matter, from the historical Jesus either. In terms of practices, Paul ignores Jesus teachings. For example, we hear nothing from him of the parables of the Kingdom, the Lord s Prayer or the Sermon on the Mount. 7 In addition, Paul denies the necessity of keeping Torah. In his Letter to the Galatians he sets forth a view of history, that there are three periods: a time of faith (Abraham to Moses), a time of Torah (Moses to Christ), and a new time of faith (Christ onwards). This charter document had the effect of doing away with Torah now that we have entered into a different period of history. Torah embraces all aspects of Judaism and the Jesus Movement, so by doing away with this, Paul was doing away with keeping the Sabbath holy, honoring the festivals, keeping Kosher, practicing circumcision. It also made nonsense of retaining the Bible as some of his followers were quick to discover. 8 Paul also differs from the Jesus Movement in terms of beliefs. His emerges from the Graeco- Roman mystery religions. He conceives of the Christ as a cosmic dying-rising savior Godhuman, not the political messiah come to reestablish the Davidic throne. For Paul, the Christ was in the form of God who emptied himself being born in human likeness. (Philippians

5 2:6-7). He urges his followers to come to know Christ and the power of his resurrection, as he has done, and to share in his sufferings by becoming like him in his death (Philippians 3:10-17). While Christ is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Messiah, Paul transports the concept from its Jewish political environment into the cosmic world of Roman mystery religions. It is not the same concept at all: a Messiah is a world transformer; a Christ is a divine-human savior of humanity. These two movements are not rival interpretations of the same religion, as Anglicans and Presbyterians might be. They are, in fact, different religions. 9 They didn t much like each other. The Jesus Movement people considered Paul a false teacher; Paul considered James and his emissaries to be agents of Satan. It is not just enough to say that these movements were different. We have to show how they became fused, eventually. How these two movements became intertwined is the result of the remarkable perspective of the author of the Book of Acts. He created the convergence. Step #2. The Book of Acts represents a work of historical fiction. It falsifies what we know of Paul directly from Paul himself The one reliable source of information about Paul is his own account found in his letters from the 50 s and 60 s. Acts is a later work, from approximately There are many good reasons for questioning the reliability of the Book of Acts as a source for understanding the historical Paul, however. The most important reason is that Acts distorts what we know of Paul from Paul himself. Several examples demonstrate this. Example #1: Contact. Paul and Acts differ significantly on the amount of contact Paul had with the Jesus Movement leadership in Jerusalem. Paul emphasizes, time and time again, that he did not receive his message from any human being (Galatians 1:1 and 1:12). Nor was he taught it (Galatians 1:12), for example, by earlier members of the Jesus Movement. Rather he contends that his source of information was experiential, that is, from his own direct contact with the mystical Christ. In particular, he stresses that he did not receive instruction or validation from the Jerusalem leadership. He maintains that after his remarkable experience, he did not go up to Jerusalem to confer with James, Peter and others who were there (Galatians 1:16). In other words, he denies the linkage between his movement and the Jesus Movement. Acts, on the other hand, contends that after Paul s mystical experience, he met Ananias, a member of the Jesus Movement who was living in Damascus. Ananias heals and baptizes him (Acts 9:10-19). Paul then preaches in the synagogues in Damascus, arousing the anger of the

6 Jews, and escapes when his {?} disciples hear of a plot on his life. He then went to Jerusalem where Barnabas introduces him to the apostles (Acts 9:27). There he is portrayed as moving freely in Jerusalem, getting into a serious debate with Hellenists who attempt to kill him. He is then rescued, taken down to Caesarea and packed off to Tarsus. Why Paul arouses such anger is not made clear, especially when members of the Jesus Movement appear to live in harmony with other Jews who have different opinions. This represents an important clue that others understand Paul s teachings to differ from those of the Jesus Movement. They don t arouse anger; Paul s teachings do. Paul s own account is quite different from that in Acts in two important respects no conferring with any human being and no immediate visit to Jerusalem. Instead, Paul says, he went away immediately into Arabia, (Galatians 1:17) that is, into other parts of the Nabatean Kingdom, returning after a while to Damascus. Only after three years does he visit Jerusalem and then only for 15 days, meeting Cephas (Peter) and James, but no others. Then he goes into the regions of Syria and Cilicia. Fourteen years later 10 he mentions another visit to Jerusalem, with Barnabas and Titus. It is important to Paul to distance himself from Jesus Movement leaders his message, he claims, came to him directly from the mystical Christ who he believes was revealed in him (Galatians 1:16), not through any human. It is also important for Acts to rewrite history, to link him closer to the Jesus Movement and to Jesus. (We ll say why in due course). Example #2: Relationship. Paul and Acts present a very different understanding as to the nature of his relationship with the Jesus Movement. As Paul presents the matter in Galatians, there was no significant relationship between his movement and that of the Jesus Movement. From his perspective, his movement concerns Gentiles; theirs, Jews. As Paul notes, they asked only one thing, that we remember the poor (Galatians 2:10). For Paul, that is the only linkage: to take up collections to help those less fortunate financially. There is no reporting structure, no any over-arching management coordinating the message and direction of these two enterprises. In Paul s mind, he does not report to anyone least of all James in Jerusalem. According to Acts 15, however, when Paul goes up to Jerusalem, it is apparent that many members of the Jesus Movement there were insistent that the Torah be observed, even for Gentile members (Acts 15:1). Paul, it seems, is widely believed to be teaching otherwise, that Torah observance is not required. In this instance, Paul is hauled into a hostile court where his views are on the defensive. The structure is one of reporting, with Paul, the junior partner, reporting to senior management.

7 There are some strange details in this meeting, however. For one thing, Paul is overlooked, although present and the cause célèbre of the meeting. Second, oddly enough, Peter is positioned as the apostle to the Gentiles, not Paul. Finally, James is depicted as advocating a two-track model for the movement (Acts 15:13-21). Jewish members of the Jesus movement would continue to obey Torah. Gentile members of the movement observe only the Noahide laws incumbent upon all humanity, not the full Torah required of Jewish members. These seven Noahide laws include abstaining from food sacrificed to idols, from illicit sexuality, from eating meat from animals that have not been properly killed and from murder. These requirements represent much stronger obligations than simply remembering the poor as Paul would have it. It positions Paul s Movement as a subsidiary operation of a larger enterprise. It sets up a reporting structure in which Paul would be held accountable to James. 11 The account in Acts of a decisive Jerusalem Conference with James rendering an authoritative decision alone creates the impression that there is one movement, with two prongs, one to the Jews and another to the Gentiles. Each would have separate obligations but they are all part of one enterprise. The likelihood of such a Conference is problematic. The Jerusalem Conference, if it were held at all, would date from the late 40 s. 12 Paul s Letter to the Galatians is later, from the mid 50 s. 13 In this letter, Paul has to deal with the issue of Torah observance. Rival teachers have come into Paul s part of the world, telling Paul s Gentile converts in Galatia that they need to observe the Law. These were likely members of the Jesus Movement who, like every other form of Judaism, shared the belief that Gentiles must adopt Torah observance. 14 If an authoritative decision had been rendered by James only a few years earlier exempting Paul s Gentile converts from this requirement, then it is astonishing these rival leaders to Paul do not know of it. Clearly whoever is disturbing the community in Galatia is unaware of this decree. Moreover, in responding to them, it is surprising that Paul does not seem to know of this decree either. He does not refer to James pronouncement from only a few years earlier. That would have nipped the issue in the bud and settled the matter. The idea of a Jerusalem Conference, presided over by the wise James, rendering decisions about Gentiles and Torah observance seems to be a construct by the author of Acts. It represents an important move to graft Paul s radical Christ Movement on to the Jesus Movement. Example #3: On Being Jewish. Acts heightens the Judaism of Paul in a way that Paul never does.

8 Acts portrays Paul as being brought up in Jerusalem as a student of Gamaliel, the leading Pharisaic teacher of his time, and that he was educated strictly according to the Torah. On this view, Paul is an orthodox, well educated Jew. Paul himself, however, is more modest, just noting in passing that he was a Pharisee (Philippians 3:5). He never claims more than that. 15 Paul usually discounts his Jewishness and he denounces those who would uphold Torah requirements for Gentile members of the movement. He contends that they are perverting the message, spreading confusion and that they are accursed. He equates Torah observance with slavery (Galatians 5:1) and says that anyone who follows Torah has fallen away from grace (Galatians 5:4). He satirically hopes that those who circumcise would suffer an accident and castrate themselves (Galatians 5:12). He counts his former life in Judaism as rubbish (Philippians 3:8). Acts insistence upon Paul s Jewishness is highly overblown. The conclusion of all this is that Acts Paul is not Paul s Paul. What we know of Paul, then, is from Paul. Paul s authentic Paul is vastly different from Acts revisionist Paul. Acts Paul is a later creation that serves the author of Acts purposes well. It is not, however, a reflection of the historical Paul but the Paul the author of Acts needs to create to support his synthesis. Step #3. Acts links Paul to the religion of Jesus first followers to converge two previously separated religions. Acts does so to create an historical pedigree for Paul s cult of the Christ as a dying-rising savior God-human. Paul s religion was enormously successful. He succeeded in attracting a segment within Jewish congregations in the Diaspora the God-fearers. These were Gentiles non-jews who had become interested in Judaism but who didn t want to take upon themselves the full obligations of Torah. They liked the ethical nature of Judaism, its debates and discussions, but shied away from the dietary laws and certainly from adult male circumcision. Paul s message to them was that they could have all the advantages of Judaism, salvation included, without any of its obligations. Faith in the Christ and faith alone sufficed. That had a powerful appeal, especially when coupled with a figure well known within the Mediterranean world, the Christ figure, modeled on the dying-rising savior God-humans such as Dionysius or Mithras. Paul s followers had a problem, however. To ensure the success of the Christ movement on the Romans stage, the religion needed a pedigree. It needed to be linked into an ancient religion in order for it to gain credibility amongst potential Roman converts. It needed what Romans called a noble ancestry.

9 So a generation or two after Paul, the author of the Book of Acts solved the problem. The solution was to link the Christ movement to the religion of Jesus first followers, the Jesus Movement, and, through them, back to Jesus, and through him to the whole history of the people of Israel. This gave Paul s Christ Movement the credentials which Romans desired in their religion. It meant, of course, ignoring all the differences between their movement and Judaism, such as the necessity to uphold Torah. It also entailed ignoring all the differences between their movement and the Jesus Movement. The linkage was easily accomplished. All the author of the Book of Acts had to do was to twist Paul s biography. He made Paul more Jewish and more in league with the Jesus Movement leadership than he had ever been, even adding that Paul had their blessing for the work he had undertaken. As we have seen, this falsifies what Paul said about himself. By the time the Book of Acts appeared, there were still members of the Jesus Movement in existence. They had suffered a major setback with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 C.E., however. They were fewer in numbers and their capacity for exercising leadership diminished. They were being increasingly marginalized by members of the numerically larger Christ Movement and also, ironically, by the mainstream Jewish community bent on reconstructing the religion along rabbinic lines. Hence a new model of early Christian origins emerges the Convergence Model. A new religion, Paul s, becomes attached to the Jesus Movement and through it to Jesus himself and to historic Judaism. That was Acts historical revision of the late 1 st century C.E. and it gave Paul s Gentile mystery religion the pedigree it needed. Appendix I: Paul s Radical Message In his influential manifesto, the Letter to the Galatians, Paul outlines one of his fundamental convictions regarding the relationship of the members of his movement to Torah. He does not argue that whereas Jewish members are obliged to continue to observe Torah, Gentiles are not. That would have been in keeping with the decision of the Jerusalem Conference (which we have seen is not likely an historical event). Paul s point is much more radical: no one should observe Torah. It is now wrong to observe Torah.

10 Paul advances several arguments against Torah observance in Galatians. The only ones we will examine in detail here have to do with those that deny the legitimacy of Torah observance for any one. Paul contends that the time of Torah is over. He starts by saying that before faith came, we were under the law. In effect, the Torah was a disciplinarian until Christ came (Galatians 3:24). Henceforth we would be made righteous, not by Torah, but by faith. He confidently asserts that we are all one in Christ Jesus and that distinctions such as gender, ethnicity and status no longer have any relevance (Galatians 3:28). Here Paul is developing his own view of Jewish history. He sees three stages: Stage #1: Abraham to Moses: time of faith Stage #2: Moses to Christ: time of Torah (the disciplinarian) Stage #3: From Christ onwards: time of faith in Christ. Now that faith has come, Paul puts it, there is simply no need to observe Torah. This has farreaching consequences, for, if Paul is right, this argument would apply to the Jewish members of the Jesus Movement as well. He is attempting, in fact, to deny the legitimacy of the Jesus Movement by undercutting the very basis for the distinction James allegedly articulated in the Jerusalem Conference that Jews need to observe Torah whereas Gentiles do not! This argument would have caused panic amongst members of the Jesus Movement who, quite correctly, would have interpreted Paul as teaching the abolition of Torah observance for anyone, whether a member of his Christ Movement, the Jesus Movement or any form of Judaism. This distress reverberates decades later when the author of Acts comes to write his account of early church history. In spite of his desire to minimize past conflict, he cannot hide the fact that rumors that reached James in Jerusalem to the effect that Paul was teaching that the laws of Moses were no longer applicable (Acts 21:17-22). An argument abolishing Torah observance requires much greater justification. Paul presents no biblical or other justification for contending that the time of Torah observance is over: just his assertion that it is. Why the appearance of the Christ rules out Torah observance is not made clear. There is no appeal to what Jesus said or did. There is no mention of any prophet who might have hinted at this. There is no reference to any saying of Jesus. It just rests on Paul s sayso. To say that the argument is flimsy is to be kind: it is simply expedient and self-serving. It is also at odds, it should be noted, with what the alleged Jerusalem Conference had decided. It is incredible that Paul would have gone ahead with arguments of this magnitude had that council

11 been an historic event. If that Conference had taken place, then Paul s position would have been an act of extreme defiance. The one really good argument that Paul could not use is this. He could have appealed to the practices or teachings of Jesus, that Jesus did not practice or advocate Torah observance. He could then have concluded that Torah-observance should not be obligatory for any member of the Christ Movement. This one argument would have clinched the case. He could not make this argument, however, for two reasons. First, he could not because the historical Jesus taught and practiced Torah observance. So, too, did his earliest followers in Jerusalem who were continuing the teachings and practices of Jesus. Secondly, he could not make this argument because what the historical Jesus did and said did not matter to Paul: his focus was on what the Christ figure told him. The position that Paul is advocating, a religion free from what he would consider the shackles of Torah, is a different religion than the one Jesus practiced, worked within and taught. It represents his own creation and it was a brilliant move. Paul s position had appeal, especially to the God-fearer segment of the synagogue, that is, Gentiles who were enamored of the ethical monotheism of Judaism but who did not wish to convert to the religion. Conversion would have entailed taking on all the obligations of Torah plus (for adult males) undergoing adult circumcision and immersion.

12 Appendix II: Profile of the Jesus and Christ Movements Jesus Movement Christ Movement Leader James in Jerusalem Paul in the Diaspora Origins The historical Jesus Paul s personal mystical experience of the Christ Paul never met the historical Jesus Practices Torah observant Non-Torah-observant Beliefs Jesus as inspired teacher, Christ as a cosmic figure resurrected, expected to return Christ: a divine being who has come to complete the job of messiah Political catalyst into the world in human form to save humanity by dying and rising. Era of universal peace Those who have faith in Christ can (Kingdom of God) share in his suffering, dying and rising. Religion Religion OF Jesus Religion ABOUT the Christ

13 Appendix III: How Jesus Became Christian [European cover London: Phoenix, 2009] [North American cover New York: St. Martin s Press; Toronto: Random House, 2008]

14 End Notes 1 David Wenham, Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995); John G. Gager, Reinventing Paul (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). 2 The Letters of Paul date from the late 40 s through to the early 60 s. The Gospels are usually dated as follows: Mark (around 70); Matthew (during the 80 s); Luke/Book of Acts and John (in the 90 s). See Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament, 3 rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, Hyam Maccoby, The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986); Gerd Lüdemann, Paul: The Founder of Christianity (Amherst, NY: Prometheus books, 2002). 4 See Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament, pp Another difference is that, for Judaism, the Messiah would have one chance at effecting world transformation. The idea that it might be a two-stage operation first a proclamation and then a return to complete the task -- represents a new idea. 6 This life-changing experience on the road to Damascus has received considerable critical attention in recent years: it simply doesn t ring true. Chief considerations include: Paul says he is a Pharisee. Yet he is found working for a Sadducean high priest. Sadducees didn t get along with the Pharisees. So, why would a high priest employ one? Why did Paul persecute members of the Jesus Movement only the Sadducees were opposed to their teachings on resurrection (along with the teachings of other Jewish groups of the time)? Was Paul in fact a Sadducee? What was his motivation? Paul is sent as a bounty-hunter to Damascus, to bring back messianic Jews. Why Damascus? The high priest s jurisdiction didn t extend that far. Moreover, if the high priest wanted to round up messianic Jews by no means a crime and a rather common belief at the time he needn t have gone any farther than his own back yard, Jerusalem. There was an Essene quarter in Jerusalem in those days. He could find many messianic individuals there, not to mention members of the Jesus Movement also in Jerusalem. Paul s associates, also bounty-hunters, disappear from the story just after Paul s mystical experience. Why did they not arrest Paul as a turncoat? And Ananias? Why did Paul s views arouse such antagonism in Damascus and later in Jerusalem, when the teachings of the Jesus Movement did not? What was he saying that was different? From what and to what did Paul convert?

15 7 See my paper, If We Only Had Paul, What Would We Know of Jesus? available at my website This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on the Arts & Humanities, January, 2008, Honolulu Hawaii. 8 By 140 Marcion took Paul s perspective to its logical conclusion, proposing eliminating the Hebrew Bible and retaining as scripture only the letters of Paul (plus the Gospel of Luke which he thought Paul wrote). 9 In the Appendix, I summarize how the two movements differ in terms of origins, practices and beliefs. 10 This could be interpreted either as 14 years from his first visit to Jerusalem and so 17 years after his dramatic mystical experience or it could be 14 years from that event. 11 It is tempting to say that, for once, Acts got it right and that Paul minimizes the story. The incident places Paul in an unfavorable light, unlike most of Acts, and that might argue for its authenticity. Also the position on the part of James is consistent with the attitude of other Jewish leaders of the time. The Pharisees, for instance, would have held that Gentiles do not have to take on the full responsibility of Torah-observance in order to be regarded as righteous or to achieve salvation. For them, following the seven Noahide laws was sufficient. But they would not be Jews. If, for some reason, they wished to be converted to Judaism, they could do so through male circumcision and immersion and, of course, following the Law. But there was no necessity linked to salvation to do so. There was no question that the righteous of all the nations would be saved. Salvation was not the issue. The position of James concurs with the views of the Pharisees. 12 Bruce Chilton says 46 CE (Rabbi Paul, p.268); Burton Mack says 48 CE (Who Wrote the New Testament? p.103). 13 The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), says about A.D. 55 or slightly earlier (p. 263 NT); Burton Mack in Who Wrote the New Testament? says CE. 14 In a separate incident, one involving Cephas in Antioch, Paul implicates the circumcision faction and people from James (Galatians 2:11, 12). But these are not so identified as the cause of the disturbances in Galatia. 15 Members of the Jesus Movement co-existed comfortably with members of the Pharisaic faction. Many members of the Jesus Movement came out of the Pharisaic party within Judaism without arousing any antagonism from this quarter (Acts 15:5). Acts even portrays the great Pharisaic leader, Gamaliel, defending the Jesus Movement when Peter is brought before the Sanhedrin (Acts 5:34-39). Josephus notes that the Pharisees took great offense when the Sadducean high priest had James killed in 62 (Jewish Antiquities, Book 20, Chapter 8). The

16 Gospel of Matthew even has Jesus endorsing Pharisaic leadership and teachings (Matthew 23:1,2), but not their practices.