STEPS TO BIBLE KNOWLEDGE

Transcription

1 STEPS TO BIBLE KNOWLEDGE A Guide to Inductive Bible Study Methods James G. McCarthy

2 Steps to Bible Knowledge Steps to Bible Knowledge is part of the Bible Seminar Curriculum, Copyright 2012 by James G. McCarthy. Bible Seminar Curriculum is available for free downloading at The files are regularly updated. For this reason, material may not be reposted on other websites. Permission is granted to those wishing to post a link on their site to the Bible Seminar site. Bible Seminar Curriculum may be used for non-commercial purposes without written permission. Materials may not be edited or altered in any way or included in other published materials. Copyright notice for this course should read: Steps to Bible Knowledge, Bible Seminar Curriculum, copyright 2011, James G. McCarthy. All rights reserved. Except where otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations in this book are taken from the New American Standard Bible (NAS) 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. Scripture quotations designated (NET) are from the NET Bible copyright by Biblical Studies Press, L. L. C., bible.org. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations designated (NIV) are from The Holy Bible: New International Version, NIV. Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations designated (KJV) are from the King James Version of the Bible. Three dictionaries are quoted extensively in the Bible Seminar Curriculum: The Oxford Dictionary of English (Oxford University Press, 2010); The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2007); and The Random House Dictionary (Random House, 2011). Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 2

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I Inductive Bible Study Methods Page Introduction 5 Observation Step 1 Pray 11 Step 2 Read the Book 12 Step 3 Research the Background 13 Step 4 Observe the Text 15 Step 5 Identify the Speaker, Point of View, and Tone 18 Step 6 Identify Topical Shifts and Sectional Breaks 24 Step 7 Make a Provisional Outline 27 Step 8 State a Provisional Theme and Purpose 31 Step 9 Identify Independent Clauses 32 Step 10 Identify Antecedents 39 Step 11 Evaluate Adjectives and Adverbs 44 Step 12 Parse Verbs 52 Step 13 Label Prepositions 58 Step 14 Label Conjunctions and Transitional Adverbs 86 Step 15 Diagram Sentences 133 Step 16 Perform Word Studies 136 Interpretation Step 17 Interrogate the Text 140 Step 18 Check Cross-references 143 Step 19 Check Translations 141 Step 20 Discuss the Text 167 Step 21 Write a Commentary 146 Step 22 Write a Condensed Paraphrase 155 Step 23 Finalize the Outline, Theme, and Purpose 172 Step 24 Chart the Outline 173 Application Step 25 Talk Through the Text 175 Step 26 Meditate on the Text 164 Step 27 Memorize the Text 168 Step 28 Draw Applications 159 Step 29 Obey the Text s Teaching 171 Step 30 Teach Others 176 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 3

4 Appendix A New Testament Charts 1. Approximate Dates of the Writing of the New Testament Books New Testament Structure and Purpose Important Events in the Acts of the Apostles Important Events Related to the Life of the Apostle Paul A Chronology of Paul s Visits and Letters to Corinth 184 Appendix B New Testament Book Outlines The Gospel According to Matthew 187 The Gospel According to Mark 192 The Gospel According to Luke 197 The Gospel According John 201 The Acts of the Apostles 204 Paul s Letter to the Romans 208 Paul s First Letter to the Corinthians 210 Paul s Second Letter to the Corinthians 212 Paul s Letter to the Galatians 213 Paul s Letter to the Ephesians 214 Paul s Letter to the Philippians 215 Paul s Letter to the Colossians 216 Paul s First Letter to the Thessalonians 217 Paul s Second Letter to the Thessalonians 218 Paul s First Letter to Timothy 219 Paul s Second Letter to Timothy 220 Paul s Letter to Titus 221 Paul s Letter to Philemon 222 The Letter to the Hebrews 223 The Letter of James 224 Peter s First Letter 226 Peter s Second Letter 227 John s First Letter 228 John s Second Letter 229 John s Third Letter 230 The Letter of Jude 231 The Revelation of Jesus Christ 232 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 4

5 Introduction The Bible is the Word of God (John 10:35). It is the embodiment of knowledge and truth (Romans 2:20). A record of normative revelation, it contains all that God wants us to know, requires us to do, that binds our consciences, and is necessary for salvation. It is where we as Christians must turn to tell us what is true and what is false, what is right and what is wrong; to answer our questions; to settle our disputes; and to judge us when we sin. Within the covers of the Bible, we find all truth necessary for salvation and Christian living, such that Paul could write to his disciple Timothy, saying, From childhood you have known the sacred writings which are able to give you the wisdom that leads to salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus. All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; that the man of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work (2 Timothy 3:15-17). As such, we must commit ourselves to the careful and comprehensive study of God s Word that we might know its true meaning and live accordingly. STUDY THE BIBLE INDUCTIVELY Steps to Bible Knowledge is a guide to inductive Bible Study methods that will help you to understand the Bible. It will teach you how to study the Bible book-by-book, providing instruction on how to research a book s historical background; to discover the author s outline, theme, and purpose; to determine the correct meaning of the words in the text; to compare the text with similar passages elsewhere in the Bible; to apply sound rules of interpretation; and to draw from the text principles and truths by which to live. The approach taken in this book is inductive. What is meant by this is that the methods presented here are designed to help you draw general principles about the overall meaning of Scripture through the careful observation of its individual books, paragraphs, verses, and words. This approach differs from the deductive approach in which a teacher presents doctrine and then proceeds to demonstrate that those doctrines are derived from Scripture. The deductive approach, sometimes described as a top-down approach, has its uses, for instance when teaching difficult doctrines that require a broad knowledge of Scripture to understand. The deductive approach also has its misuses, such as when a teacher presents doctrines that are incorrect and then distorts the Scriptures in an attempt to argue that those doctrines are indeed taught in God s Word. Inductive Bible study is sometimes described as a bottom-up approach, for the student begins with the individual words, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs of Scripture and moves toward a general understanding of God s Word as a whole. As the student becomes familiar with the books of the Bible and his or her knowledge of God s Word broadens, true doctrine manifests itself. This book presents more than thirty inductive Bible study methods. These can be compared to tools in a workman s tool chest. For each day s task, the workman takes from the chest the specific tools that he will need. Some days it is many; some days it is few. Some tools he uses often, even daily; some only rarely for specialized tasks. Seldom, if ever, does he use every tool in a given day. In a similar manner, the Bible study techniques presented in this book are intended for use as needed. When studying some texts, only a few Bible study methods will be necessary. When studying more complex passages, more techniques will need to be applied to grasp the full meaning of the text. Some methods will work well for you. From the first time you use them they will fit well in your hand, like a well-worn Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 5

6 ax handle. Other techniques will feel awkward in your grip, especially at first. Do your best to learn all the steps. You can decide later which ones work best for you and apply them more regularly. An important aspect of inductive Bible study is the role of discovery. As you apply the steps presented here, you will gain fresh insight into the person and work of God. You will learn new truths communicated by God to prophets centuries earlier and preserved by the Holy Spirit for you to discover and to apply to your life. As you learn these truths for yourself, the teaching of God s Word will become personal convictions by which to live. This is an exciting and rewarding process. It can be easily spoiled, however, if, you refer to outlines and notes in study-bibles, published commentaries, and other reference material. For this reason, do not refer to reference materials or the appendices in this book until you have completed your own study of the text. STUDY THE BIBLE BY THE BOOK God reveled the Scriptures to us one book at a time. Each has its own human writer, historical setting, theme, outline, and purpose. Accordingly, we should study God s Word as He delivered it to us, one book at a time, rather than a verse here and a verse there. This approach to Bible study has several benefits. As we study the Bible book-by-book, we appreciate it on a deeper level. The personality of each book manifests itself and its message becomes vibrant and alive. Consider, for example, Paul s Second Letter to Timothy. Here Paul exhorts his young disciple, I solemnly charge you in the presence of God and of Christ Jesus, who is to judge the living and the dead, and by His appearing and His kingdom: preach the word; be ready in season and out of season; reprove, rebuke, exhort, with great patience and instruction (2 Timothy 4:1-2). We can learn much from this verse about the importance of preaching God s Word. Paul s instruction becomes much more personal and powerful, however, when we study these verses within the context of the letter as a whole. Paul is writing from prison. He is elderly, about sixty-seven years old. He is about to be executed. Paul writes, I am already being poured out as a drink offering, and the time of my departure has come (2 Timothy 4:6). Here he likens his life to the daily libation of wine proscribed under the law to be offered by the Jewish priests morning and evening (Numbers 28:3-8). Poured out upon the hot stones of the altar, the wine vaporized and ascended as a cloud unto God soon to disappear. This is how Paul saw his life. His lifeblood was about to be poured out as an offering to God. In a final instruction to his beloved Timothy, Paul tells his disciple to preach God s Word and to continue to do so after he, Paul, had departed. This greater import of the text only becomes apparent as we study these verses within the context of the book. When we study the Bible one complete book at a time, we come to understand the flow of the author s argument. This is often the key to unlocking his intended meaning. Consider, for example, Paul s Second Letter to the Thessalonians. There Paul writes, But we should always give thanks to God for you, brethren beloved by the Lord, because God has chosen you from the beginning for salvation through sanctification by the Spirit and faith in the truth (2 Thessalonians 2:13). It would be easy to assume that this verse is telling us why one person is saved and another person is not: God has chosen you from the beginning for salvation (2 Thessalonians 2:13). Many interpret the verse this way, including well-known preachers. The context, however, is not about why one person is saved and another not. Paul s purpose in writing to the Thessalonians was to clarify earlier teaching regarding the timing of the Lord s second coming. Some in Thessalonica were under the misconception that the judgments of the Day of the Lord had already begun. Paul explains in his second letter to the Thessalonians that this is not the case. The Day of the Lord will not being unless the apostasy comes first, and the man of lawlessness is revealed (2 Thessalonians 2:3). Paul describes the difficult times that follow these events and how the world will be deceived by Satan (2 Thessalonians 2:4-12). Paul contrasts their plight with that of the Christian alive in the days preceding the these events. Paul writes, But we should always give thanks to God for you, brethren beloved by the Lord, because God has chosen you from the beginning for salvation through sanctification by the Spirit and faith in the truth (2 Thessalonians 2:13). In other words, from the beginning God had chosen to deliver believers from End Time deception through the sanctifying work of the Holy Spirit and the believer s faith in the truth. The Thessalonians need not fear the that the day of the Lord s final judgment upon the earth had begun for God was going to save them from it. This can only be understood when 2 Thessalonians 2:13 is studied and understood within the context of Paul s Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 6

7 Second Letter to the Thessalonians as a whole. When we study the Bible book-by-book, learning one book thoroughly before moving on to the next, we are able to speak with confidence about its message and the interpretation of the verses it contains. Good Christians may differ on the interpretation of this verse or that, but the one who has studied the verse within the context of the book in which it resides is far more likely to be right. He is also far more confident that he is right and able to support his interpretation with sound reasons. Finally, when we study the Bible book-by-book, we are far more able to retain what we learn. The Bible is a large book containing a huge amount of information. We cannot hope to remember it all if we store it in our memories as thousands of bits of unrelated and unorganized information. Thankfully, God has organized it for us. He has conveniently preserved His revelation for us in sixty-six file folders, each with a specific theme, purpose, and structure. These serve as an efficient system for quick access to biblical truth. STUDY THE BIBLE WITH SET GOALS To complete an inductive study of the entire Bible would require years of dedicated work. The work is not as overwhelming as it might at first appear if one breaks it down into achievable units and sets specific goals. It would probably be best to begin in the New Testament because of its greater relevancy to us as Christians. An initial goal might be to complete the first eight steps of Steps to Bible Knowledge for each of twenty-seven books of the New Testament. These steps are: First Eight Steps Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 8 Pray Read the Book Study the Background Observe the Text Identify the Speaker, Point of View, and Tone Identify Topical Shifts and Sectional Breaks Make a Provisional Outline State a Provisional Theme and Purpose How long would it take to complete these steps for each of the books of the New Testament? A ten chapter book could be completed with about twenty hours work, or at a rate of approximately two hours per chapter. At that pace, one could complete a study of the 260 chapters of the New Testament in 520 hours. If one were to put aside one evening a week and study for two and a half hours, the New Testament could be completed in four years. That would require a significant commitment to Bible study, but think what it would mean to have twenty-seven binders on your shelf, one for each book of the New Testament. Inside each you would have your own background study of the book, the text of the book marked with observations, an outline of the book, and the theme and purpose of the book stated. Such would form a solid foundation for all future study of the New Testament. Once this goal had been reached, one might consider completing an in-depth, verse-by-verse study of several New Testament epistles. Another goal might be to complete the first eight steps for some of the books of the Old Testament. It would be best to begin with the shorter books in order to gain experience. Tables below provide a summary of the number of chapters and verses for each book of the Old and New Testaments to assist you in setting your own goals for inductive Bible study. STUDY THE BIBLE AS A WHOLE Though God used various men to write the Scriptures, He is the author of it all. We should not think of the Bible, therefore, as sixty-six independent works, but rather as a unified whole with a single message and purpose. We should also recognize that God s revelation in Scripture is progressive. By this we mean that over time the Lord Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 7

8 has revealed truth gradually and with increasing clarity. Through the earlier prophets Moses, Samuel, David, Isaiah, and other Old Testament men of God the Lord revealed truth partially and with calculated opacity. Through later prophets Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Paul, and the other writers of the New Testament, the Lord unveiled much more. His greatest revelation was through His Son, the Lord Jesus. As a result, some things in Scripture, particularly in the Old Testament, are difficult to understand, while other things are clearer and explained more fully. Consequently, our primary method of interpretation should always be to use Scripture to interpret Scripture. We should use that which is clear in Scripture to interpret that which is not, using the whole to interpret the parts. This requires, of course, that we study the entire Bible and not neglect any portion of God s revelation. Concurrent, therefore, with an in-depth, book-by-book study of Scripture which will require a lifetime to complete we need also to be studying the Bible at a quicker pace at the survey level. This is necessary to acquire a good working knowledge of God s Word in its entirety within the first few years of our adult Christian lives. The approach to Bible study can still be inductive and we can still study the Bible book-by-book, but instead of doing so on the verse-by-verse level we will need to study it on the chapter-by-chapter level with a broader view. BIBLE SEMINAR CURRICULUM Bible Seminar is a series of courses written to help adults and motivated teens study the entire Bible in seven years at a pace of two courses per year. Courses are thirteen to fourteen weeks long and are based on the inductive Bible study principles presented in Steps to Bible Knowledge. Because of the New Testament s importance to Christians, the first five courses, Bible Seminar 1 through 5, cover the books of Matthew through Revelation in the approximate chronological order in which they were written. Bible Seminar 6 is an in-depth, inductive study of the Book of Colossians. Bible Seminar 7 through 13 cover the books of the Old Testament, also in approximately chronological order. The last course in the series, Bible Seminar 14, is an in-depths study of the Book of Jonah. These courses are available free online for downloading. New Testament Bible Seminar Curriculum Bible Seminar 1 Gospel of Luke, Acts 1-9, James, Acts 10-14, Galatians, Acts 15:1-35 Bible Seminar 2 Bible Seminar 3 Bible Seminar 4 Bible Seminar 5 Bible Seminar 6 Old Testament Bible Seminar 7 Bible Seminar 8 Bible Seminar 9 Bible Seminar 10 Bible Seminar 11 Acts 15:36-18:22, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Acts 18:23-20:3, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans Matthew, Acts 20-28, Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, Philemon Mark, First Timothy, First Peter, Titus, Second Timothy, Second Peter, Hebrews, Jude John, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Revelation An Inductive Study of the Book of the Colossians using Steps to Bible Knowledge Genesis 1-11, Job, Genesis 12-50, Exodus Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, Psalms I 1 Chronicles, Psalms II, 1 Kings 1-11, Ecclesiastes, 2 Chronicles 1-9, Proverbs, Psalms III Psalms IV, Song of Solomon, 1 Kings 12-22, Joel, 2 Kings, Jonah, 2 Chronicles 10-36, Psalms V Bible Seminar 12 Amos, Micah, Hosea, Isaiah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Jeremiah 1-33 Bible Seminar 13 Bible Seminar 14 Jeremiah 34-52, Lamentations, Obadiah, Ezek., Daniel, Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, Nehemiah, Malachi An Inductive Study of the Book of Jonah using Steps to Bible Knowledge Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 8

9 Books of the Bible Ordered by Number of Verses New American Standard Bible Old Testament Book Verses Chapters Obadiah 21 1 Haggai 38 2 Nahum 47 3 Jonah 48 4 Zephaniah 53 3 Malachi 55 4 Habakkuk 56 3 Joel 73 3 Ruth 85 4 Micah Song of Solomon Amos Lamentations Esther Hosea Zechariah Ecclesiastes Ezra Daniel Nehemiah Judges Joshua Samuel Kings Samuel Kings Chronicles Leviticus Proverbs Chronicles Deuteronomy Job Exodus Ezekiel Numbers Isaiah Jeremiah Genesis Psalms New Testament Book Verses Chapters 2 John John 14 1 Philemon 25 1 Jude 25 1 Titus Thessalonians Peter Timothy Thessalonians 89 5 Colossians 95 4 Philippians Peter John James Timothy Galatians Ephesians Corinthians Hebrews Revelation Romans Corinthians Mark John Acts Matthew Luke Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 9

10 New Testament Books, Chapters, and Verses chapters Total Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans Cor Cor Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians Thess Thess Timothy Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James Peter Peter John John John Jude Revelation Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 10

11 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 11

12 The first phase of inductive Bible study is observation. Here we ask: WHAT DOES THE TEXT SAY? OBSERVATION Observation Step 1 Pray 11 Step 2 Read the Book 12 Step 3 Research the Background 13 Step 4 Observe the Text 15 Step 5 Identify the Speaker, Point of View, and Tone 18 Step 6 Identify Topical Shifts and Sectional Breaks 24 Step 7 Make a Provisional Outline 27 Step 8 State a Provisional Theme and Purpose 31 Step 9 Identify Independent Clauses 32 Step 10 Identify Antecedents 39 Step 11 Evaluate Adjectives and Adverbs 44 Step 12 Parse Verbs 52 Step 13 Label Prepositions 58 Step 14 Label Conjunctions and Transitional Adverbs 86 Step 15 Diagram Sentences 133 Step 16 Perform Word Studies 136 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 12

13 Step 1 Pray Bible study is primarily a spiritual exercise rather than an academic one. Paul writes, Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit who is from God, that we might know the things freely given to us by God, which things we also speak, not in words taught by human wisdom, but in those taught by the Spirit, combining spiritual thoughts with spiritual words. But a natural man does not accept the things of the Spirit of God; for they are foolishness to him, and he cannot understand them, because they are spiritually appraised. 1 Corinthians 2:12-14 We must have God s help to understand His Word. For this reason, we should begin each study-session in prayer, asking God to assist us and we should pray often as we study. When we come across a difficult verse, we should stop and pray again. When God gives us insight, we should pause and thank Him. As we understand Him better through His Word, we should bow in worship. Often it is found that the most productive time of Bible study is spent on one s knees. If we ask God for wisdom, He promises to grant it to us, but we must ask in faith (James 1:5-6). Paul writes, For whatever was written in earlier times was written for our instruction, that through perseverance and the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope (Romans 15:4). This tells us that God wants to instruct us through His Word. We should pray accordingly. Personal examination and confession are also important. To effectively study the Scriptures, we must be walking with God and in spiritual communication with Him. ASSIGNMENT Spend time in prayer, thanking God for His Word. Ask God to help you to understand the of the Bible, especially the book you are presently studying. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 13

14 Step 2 Read the Book The books of the Bible were meant to be read. Moses read the book of the covenant to the Jewish people (Exodus 24:7). Every seventh year when the Jews came together in Jerusalem, the priests read the books of Moses to the people (Deuteronomy 31:10-11). God commanded Joshua, This book of the law shall not depart from your mouth, but you shall meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do according to all that is written in it; for then you will make your way prosperous, and then you will have success (Joshua 1:8). When Israel entered the Promised Land, Joshua read the law to the people (Joshua 8:34). In the same manner, Ezra read the book of the law to the Jewish people of his day (Nehemiah 8:18). Paul likewise exhorted Timothy, Give attention to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation and teaching (1 Timothy 4:13). Many godly Christians continue this practice today, reading the entire Bible each year. In this way they keep the panorama of God s Word constantly before them. When studying a particular book of the Bible, consider as an initial step reading the book several times, five or ten or twenty times. With each reading, the book s message will become clearer and the flow of its argument more apparent. To help maintain your focus, concentrate on one feature of the book each time you read it. For example, one time you might read the book looking for references to God. The next you might read it looking for words which repeat; the next time for warnings and exhortations. Alternately, with each reading you might ask one of the following questions: 1. What is the flow of the argument? 2. To whom does the passage apply? 3. What phrases or ideas are repeated? 4. Where does the subject change? Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 14

15 5. What is the main point being made? 6. Where is the location referred to and does it change? 7. What are the reasons for the statements? 8. What are the stated purposes? Consider also reading the book in various versions of the Bible. This will keep the material fresh and your mind more active. Take note of differences in the translations and consider investigating them later. ASSIGNMENT Read the book you are studying three to five times. Focus on a different aspect of the book each time. If you find this step particularly helpful, considering reading the book several more times. Ask God to give you understanding and insight. Pray also before each study session. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 15

16 Step 3 Research the Background Our goal in Bible study is to understand the intended meaning of the divine Author. To accomplish this, we must ask: What did the Lord want the original readers to do? In the Old Testament, for example, God spoke through prophets to the Jewish people. When interpreting this portion of the Bible, we must keep the Jews, their culture, and their history in mind. The primary application of these Scriptures belongs to them, Jews living under law. Only then can we consider how we as Christians might benefit from this Old Testament teaching and draw secondary applications from the text. We find an example of this in 1 Corinthians 10:1-13. There Paul demonstrates how Christians living under grace can apply the Old Testament to their lives. He reviews Israel s experience in the wilderness and explains that the entire nation received the same blessings and benefits. Nevertheless, with most of them God was not pleased (1 Corinthians 10:5). Applying their experience to the situation in Corinth, where Christians were eating food that had been sacrificed to idols, Paul writes, Now these things happened to them as an example, and they were written for our instruction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come (1 Corinthians 10:11). In a similar manner, we must understand the times and culture of the books of the New Testament if we are to interpret them correctly. For example, what does it mean that Christians were eating food that had been sacrificed to idols? What is the spiritual significance of this? What does it have to do with us today? To answer these questions, we must know something of Roman and Greek religion and their sacrificial practices. Only then can we understand what Paul is speaking about in 1 Corinthians 10. The best reference book for understanding biblical times is the Bible itself. Every time we open it, we are learning about life in biblical times, the history of the Jews, their religious practices, and the cultural and historical setting of the New Testament epistles. Unlike the times in which we live, life and technology changed little during the fifteen hundred years from when Moses first penned the opening words of Genesis to when John wrote the closing words of Revelation. As a result, if we are observant, every time we read the Scriptures we learn more about the background of the books of the Bible. Other reference works can also assist us in understanding the background of the books of the Bible. Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, commentaries, atlases, and surveys of biblical times are available to help us better understand the Bible s cultural setting. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 16

17 Questions to Ask When Studying the Background of a Book of the Bible Geographical What is the physical setting? From where was the book written? To where is the book addressed? Does the location change within the book? What access do the people have to water and other natural resources? What are the major travel routes in the region? What ethnic groups are present? What are the major population centers? What are the surrounding cities and nations? Is the setting of the book rural or urban? What is the economy of the people? What is their culture? What kinds of tools, weapons, and materials are available to the readers? Religious What is the religious setting? Who are the religious leaders? Who are the current Jewish prophets? Who are the current church leaders? Where is the place of worship? Historical When was the book written? How does the book fit into the chronology of the writing of the other books of the Bible? What historical events occurred about that time? Is there independent evidence to confirm the historical accuracy of the book? What is the political setting of the book? Who are the rulers? What is the form of government? What nations are allies and enemies in the region? Who are the neighboring political powers? Who were the world powers at the time? Literary Who wrote the book? What internal information confirms his authorship? What do we know about the author? Who were his contemporaries? What time span does the book cover? What was the author s purpose in writing? To whom was the book written? ASSIGNMENT Research the background of the book you are studying and write a two to five page paper, summarizing what you learn. Alternately, you may list the information that you collect about the book s background, rather than writing it out as a formal paper. You may use the Internet for this research but include also information from at least two resources published in print, such as Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, or atlases. Do not refer to Bible commentaries at this time. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 17

18 Step 4 Observe the Text Careful observation is foundational to sound Bible study. Here we ask the question: What does the Bible say? Our goal is to consider what is written, to take note of the words the author uses, the way he puts them together, the meaning of each sentence, and the point of each paragraph. Stepping back and looking at the book as a whole, we want see if there are words or themes that are repeated and the flow of the argument. As an aid to observation, print the book being studied on several pages using triple spacing. The texts of various Bible translations are available online and in Bible software. Use a text that is free of headings, outline information, and footnotes. Layout the book with about ten verses on each page. Then tape the pages together side-by-side to form an elongated copy of the book that reads from left to right. You may want to add a strip of paper about four inches wide to each end and tape these to lengths of wooden dowel so that you can roll up the copy and store it like an ancient scroll. A mailing tube can be used to store the scroll. Lay the elongated copy of the book out on a long table or on the floor. You are going to need a lot of space to do this. A one-hundred verse book will stretch about seven feet. Spend a good amount of time observing the text. Use colored pencils and pens to annotate the scroll with your observations. Underline important statements. Highlight key words. Label conjunctions and prepositions with the connective relationships that they express. Connect similar concepts with lines. Number words in a list. Take note of words, phrases, and ideas that repeat. Identify commands, exhortations, conditional statements, comparisons, contrasts, and the like. Circle rhetorical questions and their answers. Draw figures to identify themes and references to people, objects, and ideas, for example: tablets for references to the law of Moses, a dove for the Holy Spirit, a book for the Word of God, a happy face for praise, a sad face for rebuke. Be creative. Write comments to preserve insights. Avoid over-marking the text with trivial information, however, lest it become so cluttered that it becomes useless. Try not to engage in interpretation, asking: What does the text mean? That will come later and will only be effective after you have given adequate time to observation. The more time you spend observing a text, the more you will benefit from it. Ask God to give you insight and take your time. Read the text over and over and think deeply about what it says. When you think you have gotten everything you can out of the text, take a break, and then examine it again. Repeat this process until you are sure there is nothing more to find. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 18

19 THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION The following is an edited version of Samuel H. Scudder s account of an anonymous student s first learning experience under the tutelage of Louis Agassiz ( ), Swiss ichthyologist, professor of zoology and geology at Harvard University, and founder of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology. This oft-told story has helped many Bible students appreciate the importance of careful observation. More than fifteen years ago, I entered the laboratory of Professor Agassiz. I introduced myself as a student of natural history. The Professor asked me a few questions about my background and my goals in education. He asked whether I wished to study any special branch. Zoology, I answered. I am especially interested in insects. When do you wish to begin? he asked. Now. Very well. He removed from a shelf a large jar containing a specimen in yellow alcohol. Take this fish and examine it. We call it a haemulon. Later, I will ask about what you have observed. Professor Agassiz left the room but returned a moment later. No man is fit to be a naturalist who does not know how to take care of specimens. Treat it with care. He instructed me to keep the fish in a tin tray and moisten it with alcohol regularly, always taking care to replace the stopper in the jar containing the fluid. I spent the next ten minutes gazing at the fish. A sense of disappointment came over me. Why, if I wish to learn about insects, must I examine this fish? Believing that I knew all that could be known about the fish through observation, I went in search of Professor Agassiz. He was nowhere to be found. I busied myself looking at a collection of Professor Agassiz animals stored in the laboratory. When I returned my fish was dry. I dashed fluid over it as if to resuscitate it and hoped for the return of its original watery appearance. The feat accomplished and the excitement over, I had nothing to do but to gaze at my mute companion. Half an hour passed; an hour; another hour. The fish became loathsome to me. I turned it over and around. I looked it in the face. Ghastly. I looked at it from behind, beneath, above, sideways, at a three-quarters view. Just as ghastly. Despair engulfed me. I concluded that an early lunch was necessary. With infinite relief, I placed the fish in its jar and left the laboratory. For the next hour I would be free. On my return, I learned that Professor Agassiz had been to the laboratory and had departed again. He was not to return for several hours. I hoped for conversation with fellow students but they were too busy to be disturbed. I drew forth my hideous fish. With a feeling of desperation, I examined it again. I could not use a magnifying glass for the Professor had prohibited the use of all instruments. My two hands, my two eyes, and the fish it seemed a most limited field. I pushed my fingers down its throat to test the sharpness of its teeth. I counted the scales in various rows until convinced it was nonsense. At last a happy thought struck me I would draw the fish. Now with surprise, I began to discover new features in the creature. Just then Professor Agassiz returned. That is right; a pencil is one of the best eyes. You have kept your specimen wet and your bottle corked. Good. He looked me in the eye. What have you learned? I described the structure of parts whose names were still unknown to me: the fringed gill-arches and movable operculum; the pores of the head, fleshly lips, and lidless eyes; the lateral line, the spinous fin, and forked tail; Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 19

20 the compressed and arched body. He waited as if expecting more. You have not looked very carefully. You have failed to see one of the most conspicuous features of the animal. I looked again at the fish. It is as plainly before your eyes as the fish itself. I looked at him in despair. Look again; look again! He left me to my misery, irritated and ashamed by failure. More of this wretched fish. I committed myself to the task with new vigor and with time discovered one new feature after another. I came to realize just how true the professor s criticism had been. Several hours passed. Well, do you see it? Professor Agassiz asked. No, I am certain that I do not, but I see now how little I saw before. Next best thing. Put away your fish and go home. Perhaps in the morning you will have an answer for me. I will examine you first thing before you look at the fish. I walked home by the Charles River distracted and perplexed. What did he expect? Not only was I to think of my fish all night and to determine what this unknown, but most visible, feature might be, but I was to give an account to the Professor aided only by my poor memory. Well, what is it? the Professor asked, greeting me the next morning. Perhaps, I said, certain that I was wrong, the symmetrical sides with paired organs. Of course, the Professor said. Of course. His enthusiasm repaid my wakeful hours the previous night. He discoursed happily and enthusiastically on the importance of this point. What shall I do now? I asked when he had finished. Examine your fish! Again? Professor Agassiz returned an hour later. Anything new? I listed several fresh insights. Good, good! Continue. Haemulon The fish in Professor Agassiz laboratory was the haemulon, commonly called the grunt fish because of its ability to make pig-like sounds by grinding teeth in its throat. For three long days I observed that fish. Professor Agassiz checked on me regularly. Look, look, look, he repeatedly ordered. The experience proved to be an invaluable lesson, one that continues to affect my every study. It is the legacy of the great Professor Agassiz. ASSIGNMENT Print the book you are studying and tape the pages together along the long edges to form a scroll. Carefully observe what the content of the text for two to four hours. Preserve your insights by marking the text with colored pens and pencils. Be careful not to over-mark the text, however, lest it become cluttered and difficult to read. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 20

21 Step 5 Identify the Speaker, Point of View, and Tone AUDIENCE Most of the Bible was written for a Jewish audience. Some portions were written for Jews and Gentiles. A few books were written mainly for a Gentile audience. Taking note of the intended audience significantly colors the interpretation of a text. For example, under Jewish law religious leaders had the authority to put to death rebellious sinners for a variety of reasons. Applying these texts to Christians living under grace, as if these books had been written to them, would be a serious error in interpretation. And so, one of the first questions to ask about a book is: To whom was this portion of the Bible written? Often the answer to this question is clearly stated in the book. The Book of Leviticus begins: Then the Lord called to Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting, saying, Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them,... (Leviticus 1:1-2). The command Speak to the sons of Israel occurs throughout the book, repeating fifteen times. The same is true of the Book of Numbers, the same command occurring twelve times. Clearly these books are prophetic messages given by God to Moses for the Jewish people. Several New Testament writers also identify their intended audience in the opening lines. Peter, for example, begins his first letter, writing, Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who reside as aliens, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,... (1 Peter 1:1). Here Peter states that he is the writer and his intended audience is Christians scattered throughout Asia Minor. The intended readership of some books of the Bible is less clear, but no book is without some indication of who the writer is writing to. A distinctive feature of the Gospel of Mark, for example, is that he explains five Aramaic statements. This indicates that Gentiles were probably his intended audience, rather than Judean Jews, who spoke Aramaic. Similar clues indicating the intended readership occur in every book of the Bible. POINT OF VIEW Much of the Bible is historical narrative, the retelling of the history of God s people through stories. As you read these true stories, take note of the narrator s perspective, that is, his relationship to the story or his point of view. There are four possible point of view perspectives: First Person Point of View: Here the narrator is a character in the story. He tells the story from his perspective. Nehemiah uses the first person point of view in telling his story, writing, Now it happened in the month of Chislev, in the twentieth year, while I was in Susa that capitol,... (Nehemiah 1:2). Similarly, the Apostle John wrote the Book of Revelation in the first person. He writes, I was in the Spirit on the Lord s day, and I heard behind me a loud voice like the sound of a trumpet,... (Revelation 1:10). John proceeds to give us a first-person account of what he saw and experienced. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 21

22 Second Person Point of View: Here the story is about you the reader. You become part of the story as one of the characters, and the story is told from your perspective. This perspective is difficult to maintain and very limited. For this reason, it is rarely used in literature and is not used in Scripture. Third Person Point of View: Here the narrator tells the story from the perspective of one of the characters in the story. We see and experience what he or she sees and experiences. The Book of Jonah is told through the third person perspective of Jonah, the central character of the story. The reader follows Jonah from Israel, to sea, into the belly of the great fish, onto dry land, to the city of Nineveh, and finally to the outskirts of the city to sit and stew under a blazing hot sun. Though the book is generally believed to have been written by Jonah, there is no statement in the book that the author is writing about himself. It should also be said that some books written from a third person point of view begin with the perspective of one character in the story and then change to the perspective of another character. Sometimes they change several times. Authorial Point of View: Here the narrator speaks as the author retelling the story from his perspective and with seemingly full knowledge of the events and related circumstances. The author knows what all characters say, their motivations, and what everyone in the story is doing with almost God-like knowledge. For this reason, this perspective is also called the Omniscient Point of View. This is the most common storytelling point of view. It is similar to Third Person Point of View in that the author writes about what others do, say, and experience. If differs from Third Person Point of View in that the author does not limit himself to the perspective of one person and speaks authoritatively about the story as if he has a nearly perfect knowlege of all associate events. The Gospel of Matthew is written this way. Matthew reports the circumstances surrounding Jesus birth, John s Baptism, Jesus temptation in the wilderness, the Lord s teaching and ministry, and His death and resurrection. Matthew also knows about the Pharisees conspiratorial plotting (Matthew 22:15-16); the deliberations of the Sanhedrin, the Jewish supreme council (Matthew 26:57-68); Peter s denials (Matthew 26:69-75); Pilate being warned by his wife (Matthew 27:19); the chief priests request before Pilate that guards be places at Jesus tomb (Matthew 27:62-66); the reaction of the guards to Jesus resurrection (Matthew 28:2-4); and the guards reporting to the chief priest that Jesus had risen (Matthew 28:11-15). Sometimes an author will change his point of view midstream. We see this, for example, in the Book of Ezra, which was written by Ezra. In the first six chapters, Ezra tells the story of Zerubbabel rebuilding the temple in Jerusalem. Ezra uses the Authorial Point of View or Omniscient Point of View. In chapters seven through ten, Ezra tells of his own work in Jerusalem, building up the Jewish people. In this section of the book, he is the main character. He again writes from an Authorial Point of View, for example: This Ezra went up from Babylon, and he was a scribe skilled in the law of Moses, which the Lord God of Israel had given; and the king granted him all he requested because the hand of the Lord his God was upon him (Ezra 7:6). Occasionally, Ezra shifts to a First Person Point of View, writing, for example: Thus I was strengthened according to the hand of the Lord my God upon me, and I gathered leading men from Israel to go up with me (Ezra 7:28). Daniel makes similar changes of point of view in his book. In Daniel 1:8, he writes, But Daniel made up his mind that he would not defile himself with the king s choice food, as if writing about someone else. Later he writes, And I looked in the vision, and it came about while I was looking, that I was in the citadel of Susa, which is in the province of Elam; and I looked in the vision, and I myself was beside the Ulai Canal (Daniel 8:2). Luke does the same in the New Testament. In the early chapters of Acts, Luke writes of Christ, the twelve apostles, Paul, and Barnabas. He continues his account of Paul s journeys in the sixteenth chapter, writing, And he came also to Derbe and to Lystra (Acts 16:1). Following Paul s vision of a man in Macedonia appealing to him to come and help the people of his country, a shift in point of view occurs. Luke writes, And when he had seen the vision, immediately we sought to go into Macedonia, concluding that God had called us to preach the gospel to them (Acts 16:10). Note Luke s use of the second person plural pronouns we and us. Apparently, Luke joined Paul in his journeys at this point, requiring a shift in point of view. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 22

23 Not all of the Bible is historical narrative. The Psalms are poetry, the lyrics of Jewish songs. Lamentations, as the title indicates, is a collection of five poems lamenting the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jewish temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC. Much of the New Testament is letters written by various apostles and early leaders to the first Christians. These are first person exhortations and teaching letters in which the author addresses his readers directly. Paul, for example, states in the opening of his Letter to the Romans, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all... (Romans 1:8). In this letter, Paul uses the personal pronoun I 118 times. In his First Letter to the Corinthians, he uses I 124 times. SPEAKER Most books of the Bible have a single primary speaker, the narrator and author of the book. A surprisingly large amount of Scripture also includes direct quotation and dialogue. In the Bible, we find the words of Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Moses and Aaron, and scores of other people. We even read direct quotations from Satan. With this in mind, it is essential when interpreting Scripture to know who the speaker is. If God or one of His prophets is speaking, as is the case in most of the Bible, the text is trustworthy. If Satan, the father of lies (John 8:44), is the speaker, though recorded in the Bible, what Satan says is not necessarily true. We can know that he truly said it, but what he said is not necessarily true, indeed, it is highly likely that it is untrue. The same can be said of much of the content of the Book of Ecclesiastes. Much of it is the foolish ponderings of Solomon as he viewed life from a human perspective, viewing life from a man s perspective under the sun, a term he uses twenty-nine times. Vanity of vanities! All is vanity (Ecclesiastes 1:2), Solomon decries in the opening words of his book. Much of what follows is just that vanity, the empty philosophy of a foolish king. Much of the counsel of Job s four friends is also suspect. In large part what they said was just plain wrong, as God points out in the latter chapters of the book. Sometimes the speaker changes abruptly and without notice. One example is Daniel 4:34-37, where King Nebuchadnezzar finishes his own story and praises the Most High. Speaker changes are common in the Psalms. The six verses of Psalm 1 have a single speaker, the Psalmist who wrote them. The twelve verses of Psalm 2, on the other hand, have four speakers. Speaker Psalm 2 The Psalmist Rulers of the World The Psalmist God The Psalmist Christ the King God 1 Why do the nations rebel? Why are the countries devising plots that will fail? 2 The kings of the earth form a united front; the rulers collaborate against the LORD and his anointed king. 3 They say, Let s tear off the shackles they ve put on us! Let s free ourselves from their ropes! 4 The one enthroned in heaven laughs in disgust; the Lord taunts them. 5 Then he angrily speaks to them and terrifies them in his rage, saying, 6 I myself have installed my king on Zion, my holy hill. 7 The king says, I will announce the LORD S decree. He said to me: You are my son! This very day I have become your father! 8 Ask me, and I will give you the nations as your inheritance, the ends of the earth as your personal property. 9 You will break them with an iron scepter; you will smash them like a potter s jar! The Psalmist 10 So now, you kings, do what is wise; you rulers of the earth, submit to correction! 11 Serve the LORD in fear! Repent in terror! 12 Give sincere homage! Otherwise he will be angry, and you will die because of your behavior, when his anger quickly ignites. How blessed are all who take shelter in him! Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 23

24 When we interpret imprecatory Psalms, those passages in which David and others cry out to God to exact vengeance upon their enemies, we must also keep the speaker in view. Are we reading the words of God or the words of men recorded in the Word of God? Often it is the latter, David or another Jewish writer dishearten by tragedy and trial and speaking as a man speaks. For example, the Jewish exiles in Babylon express their grief in Psalm 137. How are we as Christians to interpret their words? Consider the first eight verses of this nine-verse psalm. By the rivers of Babylon we sit down and weep when we remember Zion. On the poplars in her midst we hang our harps, for there our captors ask us to compose songs; those who mock us demand that we be happy, saying: Sing for us a song about Zion! How can we sing a song to the Lord in a foreign land? If I forget you, O Jerusalem, may my right hand be crippled! May my tongue stick to the roof of my mouth, if I do not remember you, and do not give Jerusalem priority over whatever gives me the most joy. Remember, O Lord, what the Edomites did on the day Jerusalem fell. They said, Tear it down, tear it down, right to its very foundation! O daughter Babylon, soon to be devastated! (Psalm 137:1-8, NET). The speakers are deeply troubled Jews, who, having been torn from their homeland, are now being mocked by their captors. They are exiles because of their waywardness and many sins, now possibly repentant, but nonetheless under the judgment of God in a foreign land. They cry out against the Edomites, who urged the Babylonians to totally destroy Jerusalem and its temple. They look to the day of God s judgment upon their Babylonian captors: O daughter of Babylon, soon to be devastated! With this in view, we must interpret Psalm 137 not as the words and sentiments of God, though they are recorded in the Word of God, but rather the words and sentiments of Jewish exiles. Yes, a writer guided by divine inspiration penned these words, even as all portions of Scripture. But as Moses recorded Satan s words in Genesis 3 and Solomon recorded his own vain reasonings in Ecclesiastes, so the writer of Psalm 137 recorded the words of the Jewish exiles. The psalm is an expression of the hearts of desperate and vengeful Jews, not God. Their psalm concludes with the most horrific imprecation in Scripture. They address it to the Babylonians, crying, How blessed will be the one who repays you for what you dished out to us! How blessed will be the one who grabs your babies and smashes them on a rock! (Psalm 137:9, NET). Their desire is horrific. As Christians, we cringe at these monstrous words. Yet, when we consider the context and the speaker, we understand them. These words express the true feelings of Jewish exiles experiencing the terrible consequences of their sins. Understanding this, we interpret them accordingly. We do not condone or excuse their hatred. Neither do we attribute their sinful words to God. He is no more responsible for their wicked thoughts than he is for Satan s lies in Genesis 3 or Solomon s folly in the Book of Ecclesiastes. TONE As you study the Scriptures, take note of the writer s tone. Is it pleasant, affirming, upbeat, and encouraging? Is its it harsh, critical, corrective, and judgmental? Is the author instructing, informing, correcting, rebuking, training, or questioning? Asking such questions causes us to step back and look at the text as a whole. Recognizing the tone helps us to interpret books such as Paul s Letter to the Galatians. Read its opening verses. Then compare them to the opening verses of Paul s letters to the Ephesians or to the Philippians. The contrast is telling. Paul is obviously very upset with the Galatians. His letter is a rebuke from start to finish, harsh in the opening verses and more instructive as the letter progresses, but deadly serious nevertheless throughout. Look also for changes in tone as you read the Scriptures. For example, Paul signals one such shift in his First Letter to the Corinthians when he writes, Now in giving the following instruction I do not praise you,... (1 Corinthians 11:17). This tells us that in the previous instruction he was giving praise. In the next instruction, a reprimand is to be expected. Such clues help us to interpret the text. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 24

25 ELEMENTS Some books of the Bible have a uniform structure throughout. For example, Genesis is a historical account of events spanning from God s creation of the world to the deaths of Jacob and Joseph. Other books are comprised of different elements. Taking note of these helps us to interpret the text. For example, Paul s New Testament letters are typically comprised of the following elements. Greetings In the openings of his letters, Paul typically identifies himself as the author, greets his readers, and asks God to bless them. In closing his letters, Paul passes on greetings from others, greets individuals he knows among those receiving the letter, and asks God once again to bless his readers. Encouragement Paul often begins his letters with a word of encouragement, seeking to build his readers up. He reminds them of their blessings and exalted position in Christ, recalls his prayers for them, and recounts their godly conduct. Worship Paul frequently breaks into spontaneous praise and worship, addressing his writing directly to the Lord. General Instruction Paul used his letters to present the doctrines of the Christian faith to his reader and to tutor them in righteous living. Much of the body of his letters is made up of such instruction. Corrective Instruction Paul often addressed known problems, correcting bad behavior and false teaching. Sometimes he appears to be answering a question. Other times he is countering false teaching by emphasizing a truth that is being compromised. Apologetics Much of Paul s writing is a defense of true doctrine or right conduct. Historical Narrative Paul often recounts his experiences that his readers might better understand his ministry for the Lord and draw lessons from it. Logistical Information Paul includes in his letters information about his future plans, travel information, and instructions for his fellow workers. To visualize the elements comprising a book, consider charting them in a table such as the one below. Begin by listings as many elements as the book contains in the left-hand column. Do not limit yourself to the elements listed above, but rather created titles for additional ones as needed. List the numbers of the verses across the top of the table. Then plot the elements in boxes associated with the verses in which they occur. Example of Charting a Book s Elements The Book of Jude Verse Greetings Purpose Statement Warning Exhortation Worship Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 25

26 ASSIGNMENT Answer the following questions about the book you are studying. 1. Who is the book s intended audience? 2. From which point of view did the author write? Does the point of view change? 3. Who is the book s speaker/speakers and what portion did he/they write? 4. What is the book s tone and are there any significant changes in tone? 5. What elements make up the book? If there are several, plot them in a chart as in the example of the Book of Jude above. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 26

27 Step 6 Identify Topical Shifts and Sectional Breaks The goal of this step is to evaluate the book being studied from a literary perspective. The focus will be more on how the author said what he said than it will be on the content of what he said. We will be looking for themes, and shifts in topic, and transitional statements. Our goal will be to lay the groundwork for outlining the book in the next step. The question before us will be: How did the author organized his material? Our perspective will be wide, viewing the book as a whole yet composed of several parts. Lay the scroll of the book you are studying before you on a long table or on the floor so that you can view the entire book at once. Then seek to identify the various sections of the book, marking each with a long horizontal line. As you do so, look for the following elements. PARAGRAPH BREAKS Good writing is composed of groups of sentences organized into units called paragraphs. Each paragraph should have a topic sentence that states its thesis, that is, the point that it is making or proving. The other sentences in the paragraph should have this thesis as their focus. Each sentence should contribute to the paragraph s thesis by explaining it, supporting it with additional information, and arguing its reasonableness. It is best to identify the paragraph breaks yourself. For this reason, avoid texts with titled paragraphs or outlines. If you want to benefit the most from this analysis, work from a text in which the paragraph breaks have been removed. Then read through the text and find the paragraph breaks yourself. In this way you will interact with the text far more deeply that if you work with a text that is already broken into paragraphs. WORD CLUSTERS The repetition of words is a good indication of a section s focus, so when you see a word repeating in the text circle each occurrence. For example, when studying the Book of Hebrews you might notice the word covenant occurring an unusual number of times, starting in chapter seven. Scanning the book, you find twenty-one occurrences. A Bible concordance or Bible software with a search feature can greatly speed up this process. You notice that all but five occurrences are clustered in chapters eight and nine. This indicates that the theme of those chapters has something to do with the concept of covenant. A second look reveals that the writer of Hebrews speaks of a first covenant (Hebrews 8:7; 9:1; 9:15; 9:18); a new covenant (Hebrews 8:8; 8:13, 9:15; 12:24); and a better covenant (Hebrews 7:22; 8:6). This tells you that two or more covenants are in view and are being compared. A search on the word better reveals that the word occurs thirteen times in Hebrews, another indication of the focus of the book. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 27

28 TRANSITIONAL STATEMENTS Modern authors sometimes explain how their material is structured before presenting it so that readers can follow along more easily. For example, an author might write, There are five reasons why I believe the Bible is inspired. The first is that.... We immediately know where this author is headed, that he is about to state his first reason, and that four more will follow. More often authors use transitional statements to signal topic changes, sectional breaks, and the structure of their writing. After stating one reason for why we know the Bible is inspired, an author might write, Additionally, we know that the Bible is inspired because.... In this way he tells the reader that he is moving on to his second point. Biblical authors similarly use transitional statements to structure their material. In his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul clarifies several areas in which the Christians in Corinth were confused. Five times he uses the formula Now concerning... to signal topic changes: Now concerning things about which you wrote,... (1 Corinthians 7:1); Now concerning virgins... (1 Corinthians 7:25); Now concerning things sacrificed to idols,... (1 Corinthians 8:1); Now concerning spiritual gifts,... (1 Corinthians 12:1); Now concerning the collection for the saints... (1 Corinthians 16:1). Many more times in 1 Corinthians, Paul simple uses, Now.... He frequently concludes a list of instructions, writing, Finally,... (2 Corinthians 13:11; Ephesians 6:10; Philippians 3:1; 4:8; 1 Thessalonians 4:1; 2 Thessalonians 3:1). This signals that he is finishing one topic and will soon start the next. Peter uses a similar device to signal the end of a list of exhortations, writing, To sum up, let all be... (1 Peter 3:8). Solomon signals the end of the Book of Ecclesiastes, writing, The conclusion, when all has been heard, is... (Ecclesiastes 12:13). As we read the Scriptures, we should look for such transitional statements and mark them for later use. They are the keys to finding the author s outline. STRONG DECLARATIVE STATEMENTS Sometimes biblical authors mark the beginning of a new section with a strong declarative statement. I am amazed that you are so quickly deserting Him who called you by the grace of Christ for a different gospel (Galatians 1:6), Paul writes, transitioning from his salutation into the first point of his rebuke of the Christians in Galatia. For am I now seeking the favor of men, or of God? (Galatians 1:10) he asks, transitioning into his second point. You foolish Galatians, who has bewitched you...? (Galatians 3:1), he asks, introducing a third point. COMMANDS Commands or imperatives are also sometimes an indication of a topic shift. In Paul s Second Letter to Timothy, there are more than thirty commands, a large number for a book of only eighty-three verses. These can serve as an outline to the book, which is primarily an exhortation from Paul to his beloved disciple Timothy. DIRECT ADDRESS OF THE READER Direct address is when a speaker directly addresses another person or thing. When the writer addresses the reader, it usually signals that something especially important is being stated. James does this seventeen times in his letter of 108 verses. It may be the key to the structure of the book. THE STRUCTURE OF SIMILAR BIBLICAL BOOKS When trying to detect the structure of a book, it is helpful to keep in mind that similar biblical books tend to have similar structures. Books of the Bible recording historical narrative generally recount events in chronological order. The structure of these books tends to parallel the major events in the book. For example, the outline of 1 Kings and 2 Kings basically follows the lives of the kings of Judah and Israel recorded in them. The twelve books of the Minor Prophets tend to follow the structure of rebuke and judgment followed by hope and future blessing. The four gospels trace the life of Jesus. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are closely related and have basically the same outline. Paul s letters typically are comprised of a salutation, an update on his status, doctrinal teaching, practical training in righteousness, closing remarks in which he tells of his future ministry plans, and some final greetings. Being aware of these Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 28

29 similarities makes it easer to spot common structural elements. ASSIGNMENT Working with the scroll of the book you are studying, analyze the text, looking for the structure of the book. Mark topic changes, transitions, and sectional breaks. Annotate the text to preserve insights into the flow of the argument, clusters of repeated words, direct address, and other features that may indicate the literary structure of the book. Remember, your are working toward the goal of finding the structure of the book so as to discover the author s outline. You will be using this information in the next step. Answer the following questions about the book you are studying. 1. If there is an introduction, opening remarks, or salutation, where does it begin and end? 2. If there is a conclusion, closing remarks, or valediction, where does it begin and end? 3. Are there any sectional breaks in the book where the subject changes or the author uses a transitional statement to mark a break? List each section, stating its starting reference, closing reference, and a possible title for the section. 4. Are there any places in the book where you detect a possible sectional break but you are not sure it truly is one? List the location of each. 5. List the major topics that the author addresses in this book and their references. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 29

30 Step 7 Make a Provisional Outline This lesson will show you how to outline a book of the Bible. This is one of the most important steps for grasping a book s meaning, for an outline shows the structure of a book, displaying the major and minor points of the book in an organized way. There are six steps to finding a book s outline. As you study them, refer to the example on of the Book of Galatians on the two pages that follow. STEP 1 LIST THE PARAGRAPHS Down the left-hand margin of a piece of paper, list the references for each of the book s paragraphs. You can use the paragraph breakdowns in your Bible or generate your own. Each paragraph should contain a single theme and thesis. STEP 2 TITLE THE PARAGRAPHS To the right of the paragraph Scripture references, write a title for each paragraph. It should express the paragraph s main point. Try to summarize it in three to six words. You can use more words if necessary, but the fewer the better. The title should be descriptive of the entire paragraph, not just part of it. Often it is stated for you in the paragraph s topic sentence, which is typically the paragraph s opening sentence. When possible, try to incorporate words from the text into your title. It is also good, when you can, to coordinate your titles, so that each title has a similar style. Clarity, however, is more important here than literary flare. If you cannot find a single title that can encompass the entire paragraph, it is likely that your paragraph is actually two or more paragraphs. Divide it accordingly and write titles for each new paragraph. STEP 3 GROUP SIMILAR PARAGRAPHS To the right of your paragraph titles, draw a bracket to connect paragraphs that have similar themes. For example, if the first three paragraphs speak about marriage and the next three paragraphs speak about child raising, you would have two brackets, each of three paragraphs. When grouping paragraphs, you can only bracket paragraphs that are in consecutive order. You cannot bracket paragraphs that are separated by other paragraphs. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 30

31 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 31

32 Example Paul s Letter to the Galatians Theme: Justification by Faith Purpose: To counteract Judaistic teaching which had come into the churches of Galatia I. Salutation 1:1-5 II. Galatians Rebuked for Gospel Defection 1:6-9 III. Paul s Gospel is from Jesus Christ not Men 1:10-2:10 A. stated 1:10-12 B. proved from Paul s personal history 1:13-2:10 1. prior to conversion: a zealous Jew 1: conversion to year 3: no apostolic contact 1: years 3 to 14: brief contact with Cephas and James 1: year 14: the apostles consulted 2:1-10 IV. Justification by Faith not Law 2:11-5:25 A. hypocrisy rebuked 2:11-3:5 1. Cephas rebuked for Judaistic behavior 2: Galatians rebuked 3:1-5 a. who bewitched you? 3:1 b. remember your start 3:2-5 B. the blessings of Abraham are by faith 3: those of faith are blessed with Abraham 3: those of the Law are cursed 3: Abraham s inheritance is based on promise not law 3:15-18 C. the purpose of the Law: to keep in custody 3: added temporarily because of transgressions 3: not contrary to the promises 3: to keep in custody as a tutor 3:23-24 D. the result of the redemption: set free from the Law 3:25-5:25 1. set free as sons and heirs 3:25-4:7 2. Galatians admonished 4: reasoned by allegory: Hagar and Sarah 4: do not go back to slavery 5: who hindered you? 5: free to serve not sin 5: those led by the Spirit are free from the Law 5:16-25 V. Judaizers and Their Ways Exposed 5:26-6:17 A. avoid pride 5:26-6:3 B. boast in your own work 6:4-10 C. the letter validated by Paul 6:11 D. motives of the Judaizers exposed 6:12-16 E. final warning 6:17 VI. Benediction 6:18 Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 32

33 STEP 4 TITLE YOUR BRACKETED PARAGRAPHS As you titled each paragraph, now title each set of bracketed paragraphs. Once again, the title should summarize the common theme of the paragraphs enclosed in the bracket. If it contains four paragraphs, you must come up with a title that is general enough to summarize the paragraph titles of all four. For example, if you bracketed three paragraphs on marriage and titled them How to Have a Happy Marriage and three paragraphs on raising children that you titled How to Have Happy Children, you might title your bracket around these two titles as How to Have a Happy Family. STEP 5 GROUP YOUR GROUPS Next, try to bracket your bracketed paragraph titles. For example, you might find that How to Have a Happy Family is preceded by a bracket titled How to Have a Happy Church and followed by a bracket titled How to Have a Happy Workplace. You could put a bracket around these three and title it How to Have a Happy Life. The process is seldom this easy, but if the book is well organized the structure should become apparent as you continue to bracket the titles of your brackets and then bracket these until you can do so no further. Expect your titles to become more general as they encompass an increasingly broader range of subject. STEP 6 PUT YOUR OUTLINE IN STANDARD FORM By the time step 5 is completed, the book s outline will be apparent, even if you do not recognize it as so. The titles of your final set of brackets are the book s main points. The titles bracketed by these are the book s first level of sub-points, and so on. To put the book s outline in the standard form, assign numbers and letters to each of your titles. Main division titles, your outer most bracket titles, should be assigned Roman numerals. Titles one level below these should be given capital letters. The third level receives lowercase letters. Usually these are all followed by a period. I. Main Divisions: Roman Numerals with Period A. First Level: Capital Letters with Period 1. Second Level: Numbers with Period a. Third Level: Lowercase Letters with Period (1) Fourth Level: Numbers in parentheses (a) Fifth Level: Lowercase Letters in parentheses 1. repeat the pattern, alternating numbers and letters Refer to the worksheet demonstrating the outlining of the Book of Galatians on the previous page to see how this is done. ASSIGNMENT Apply the six steps above to the book you are studying. Make a provisional outline of the book, placing it in the standard form. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 33

34 Step 8 State a Provisional Theme and Purpose THEME The theme of a book answers the question: What is this book about? It is the main topic, the unifying idea running throughout the book. It is best stated in one to three words. It need not be a complete sentence. For example, if we were to treat 1 Corinthians 13 as a book, rather than a chapter, we could state the theme as love. From beginning to end, the chapter is about love. A good way to find a book s theme is to analyze its outline. What is it about? To generate the outline, you titled the book s paragraphs, grouped them by similar topics, and grouped your groups. You stopped grouping when you could group them no further. Return now to your outline and see if you can group all of your titles under a single word or statement. Make it broad enough to encompass all your major divisions. This final, all-encompassing statement is the book s theme. In the example of the Book of Galatians on a previous page it was stated as Justification by Faith. This captures well the emphasis of the book. PURPOSE The purpose of a book answers the question: What did the author hope to accomplish by writing this book? In other words, what was his objective? Sometimes the author states his purpose for you. Look for comments such as, I have written to you in order that.... or, My purpose in writings is that.... If you find such a statement in a book, simply write it down and state the reference. You have the book s purpose on the authority of the author. Usually finding a book s purpose is more difficult. You will need to analyze the book and determine where it is heading and what the author is hoping to accomplish. Here again your outline is a valuable resource. You know the book s theme and the major points that the author makes. From these you should be able to deduce the author s purpose in writing. Paul s purpose in writing his letter to the Galatians was: To counteract Judaistic teaching which had come into the churches of Galatia. We might state the purpose of 1 Corinthians 13 (knowing the context from the rest of the book), To establish love as an essential element in the proper exercise of all spiritual gifts. ASSIGNMENT State a provisional theme and purpose for the book you are studying. Place these at the top of your provisional outline. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 34

35 Step 9 Identify Independent Clauses In the Scriptures, God has revealed and preserved truth in written form. To accurately interpret these truths we must understand grammar, that is, the rules that govern the use of words, their form and function in sentences, and the way they work together to convey meaning. With this in view, Steps to Bible Knowledge includes a brief review of English grammar. Study this material thoroughly and supplement it where necessary from other resources. Your efforts will be rewarded with years of fruitful insight into Scripture. THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH A word is a sound or series of sounds that conveys an idea or meaning. The Oxford Dictionary defines a word as: a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes alone) to form a sentence. English uses words in eight ways and only eight ways. These are called the parts of speech: 1) nouns, 2) pronouns, 3) verbs, 4) adverbs, 5) adjectives, 6) prepositions, 7) conjunctions, and 8) interjections. We can group the parts of speech into five categories: naming words, asserting words, modifying words, connecting words, and emotional words. Naming Words 1. Nouns A noun is a person, place, or thing. A noun is the name of something, such as: John, city, water. A word or group of words functioning as a noun is referred to as a substantive. 2. Pronouns A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun, such as: he, she, it, this, or that. The noun to which the pronoun refers back to is called its antecedent. For example, when Peter came to Jesus on the water and began to sink, we read, And immediately Jesus stretched out His hand and took hold of him, and said to him, O you of little faith, why did you doubt? (Matthew 14:31). Peter is the antecedent of the pronouns him and you. Nouns and pronouns play the leading role in speech as the subject of the sentence. The subject is the person, place, or thing that is doing something or being something in every sentence. It is the word most closely related to the main verb. For example, in the verse, God is love (1 John 4:16), God is the subject. He is the person about which something is being said. Sometimes the subject is not stated but only implied. This is often the case in commands. For example, in the verse, Fervently love one another (1 Peter 1:22), the verb is love. The subject is implied. It is you. The verse could read it: [You] love one another. Asserting Words 3. Verbs A verb is a word or phrase that expresses action (pray, study, write) or that links the subject to a state of being. From this definition, it can be seen that there are two kinds of verbs. Action verbs express things that the subject does. Hit, eat, take, drop, and talk are among the hundreds of action verbs. For example, we read in the opening chapters of the Bible, When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was desirable to make one wise, she took from its fruit and ate; and she gave also to her husband with her, and he ate (Genesis 3:6). The words in Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 35

36 italics are action verbs. In the verse, Jesus touched their eyes (Matthew 20:34), Jesus is the subject and touched is the verb. What is being asserted about Jesus is that he touched their eyes. Linking verbs link the subject to an assertion. They express something about the state or condition of the subject. The most common linking verb is the verb to be. In the verse, God is love (1 John 1:8), God is linked to love by the verb is. The sentence tells us that love is characteristic of God. Along with the five action verbs in Genesis 3:6, there are three liking verbs, here in italics: When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was desirable to make one wise, she took from its fruit and ate; and she gave also to her husband with her, and he ate (Genesis 3:6). The words in italics are action verbs. In addition to the verb to be, other words can also function as linking verbs, such as: seem, appear, feel, look, become, and grow. For example, in the parable of the Good Samaritan we read, But a certain Samaritan, who was on a journey, came upon him; and when he saw him, he felt compassion (Luke 10:33). Felt is a linking verb. Saying the Good Samaritan felt compassion, is essentially the same as saying, he was compassionate. Modifying Words 4. Adjectives An adjective is a word that describes a noun. Red, pretty, great, and small are adjectives. The indefinite article (a, an) and the definite article (the) are regarded as adjectives. In the verse, He rolled a large stone against the entrance of the tomb and went away (Matthew 27:60), the adjective large is modifying the noun stone. A also modifies stone. The first the modifies entrance ; the second tomb. 5. Adverbs An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Quickly, very, so and not are adverbs. In the verse, Behold, I am coming quickly (Revelation 22:7), quickly is an adverb modifying coming. Connecting Words 6. Prepositions A preposition is a word that joins a substantive, called its object to the rest of the sentence. A preposition never stands alone; it always has an object. The preposition and its object form a phrase, called a prepositional phrase. The preposition communicates the relationship between the object and another element in the sentence. Prepositions express relationships such as place (on the table), direction (toward the city), time (after breakfast), association (with his friend), means (by hand), and agency (by John). Jesus, for example, says, In My Father s house are many dwelling places (John 14:2). Here the word in is a preposition. Its object is house. The prepositional phrase in My Father house identifies the place where the dwellings are located. 7. Conjunctions A conjunction is a word used to join elements (words, phrases, clauses) of sentences together, such as: and, but, or, because, and since. In the verse, I thank Christ Jesus our Lord, who has strengthened me, because He considered me faithful, putting me into service (1 Timothy 1:12), the word because is a conjunction. It joins two clauses together. Emotional Words 8. Interjections An interjection, also called an exclamation, is an exclamatory remark expressing emotion, such as: Ah! and Oh! Usually occurring at the beginning of a sentence, an interjection has no grammatical connection to the words that follow. In the verse, Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33), the word Oh, and its variation O as found in some translations, is an interjection. It is the translation of the Greek letter omega (Ω), which is used as an interjection in the Greek language. Other interjections are yes, no, and amen. THE CLAUSE A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject and a verb. The opening words of the Bible state: In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1). God is the subject. Created is the verb. It is an action verb. The heavens and the earth is the object of the verb. God created the heavens and the earth is a clause. It is a group of related words that contain a subject and a verb. (A group of related words that lacks both a subject and verb, as explained above, is a phrase.) Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 36

37 We might more accurately define a clause as a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. A predicate is a word or group of words that say something about the subject. Usually the predicate includes a verb. In Genesis 1:1, the predicate is created the heavens and the earth. These words say something about the subject, who is God. In the beginning, is not a clause. It has a noun, the beginning, which could serve as a subject, but it does not have a verb. It is therefore a phrase, in this case, a prepositional phrase. There are two kinds of clauses. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and completes a thought. An independent clause, also known as a main clause, can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause, also known as a subordinate clause, is a group of words containing a subject and predicate that is introduced by a word that connects it to another clause in the sentence in such a way that its meaning is dependent on and subordinate to it. A dependent clause cannot stand alone and is grammatically less important than a main clause. Jesus wept (John 11:35) is an independent clause. It makes a complete thought. It is, therefore, an independent clause and can stand alone as a complete sentence. In order that they might have grounds for accusing Him (John 8:6) is a dependent clause. It has a subject, they. It has a verb might have. It also has an object, grounds. It does not make, however, a complete thought or statement. Something is missing. It doesn t make sense when read alone. It is a dependent clause because its meaning is dependent on the clause that precedes it: They were saying this, testing Him, in order that they might have grounds for accusing Him (John 8:6). Here, They were saying this, is the main or independent clause. The clause in order that they might have grounds for accusing Him is a dependent clause. It is less central and essential to the main thought of the sentence. The phrasal conjunction in order that subordinates it or makes it less important and dependent upon the independent clause for its meaning. THE SENTENCE A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. Every sentence has a subject (the substantive being talked about) and a predicate (the declaration being made about the subject). The predicate can be a single word, the verb, such as the word wept in the verse Jesus wept (John 11:35). The predicate can also be a group of words, such as a verb and its complement (something that completes the idea of the verb), as in the verse: Jesus took some bread (Matthew 26:26), where the predicate is took some bread. A sentence also may have one or more elements called modifiers. These may describe the subject or the predicate. Based on the kinds of clauses they contain, sentences are described as follows. A simple sentence contains one independent clause: Jesus wept (John 11:35). A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses: But seek for His kingdom, and these things shall be added to you (Luke 12:31, two independent clauses). He was in the world, and the world was made through Him, and the world did not know Him (John 1:10, three independent clauses.) A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a dependent clause: They had no children, because Elizabeth was barren (Luke 1:7). A compound-complex sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses: As I hear, I judge; and My judgment is just, because I do not seek My own will, but the will of Him who sent Me (John 5:30, two independent clauses and three dependent clauses). The clause is the foundational structure on which all English sentences are built. They have one of five structures. A subject plus an action verb that takes an object (called a transitive verb): John hit the ball. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 37

38 A subject plus an action verb that does not take an object (called an intransitive verb): John looked. A subject plus a linking verb and an adjective (called a predicate adjective): John is tall. A subject plus a linking verb and a noun or pronoun (called a predicate noun or predicate pronoun): John is he. A subject plus a linking verb and an adverb (called a predicate adverb) or adverbial phrase: John is here. John is in the house. Every clause, no matter how many modifiers it contains, can be reduced to one of these five kernel structures. SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION BY CONTENT Sentences are commonly classified by content into four categories. 1. Declarative sentences make a declaration. They assert something, make a statement, for example: Certainly God is good to Israel, and to those whose motives are pure! (Psalm 73:1, NET). 2. Interrogative sentences ask a question: For what does it profit a man to gain the whole world, and forfeit his soul? (Mark 8:36). 3. Imperative sentences state a command: Beloved, let us love one another, for love is from God (1 John 4:7). 4. Exclamatory sentences express great emotion, surprise, anger, or pain in the form of a sudden cry: Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33). PHRASE A group of words functioning together but lacking a subject and verb is a phrase. There are four kinds of phrases. Phrases Type Functioning As Form Examples prepositional participle adjectives or adverbs adjectives and occasionally as adverbs A preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or a clause + modifiers. A participle + accompanying words (prepositional phrase, nouns, adverbs, adjectives). There are two kinds of participles. Present participles end in ing, words such as thinking, eating, reading. Past participles are the third principal part of a verb and have a several possible endings, such as ed, -t, -en. A past participle usually follows the noun it modifies. gerund nouns A gerund + object + modifiers. Gerunds always end in ing. A gerund is the present participle of a verb (the ing form) functioning as a noun. infinitival nouns, adjectives, or adverbs An infinitive + object + modifiers. These words He spoke in the treasury, as He taught in the temple (John 8:20). These words in italics are examples of prepositional phrases. And rising up, He went from there to the region of Judea, and beyond the Jordan (Mark 10:1). The words rising up form a participle phrase and function as an adjective, modifying He. A certain man had a fig tree which had been planted in his vineyard; and he came looking for fruit on it, and did not find any (Luke 13:6). The words looking for fruit on it are a participle phrase functioning as an adverb, modifying came. The following words in italics are examples of gerunds or noun phrases. We shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye (1 Corinthians 15:51). Now to Him who is able to establish you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ (Romans 16:25). There came a woman of Samaria to draw water (John 4:7). The words to draw water form an infinitival phrase. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 38

39 IDENTIFYING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES An early step toward understanding a biblical text, especially one that is theologically complex, is to identify the independent clauses. Consider, for example, this long seventy-five word sentence. But when the kindness of God our Savior and His love for mankind appeared, He saved us, not on the basis of deeds which we have done in righteousness, but according to His mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewing by the Holy Spirit, whom He poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, that being justified by His grace we might be made heirs according to the hope of eternal life (Titus 3:4-7). What is the main thing that Paul is saying here? When first reading this long verse, it may not be clear. The sentence is loaded with clauses and modifiers. All of it has value, but placing so much information in one sentence tends to obscure the main point. The four verses of Titus 3:4-7 contain only one independent: He saved us. He is the subject; saved is the verb; us is the object. Everything else in this long sentence modifies this clause. Recognizing this contributes significantly to a correct interpretation of the text. There are several ways to find the independent clauses of a text. 1. Strip Away Modifiers One approach to finding the independent clause or clauses of a sentence is to strip away all modifiers. When we remove all subordinate clauses and other modifiers, what is left is the independent clause or clauses. For example, Paul writes, When He had disarmed the rulers and authorities, He made a public display of them, having triumphed over them through Him (Colossians 2:15). When He had disarmed the rulers and authorities is a temporal dependent clause. It describes the time when the main action of the sentence took place. Having triumphed over them through Him is a causal dependent clause. It describes the reason for the main assertion of the sentence. That leaves, He made a public display of them to contain the independent clause. This seven words can be reduced further. Three elements modify display. a is an indefinite article, which is an adjective public is an adjective of them is a prepositional phrase Stripping these elements away, we are left with: He made... display. He is the subject of the sole independent clause in this verse. Made is the verb. Display is the direct object of the verb. Once we see this, we can reattach the other elements one-by-one and see how each affects the meaning of the independent clause. 2. Identify the Main Verb or Verbs Another approach to finding the independent clause or clauses is to immediately identify the main verb or verbs of the sentence. They are usually easier to spot than the subject or subjects. Keep in mind that there are two kinds of verbs: action verbs and linking verbs. If the sentence expresses an action, it has an action verb. You can find the action verb of the independent clause by asking: What is the main thing that is happening in this sentence? For example, when we read: In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1), created stands out as the main thing that happens. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 39

40 If the sentence does not express an action but rather tells you what someone or something is or is like, it has a linking verb. It is usually a form of the verb to be (am, are, is, was, were, be, will be, have been, has been, had been, will have been, would be, would have been, have been, had been, being). Two other linking verbs that more or less say the same thing as the verb to be are the verbs to become and to seem. Some verbs can be linking verbs or action verbs, depending on the context, words such as: appear, feel, look, grow, prove, remain, smell, taste, sound. For example, when the Lord says, I feel compassion for the multitude (Matthew 15:32), feel is a linking verb. He is essentially saying, I am compassionate toward the multitude. When Samson says, let me feel the pillars on which the house rests (Judges 16:23), feel is an action verb. It is something Samson wants to do. Once you have found the main verb of the sentence, the subject is the person or thing doing the action of an action verb or the person or thing being linked to some descriptive term by the linking verb. If the sentence has an action verb, look for a direct object. The direct object is the person or thing that receives the action of a transitive verb. The direct object can be a noun, pronoun, or substantival phrase or clause. For example, when Peter writes, Love one another (1 Peter 1:22), you is the implied subject; love is the verb; one another is the direct object. Not all action verbs take an object. Verbs that do not take an object, intransitive verbs, express an action that happens by itself. Intransitive verbs include: agree, arrive, awake, belong, depend, die, exist, fall, go, happen, laugh, lie, live, remain, rise, sit, sleep, stand, and stay. New Testament letters usually begin with a salutation in which the author identifies himself, directs the letter to his intended audience, and greets them. These often contain incomplete sentences, called sentence fragments. Typically, they have no verb, and so have no independent clause. MARKING THE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES IN YOUR TEXT When studying the Scriptures, consider identifying the independent clauses as an aid to interpretation. Three methods for marking the text are explained below. The first is the easiest and requires the least amount of grammatical scrutiny. The second is a bit more difficult and requires more grammatical analysis. The third method is the most precise, but also the most difficult. Choose the one best suited for you. Method #1 Underline Primary Statements Here the goal is to underline prominent statements. Simply read the text and underline the portions that you believe are most essential to its meaning. Look for strong statements and commands. Do not underline modifiers that do not provide essential information. For example, applying this method to Romans 3:21-26 might render the following. But now apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets, even the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe; for there is no distinction; for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus; whom God displayed publicly as a propitiation in His blood through faith. This was to demonstrate His righteousness, because in the forbearance of God He passed over the sins previously committed; for the demonstration, I say, of His righteousness at the present time, that He might be just and the justifier of the one who has faith in Jesus (Romans 3:21-26). This method will result in some dependent clauses being underlined along with the independent ones, but usually this is not a problem. Having looked for the main statements and having underlined them, you will have a better understanding of what the text is saying. This will aid interpretation significantly. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 40

41 Method #2 Underline Independent Clauses Here the goal is to underline only independent clauses. Look for the main verb and then the noun or pronoun most closely related to it. As you do so, keep the following in mind. Usually a sentence will have an independent clause near its start. There may be phrase or clause preceding it, but seldom more than one. Independent clauses are never introduced by subordinating conjunctions, such as: because, although, in order that, and unless. Independent clauses are never introduced by a transitional adverb, sometimes called a conjunctive adverb, words such as: therefore, consequently, however, for example, accordingly, and moreover. Independent clauses may be introduced by sentence adverbs (adverbs that affect the meaning of the whole sentence), words such as: actually, apparently, hopefully, and surprisingly. A second, third, or additional independent clause in a compound sentence may is usually introduced by a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and so. (Yet and so can also function as subordinating conjunctions, so you will have to look at the context to determine whether an independent or dependent clause follows.) Sometimes a sentence will begin with a coordinating conjunction and introduce the initial independent clause. This is common in Scripture, especially with the coordinating conjunctions and, but, and for. Applying this method to Romans 3:21-26 would render the following. But now apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets, even the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who believe; for there is no distinction; for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus; whom God displayed publicly as a propitiation in His blood through faith. This was to demonstrate His righteousness, because in the forbearance of God He passed over the sins previously committed; for the demonstration, I say, of His righteousness at the present time, that He might be just and the justifier of the one who has faith in Jesus (Romans 3:21-26). Method #3 Underline the Independent Clauses and Label the Sentence Primary Elements Here the goal is to not only find the independent clauses but to clearly identify the subject, verb, and object or predicate if it has one. Begin by labeling each of the conjunctions. This will help you to identify the independent clauses, for coordinating conjunctions introduce independent clauses and subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses. Label each conjunction. Label it with a CC if it is a coordinating conjunction. There are only seven: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These can be remembered by the mnemonic FANBOYS. Label the conjunction with a CS if it is a subordinating conjunction. Underline each independent clause. Label the subject of each independent clause with an S. Label each verb with either an AV, if it has an action verb, or an LV if it has a linking verb. If the independent clause has an action verb, label its direct object, if it has one, with DO. Label its indirect object with IO. If the clause has a linking verb, label its predicate as appropriate as either PN for a predicate noun, PPro for a predicate pronoun, PAdj for a predicate adjective, PAdv for a predicate adverb. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 41

42 Applying this method to Romans 3:21-26 would render the following. CC S AV But now apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets, even the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all those who CC S LV PN CC S AV AV believe; for there is no distinction; for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus; whom God displayed S LV publicly as a propitiation in His blood through faith. This was to demonstrate His righteousness, CS because in the forbearance of God He passed over the sins previously committed; for the demonstration, I say, of His righteousness at the present time, that He might be just and the justifier of the one who has faith in Jesus (Romans 3:21-26). Later steps in this book will focus on the role of conjunctions, transitional adverbs, and other sentence elements, providing additional insight on how to recognize and label independent clauses. ASSIGNMENT Working with the scroll of the book you are studying, identify the independent clauses. Use whichever of the three methods you wish. Concentrate on the sections of the text that are theologically most important. When you are finished, scan the book, reading only the underlined portions. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 42

43 Step 10 Identify Antecedents In order to correctly understand the Scriptures, we must have a good knowledge of how nouns and pronouns operate in a sentence. By one count, they function in fourteen different ways. The seven most common are: subject The subject is the word in the sentence that is most closely related to the main verb. It is the person or thing about which something is being said, or who is doing the action, or who is receiving the action of a passive verb. In the verse, Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, greets you (Philemon 1:23), Epaphras is the subject. He is the one doing the action. In the verse, I was appointed a preacher and an apostle... (1 Timothy 2:7), I is the subject, referring to Paul, the person receiving the action of the passive verb. direct object The direct object is the element in the sentence that receives the direct action of the verb. It is the verb s object in the sense that it is its goal or result. In the verse, My peace I give to you (John 14:27), I is the subject; give is the verb. Peace is a direct object. It is the thing being given or acted on. indirect object The indirect object is the person or thing in a sentence that is affected by the action of the verb in a secondary sense, often receiving the action of the verb indirectly through the direct object. In the verse, The king promoted Daniel and gave him many great gifts (Daniel 2:48), him, referring to Daniel, is the indirect object of the verb gave. object of a preposition The object of a preposition is the person, place, or thing that follows the preposition and completes it meaning. In the verse, Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, greets you (Philemon 1:23), Christ Jesus is the object of the preposition in. direct address A noun or pronoun in direct address identifies the person being spoken to. In the verse, Little children, let us not love with word or with tongue, but in deed and truth (1 John 3:18), the noun children is used in direct address, identifying the persons to whom are being spoken. apposition A noun is used in apposition to rename, describe, modify, identify, or give a title to another noun. Usually it immediately follows the noun it describes. In the verse, Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, greets you (Philemon 1:23), the phrase my fellow prisoner is in apposition to Epaphras. It describes him. possessive as an adjective A noun or pronoun in the possessive case can modify another noun, showing ownership. In the verse, The things which I write to you are the Lord s commandments (1 Corinthians 14:37), the word Lord s is a proper noun in the possessive case. It modifies commandments, acting like an adjective. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 43

44 NOUNS Nouns have four properties: gender, number, case, and type. 1. Gender In English there are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. English uses natural gender. It assigns males, human and animal, the masculine gender; females, human and animal, the feminine gender, along with a few objects such as ships; and all other objects the neuter gender. Some English nouns have male and female forms: duke/ duchess; waiter, waitress; widower/widow, but such distinctions are gradually falling into disuse. 2. Number Number tells us whether the noun refers to one thing or to more than one thing. In English, every noun is either singular or plural. This is usually indicated by adding s or es to the word, or by a change in the word, for example, the plural of ox is oxen, of mouse is mice. 3. Case Case is the property of a word that expresses its grammatical relationship to the words around it. English has three cases. Nominative Case The nominative case is the case of the subject. In the verse, God is love (1 John 4:8), God is the subject. It is in the nominative case. The verb is is. It is a linking verb that couples the subject, God, to the noun love. The word love completes the meaning of the verb. For this reason it is called the subjective compliment. It is also referred to as the predicate noun or the predicate nominative. Linked to the subject, it also is placed in the nominative case. Objective Case The objective case is the case of the objects in the sentence (direct objects, indirect object, objects of prepositions). In the verse, He stretched out His hand and touched him (Matthew 8:3), the direct objects are hand and him. They are in the objective case. The subject of an infinitive is also placed in the objective case. In the verse, They held Him to be a prophet (Matthew 21:46), Him is the object of to be. It is in the objective case. Possessive Case The possessive case communicates ownership, an attribute, or a characteristic. In the verse, When Jesus had come to Peter s home, He saw his mother-in-law lying sick in bed with a fever (Matthew 8:14), Peter s is in the possessive case and describes the home as belonging to Peter. In the verse, And according to Paul s custom, he went to them, and for three Sabbaths reasoned with them from the Scriptures (Acts 17:2), Paul s is also in the possessive case, but here ownership is not implied. The custom didn t belong to Paul, but rather was characteristic of him. Paul was accustomed to beginning his ministry in a new location by teaching in the local synagogue. In Old English or Anglo-Saxon ( ad), nouns, adjectives, and the definite article were fully inflected for gender, case, and number. This diminished in Middle English ( ). Only remnants of the inflected forms remain in Modern English (1400-present). Today, nouns in the nominative and objective cases are the same. Nouns in the possessive case end in an apostrophe and an s. Case differences have been retained in many types of pronouns, such as personal pronouns (I, me, my, mine) and reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself). 4. Type There are two classes of nouns. A common noun refers to every member of a class, for example: religion, city, man. A proper noun refers to a particular member of a class: Judaism, Jerusalem, Moses. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 44

45 PRONOUNS Pronouns serve in place of nouns and function like them. The noun which the pronoun is serving in place of is referred to as the pronoun s antecedent. For example, Matthew writes, Now when Jesus heard this, He marveled, and said to those who were following, Truly I say to you, I have not found such great faith with anyone in Israel (Matthew 8:10). The pronoun He replaces the proper noun Jesus. This makes Jesus the antecedent of He. Like nouns, pronouns have gender, number, and case. They also possess the quality of person, which indicates the person to whom the pronoun refers. Pronouns are in one of three persons: first, second, and third. Person Person Purpose Examples first person used to refer to the speaker I, me, we, us second person used to refer to the person or thing being spoken to you third person used to refer to the person or thing being spoken he, she, it, they, them about English personal pronouns are inflected according to gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), number (singular, plural), and case (nominative, objective, possessive). The table below lists all personal pronouns. Some older forms found in the King James Bible are included in italics. The right-hand column in this table is a list of possessive adjectives. They are listed here because they have pronoun-like qualities and are similar to the possessive forms of personal pronouns. Possessive adjectives have gender, number, and case (always possessive). They always precede the noun they modify. Like pronouns, they have an antecedent. number person gender Personal Pronouns Possessive Adjectives nominative objective possessive possessive 1st male/female I me mine my 2nd male/female you, thou you, thee yours, thine your, thy singular 3rd male he him his his plural female she her hers her neuter it it its its 1st male/female we us ours our 2nd male/female you, ye you, ye yours your 3rd male/female/ neuter they them theirs their Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 45

46 TYPES OF PRONOUNS Any word that serves in place of a noun and functions like a noun is considered to be a pronoun. The table below lists nine kinds of pronouns. Nine Types of Pronouns Type Use Examples Personal Demonstrative Indefinite Intensive Reflexive Interrogative Relative Reciprocal Quantifier used to take the place of nouns in the sentence as the subject, object, indirect object, subject complement, object of a preposition. used to identify specific persons or things and serve as the subject used to refer to unspecified persons or things used to emphasize the antecedent used to indicate that the subject acts upon itself used to introduce questions used to introduce dependent clauses used to express a reciprocal action or relationship used to express quantify I, me, you, he, him, she, it, we, us, you, they, them, mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs this, that, these, those all, another, someone, somebody, something, most, each, one, any, anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, few, many, all, several, nobody, none, no one, neither, nothing myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves who, what, whose, whom, which, whoever, whatever, whichever who, whose, whom, which, whose, that, whoever, whomever, whichever, whosever, one another, each other all, both, some, much, any, something, much, many, little, half, three, etc. IDENTIFYING ANTECEDENTS When encountering pronouns and possessive adjectives in Scripture, we should always pause and identify the antecedent. This is especially important when the pronouns in a passage refer to more than one person of the Trinity. Usually the antecedents of the pronouns in a passage are evident. For example, consider the passage below from Exodus. It refers to Moses infancy. Though the text contains twenty-seven pronouns, placed here in italics, and five possessive adjectives, here underlined, the antecedent of each is apparent. Then the daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe at the Nile, with her maidens walking alongside the Nile; and she saw the basket among the reeds and sent her maid, and she brought it to her. When she opened it, she saw the child, and behold, the boy was crying. And she had pity on him and said, "This is one of the Hebrews' children." Then his sister said to Pharaoh's daughter, "Shall I go and call a nurse for you from the Hebrew women, that she may nurse the child for you?" And Pharaoh's Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 46

47 daughter said to her, "Go ahead." So the girl went and called the child's mother. Then Pharaoh's daughter said to her, "Take this child away and nurse him for me and I shall give you your wages." So the woman took the child and nursed him. And the child grew, and she brought him to Pharaoh's daughter, and he became her son. And she named him Moses, and said, "Because I drew him out of the water (Exodus 2:5-10). In more theologically complex passages, the antecedents of pronouns and possessive adjectives sometimes require a second look to determine. Consider the following three verses. Can you identify the antecedents of its fifteen pronouns (italicized) and three possessive adjectives (underlined)? And when you were dead in your transgressions and the uncircumcision of your flesh, He made you alive together with Him, having forgiven us all our transgressions, having canceled out the certificate of debt consisting of decrees against us and which was hostile to us; and He has taken it out of the way, having nailed it to the cross. When He had disarmed the rulers and authorities, He made a public display of them, having triumphed over them through Him (Colossians 2:13-15). Identifying the antecedents in this passage requires a knowledge of the greater context, though some can be determined by a process of elimination. Annotating the text with the antecedents of each pronoun and possessive adjective yields the following. (Here ColC refers to the Colossian Christians; F to God the Father, PColC to Paul and the Colossian Christians, CD the certificate of debt, RA the rulers and authorities, and S to God the Son.) ColC ColC ColC F ColC And when you were dead in your transgressions and the uncircumcision of your flesh, He made you F PColC PColC alive together with Him, having forgiven us all our transgressions, having canceled out the certificate PColC PColC F CD of debt consisting of decrees against us and which was hostile to us; and He has taken it out of the CD F F way, having nailed it to the cross. When He had disarmed the rulers and authorities, He made a public RA RA S display of them, having triumphed over them through Him (Colossians 2:13-15). Assignment Working with the scroll of the book you are studying, identify the antecedents of the pronouns and possessive adjectives, placing the name of the antecedent over each. To simplify the process, use initials of persons already identified. For example, you might use F for God the Father, S for God the Son, HS for God the Holy Spirit, P for Paul, and PT for Paul and Timothy. Concentrate on important teaching sections. The antecedents of pronouns and possessive adjectives in other sections are usually apparent and need not be labeled. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 47

48 Step 11 Evaluate Adjectives and Adverbs ADJECTIVES Adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and other substantives (a word or group of words that functions as a noun). One word adjectives are the simplest kind of modifier. They fit into one of three categories. Descriptive adjectives modify a noun by stating one of its characteristics or qualities, such as: divine power (2 Peter 1:3); eternal kingdom (2 Peter 1:11); or holy mountain (2 Peter 1:18). Definitive adjectives modify the noun by specifying which one. These include possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their), demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those); indefinite adjectives (any, some, which, what, many); the definite article (the); and the indefinite article (a, an). Numerical adjectives modify the noun by specifying how many, words such as one, two, three, first, second, third, etc. English is a highly flexible language and allows one part of speech to sometimes morph into another. Nouns occasionally function as adjectives, for example: until the day dawns and the morning star arises (2 Peter 1:19). Here morning, a noun, functions as an adjective. Verbs, adverbs, and infinitival phrases can also sometimes function as adjectival modifiers. Adjectives can take the form of phrases, called adjectival phrases. Again, they are two kinds. Prepositional Phrases These are composed of a preposition, its object, and the object s modifiers. They are among the most common modifiers in Scripture, for example: a bond-servant and apostle of Jesus Christ (2 Peter 1:1); the entrance into the eternal kingdom (2 Peter 1:11); and any time after my departure (2 Peter 1:15). Prepositional phrases will be studied later. Participial Phrases These are composed of a participle and its associated nouns, pronouns, and modifiers. There are many participial phrases in Scripture, especially in the New Testament. These often function as adjectives. Most participle phrases are introduced by a present participle (active voice), which can be identified by a verb stem with ing added to the end. Present participial phrases serving as adjectival modifiers in Second Peter include: a lamp shining in a dark place (2 Peter 1:19); these... reviling where they have no knowledge (2 Peter 2:12); and you... knowing this beforehand (2 Peter 3:17). Less common are past participles, which usually end in ed, for example: pits of darkness, reserved for judgment (2 Peter 2:4); who opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god (2 Thessalonians 2:4). ADJECTIVAL RELATIVE CLAUSES A dependent clause can function as an adjective, modifying a noun, pronoun, or substantive. They are usually introduced by a relative pronoun. For example: He who lacks these qualities is blind or short-sighted, having forgotten Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 48

49 his purification from his former sins (2 Peter 1:9). The words in italics are a relative clause and function as an adjective modifying he. Relative Pronouns Relative Adverbs Subjective Case Possessive Case Objective Case who whose whom when that of that that where which whose, of which which, whom why what of what what Most relative pronouns and adverbs have compounded forms. These are formed by adding ever and soever to the pronouns above. For example: who becomes whoever or whosoever; when becomes whenever. To understand how relative pronouns and relative adverbs serve as functional connectives in a sentence, consider the following examples. 1. Salvation to our God who sits on the throne, and to the Lamb (Revelation 7:10). In this verse, who sits on the throne is a subordinate clause. It is connected or related by the word who to the main clause: Salvation [be] to our God. As a pronoun, who refers back to God, which is its antecedent. Who also serves as the subject of its own clause, which is called a relative clause. Since who both functions in its clause as the subject and connects its clause to the main clause, who is called a functional connective. Who sits on the throne is an adjectival clause modifying God. 2. But for the cowardly and unbelieving and abominable and murderers and immoral persons and sorcerers and idolaters and all liars, their part will be in the lake that burns with fire and brimstone, which is the second death (Revelation 21:8). This verse has two relative clauses. The first is that burns with fire and brimstone. This is an adjectival clause. It describes the lake, which is the antecedent of that. That connects this clause to the rest of the sentence and also functions as the subject of its clause. Hence, that is a functional connective. The second relative clause is which is the second death. It also describes the lake, which is its antecedent. Which is the subject of its clause. Both that and which are functional connectives for they act like conjunctions, connecting one clause to another, and they have a grammatical function in their own clause. 3. And the woman whom you saw is the great city, which reigns over the kings of the earth (Revelation 17:18). This verse also has two relative clauses. The first, whom you saw, is an adjectival clause describing the woman, the antecedent of whom. Whom is the object of its clause. The second relative clause in this verse is which reigns over the kings of the earth. It modifies city, which is its antecedent. Which is the subject of its clause. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 49

50 4. Now Abraham arose early in the morning and went to the place where he had stood before the Lord (Genesis 19:27). Here the relative adverb where introduces the clause where he had stood before the Lord. This clause modifies place. 5. And when the woman saw that she had not escaped notice, she came trembling and fell down before Him, and declared in the presence of all the people the reason why she had touched Him, and how she had been immediately healed (Luke 8:47). Here the relative adverb why introduces the relative clause why she had touched Him. This clause modifies reason. ADVERBS The second kind of modifier is the adverb. They modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective (kind becoming kindly), present participle (loving becoming lovingly), or past participle (assured becoming assuredly). Adjectives ending in able or ible replace the final e with y (impossible becoming impossibly). Adjectives ending in y become an adverb by replacing the y with ily (happy becoming happily). Adjectives ending in ic change it to ically (tragic becoming tragically). For other words, the adjectival and adverbial forms of the word are the same, for example: close, hard, fair, far, fast, daily, wrong. Some adverbs have no relationship to an adjective: here, there, now, still, never, yet. Some adverbs have two forms: fair/fairly; free/freely; near/nearly; quick/quickly. Adverbs can occur almost anywhere in a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. Adverbial clauses can modify a word or an entire phrase or clause. One word adverbs are frequent in Scripture, for example:... in this way the entrance into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ will be abundantly supplied to you (2 Peter 1:11). Here the adverb abundantly modifies the verb, will be supplied, describing the manner in which the Christian s entrance into the eternal kingdom will be supplied. Peter writes, I shall always be ready to remind you of these things (2 Peter 1:12). Here the adverb always answers the question, When? It describes the time when Peter will be ready. Adverbs can be grouped into six categories based on the relationship they express: degree, frequency, manner, place, time, and interrogation. Refer to the table on the next page for definitions and examples. In addition to one-word adverbs, there are adverbial phrases and clauses. Prepositional phrases usually function as adverbial modifiers. For example, there are three adverbial prepositional phrases in the following verse:... for no prophecy was ever made by an act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God. The phrase by an act of human will modifies the verb was made, describing how no prophecy was made. The phrase by the Holy Spirit modifies the verb moved, describing how men were moved to prophesy. The phrase from God modifies the verb spoke, describing the place or source from which the prophets spoke. Infinitival phrases can also function as adverbial modifiers. These are composed of an infinitive and its complements and modifiers, if it has any. In the following verses, the infinitive phrases in italics are adverbial modifiers of the main verbs: Therefore, brethren, be all the more diligent to make certain about His calling and choosing you (2 Peter 1:10). Therefore, I shall always be ready to remind you of these things (2 Peter 1:12). And I will also be diligent that at any time after my departure you may be able to call these things to mind (2 Peter 1:15). Subordinate clauses often modify the main verb and so function as adverbial clauses. The clause is connected to the verb by a subordinating conjunction For when He received honor and glory from God the Father, such an utterance as this was made to Him by the Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 50

51 Majestic Glory, This is My beloved Son with whom I am well-pleased (2 Peter 1:17). Here the portion in italics is a temporal adverbial clause introduced by the conjunction when. The clause modifies the main verb, was made. For if after they have escaped the defilements of the world by the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and are overcome, the last state has become worse for them than the first (2 Peter 2:20). Here the portion in italics is a temporal adverbial phrase modifying the verb, are entangled. SIX RELATIONSHIPS WHICH ADVERBS EXPRESS Relationship Expressed Answers the Question Biblical Examples Adverbs Degree To what Extent? How much? Surely You are not greater than our father Abraham, who died? (John 8:53). The night is almost gone, and the day is at hand (Romans 13:12). Quite right, they were broken off for their unbelief (Romans 11:20). For one will hardly die for a righteous man (Romans 5:7). very, too, almost, less, quite, barely, nearly, just, hardly, completely, extremely, enough, totally, entirely, rather, really, absolutely, somewhat, definitely, surely, certainly, probably, perhaps, undoubtedly Frequency How often? And lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age (Matthew 28:20). I constantly remember you in my prayers night and day (2 Timothy 1:3). always, never, usually, frequently, rarely, normally, constantly, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, often, regularly Manner How is it done? In what way? Herod secretly called the magi (Matthew 2:7). The scribes and the Pharisees began to be very hostile and to question Him closely on many subjects (Luke 11:53). Yes, I am coming quickly (Revelation 22:20). not, well, abundantly, carefully, thus, so, quickly, suddenly, better, poorly, slowly, hard, fast, also, honestly, clearly, personally, seriously, obviously, simply, definitely Place Where? What is the location or direction? He is not here, but He has risen (Luke 24:6). For where two or three have gathered together in My name, there I am in their midst (Matthew 18:20). here, there, somewhere, nearby, outside, everywhere, forward, backward Time When? Her spirit returned, and she rose immediately (Luke 8:55). I will never desert you, nor will I ever forsake you (Hebrews 13:5). He always lives to make intercession for them (Hebrews 7:25). then, now, still, soon, when, whenever, early, yesterday, today, tomorrow, later, lately, late, recently Interrogative Asks the Question Why? Where? How? When? Where are You staying? (John 1:38). How long shall I be with you? (Matthew 17:17). Why do you call Me, Lord, Lord, and do not do what I say? (Luke 6:46). Why? Where? How? When? Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 51

52 ANALYZING THE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS OF SCRIPTURE Though we may sense that we understand a verse the first time we read it, careful observation usually uncovers valuable additional information. Identifying the modifiers in a verse and categorizing and labeling each can turn vague impressions into precise relationships and significantly enhance understanding. Initially the process is slow and exacting, but with practice it becomes easier. When analyzing Scripture, ask three basic questions. 1. What are the verse s modifiers? One-word adjectives are the easiest to spot. If you are not sure about a word s part of speech, you should look it up in a dictionary. As we have seen, many words have multiple meanings and some can function as two or more parts of speech. The word well, for example, has about thirty meanings and can function as a noun, adjective, adverb, verb, or interjection. The word so also has about thirty meanings and can function as an adjective, adverb, conjunction, pronoun, or interjection. The context of the sentence determines which use is intended. Fortunately, most words are not so complex. There are four kinds of phrases: prepositional, participial, infinitival, and gerunds. With few exceptions, all prepositional and participial phrases are modifiers. Some function as adjectives, others as adverbs. Gerunds are noun phrases and are substantives, not modifiers. Infinitival phrases (a verb in the infinitive plus its object and modifiers) sometimes function as modifiers. Of the two kinds of clauses, dependent and independent, dependent clauses are modifiers; independent clauses are not. When trying to identify the modifiers in a verse, it is sometimes helpful to eliminate elements that are not modifiers. The subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, and complements (elements that complete the meaning of the verb) are not modifiers. Only rarely is a noun a modifier. Interjections are not modifiers. 2. What does each modifier modify? The next step is to identify the relationships between the modifiers and the elements that they are modifying. Word order can provide some help. One-word adjectives usually immediately precede the noun they modify. Adjectival phrases and clauses usually follow the word they modify. Once you have identified the element being modified, draw an arrow from the modifier to the element being modified to make the relationship clear. 3. What kind of modifiers are they? There are two kinds of modifiers. They are either adjectival (functioning as an adjective and modifying a noun, pronoun, or other substantive) or adverbial (functioning as an adverb and modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb). This means that before you can identify the modifier you will need to identify the element being modified. What part of speech is it? That will tell you what kind of modifier you have. Summary Given the large number of modifiers in a complex sentence, it is sometimes best to deal with the adjectival and adverbial modifiers separately. Begin by identifying all the adjectival modifiers and the elements they are modifying. Then do the same for the adverbial modifiers. Finally, take a few moments and reflect on how each modifier contributes to your understanding of the element being modified. Record your insights. Do not become discouraged if you cannot categorize every element of a complex sentence. With time and practice, you will understand more. In the meantime, reap the benefits of analyzing the portions that you do understand. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 52

53 Example 2 Peter 2:1-3 Step One Identify the adjectival modifiers in the text: words, phrases, and clauses. In the text below, these have been underlined. Step 2 Draw an arrow from each adjectival modifier to the noun or pronoun it modifies. Step 3 List each adjectival modifier and the noun or pronoun being modified in a table. Consider how each contributes to the meaning of the verse, writing down your insights. adjectival modifier noun or pronoun being modified insights false prophets the text is about false prophets, not true prophets, who arose among the people the people the people is unclear, probably a reference to the Jewish people false teachers false teachers will be among you, a reference to the church destructive heresies their heresies are destructive, not innocuous the Master the Master, a reference to Christ, the Christian s only Master who bought them Master a beautiful description of Christ in relation to the believer and explanatory of why He is the Master swift destruction God s judgment on false teachers will be swift, not prolonged their sensuality these false teachers will be marked by personal sensuality Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 53

54 the way the way would refer to the gospel in the broadest sense of the truth way of the truth identifies the way as the genuine and correct path to follow their greed their greed tells us that these false teachers will also be marked by personal greed false words these false teachers will speak false words, thus leading people way from the way of the truth their judgment their judgment tells us that God has something specific in store for these false teachers from long ago judgment God has determined their judgment from an earlier time long ago God has determined their judgment from long ago, possibly from all eternity idle judgment though it may seem like God is not doing anything to stop these false teachers, their judgment is not idle, God is at work their destruction their personal destruction is in process asleep destruction their destruction is not asleep, as if God will not bring about their destruction Step 4 After analyzing the adjectives in a sentence, identify the adverbial modifiers. These are underlined in the text of 2 Peter 2:1-3 below. Step 5 Draw arrows from each adverbial modifier to the element it modifies. Steps to Bible Knowledge 2012 James G. McCarthy 54