MODERN INDIA TARGET PT 2018 IAS BEE

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1 MODERN INDIA TARGET PT 2018 IAS BEE

2 S.no. Topic Page No. 1 INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST- Decay Of The Mughal Empire, Regional States, Social & Economic Conditions In 17th And 18th Centuries EUROPEAN PENETRATION AND THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF INDIA- The English East India Company, Establishment Of Power In Bengal EARLY GOVERNOR GENERALS-From Warren Hasting To Lord Dalhousie THE REVOLT OF Queen s Proclamation to Indian Council Act SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS Various Social Reform Legislations and various reform Movement 6 RISE OF MODERN NATIONALISM GROWTH OF NEW INDIA- Rise of congress, Safety Valve, Role of Press in India FREEDOM STRUGGLE- Moderate Phase, Extremist Phase, Revolutionary activities INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING FIRST WORLD WAR Gadar Movement,Komagatamaru incident, Home Rule Movement, Lucknow Congress Etc. 9 INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR August Offer,Individual Satyagraha,Cripps Mission,Quit India Movement,3 rd June Plan etc IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

3 1. INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST DECAY OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE At the time of Aurangzeb s death in 1707 the Mughal administration was still quite efficient, and its army was stronger than other regional powers. The three sons of Aurangzeb fought amongst themselves and Bahadur Shah emerged victorious. Bahadur Shah I ( ) Muzam succeeded Aurangzeb after latter s death in 1707.He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah. He adopted tolerant attitude towards the Hindu chiefs and rajas. He made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief. The Maratha prince, Shahu, who had been in Mughal captivity, since 1689, was released. He granted sardeshmukhi (10% tax paid to the king) to Marathas but not Chauth (1/4 th of gross revenue is taxed from hostile state; served as protection money against Maratha invasion). Bahadur Shah was forced to take action against the Sikhs under new leader Banda who had become a terror for the Muslims in the Punjab. Banda was defeated, and the Mughal forces reoccupied Sirhind in He died in 1712, when he was overseeing the repair works at Shalimar Gardens at Lahore. Jahandar Shah ( ) With the help of Zulfikar Khan, a prominent leader of the Irani party, Jahandar Shah rose to power after his father s death. Zulfikar Khan was made his prime minister. He was virtually the head of administration. He abolished Jizyah. 2 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

4 Ijarah (revenue farming) was introduced in which the government began to contract with revenue farmers who must pay a fixed amount to administration and can collect whatever they could from peasants. Farrukhsiyar ( ) With the help of the Sayyid brothers (Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali) defeated and killed Jahandar Shah.Sayyid brothers effectively were king makers. He appointed Abdulla Khan as his Wazir (Prime Minister) and Hussain Ali as the Mir Bakshi (Finance Minister). Sayyid brothers were the real rulers. Sayyid brothers abolished Jizyah, pilgrim tax from a number of places. This is an example of their policy of religious tolerance. Farrukhsiyar s reign saw a victory for the Mughal arms over the Sikhs whose leader Banda Bahadur was taken prisoner at Gurdaspur and later executed at Delhi. East India Company was given many trading privileges including exemption from custom duties for its trade through Bengal. They granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect Chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan. In 1719 after a prolonged struggle for power Sayyid brothers were successful in deposing and killing Farrukhsiyar. Sayyid brothers placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India. Nobles headed by Nizam ul Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them. Sayyid brothers were viewed as namak haram (not true to ones s salt) as they killed Farrukhsiyar. Anti Sayyid brother alliance was successful in bringing them down. Muhammad Shah Rangeela ( ) He was weak minded, frivolous and over fond of a life of ease and luxury. He neglected the affairs of his state. Muhammad Shah also known as Rangila or Rangile because of his lose morals and pleasure loving ruler. Rustam Ali, the author of Tarikh-i-Hind says that Mahummad Shah was negligent of his duties, but the fact is that he did not know if he had any duties to perform. During the reign of Muhammad Shah, Nizamul-Mulk set up an autonomous state in the Deccan and Saadat Khan carved out a state for himself in Oudh while Murshid Kuli Khan became virtually independent in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Marathas under Baji Rao I began their northern expansion and overran Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand. In 1739 Nadir Shah invaded India and left the Mughal empire bleeding. He was attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt. He didn t meet any resistance as the defense of the north west frontier had been neglected for years. A terrible massacre of Delhi citizens was ordered by Nadir Shah for killing some of his soldiers. He also carried away the famous Kohinoor and the Peacock throne of Shahjahan. Nadir Shah s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies. Shah Alam II ( ) The next Mughal emperors Ahmad Shah ( ) and Alamgir II ( ) were too 3 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

5 weak to check the rot that had set in. The Punjab was lost to the Afghans, while the Marathas snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand and carried on their raids in all parts of India. Ahmad Shah Abdali occupied the throne of Afghanistan in 1747 after the assassination of Nadir Shah. He invaded India eight times and won a tremendous victory over the Marathas in the Third Battle of Pan pat in Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for his life under the fear of his Wazir. In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Passim of Bengal and Shuja ud Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India Company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar. The British occupied Delhi in 1803 and from that year till 1857, when the Mughal dynasty was finally extinguished. Causes for Mughal s fall There were many reasons for the fall of Mughals, like I. Aurangzeb s expansionist policies created many fissures and his weak successors led to decline of Mughal Empire. II. Battles with Marathas drained Mughals of their wealth. III. Rajputs also became more assertive in the meanwhile, unlike Akbar s conciliatory stance (marriages etc), later Mughals tried to contain Rajputs and this led to lash back. IV. Nerve center of Mughals Delhi also saw multiple uprisings from Jats, Satnamis, and Sikhs etc. V. Revenue policies started to take toll on peasantry VI. Number of Mansabdars had increased to 3 times than that of Akbar. Not many of them were as honest. VII. Military machinery was also outdated and naval power was never given any attention. VIII. Poor thrust on science made Mughal Empire backward in outlook. IX. Religious intolerance of Aurangzeb and later Mughals caused anger among other communities. X. Corruption was rampant; wars for succession, decline in arts, trade and commerce, decline in loyalty of nobles, foreign invasions (Nadir Shah, Abdali etc) were other factors which proved fatal for Mughal Empire. REGIONAL STATES With the gradual weakening and decline of the Mughal Empire, regional forces began to assert themselves. Autonomy asserting Governors, ambitious Subahdars, powerful regional chiefs began to carve out semi-independent or independent powers such as Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Mysore and the Maratha kingdom. The rulers of these states established law and order and viable economic and administrative states. The politics of these states were invariably non-communal or secular, the motivations of their rulers being similar in economic and political terms. These rulers did not discriminate on religious grounds in public appointments, civil or military. None of these states succeeded in arresting the economic crisis. The numbers of Zamindars and Jagirdars increased and fought amongst them over the declining agriculture income. Although these states tried to promote both internal and foreign trade, they did nothing to improve industrial and commercial structure of their states. Hyderabad and the Carnatic The founder of the Asaf Jahi house of Hyderabad was Kilich Khan, popularly known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. He got the viceroyalty of Deccan for helping in the overthrowing of Sayyid brothers. For some time, he was the Wazir of the Empire. But, he soon got frustrated with the Emperor Muhammad Shah preventing him from undertaking reforms. He moved to Deccan and laid foundations for Hyderabad state. He never openly declared his independence from the Mughal government but in practice acted like an independent ruler. He waged wars, concluded peace treaties, conferred titles without referring to Delhi. Carnatic was under the control of Nizam of Hyderabad. Just like Nizam had become independent from Delhi, Deputy Govenor of the Carnatic, known as Nawab, freed himself from the control of Deccan. Later, after 1940, the affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated because of the repeated struggles for its Nawabship and provided an opportunity for the European trading companies to interfere in Indian politics. Bengal Murshid Kuli Khan was the founder of the independent state of Bengal. 4 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

6 He carried out fresh revenue settlement where he introduced the system of revenue farming, which increased farming distress. After Murshid Kuli khan, Shuja-ud-din, Alivardi Khan followed to rule Bengal. Safety of roads and rivers, setting up of Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals, control over foreign trading companies etc were some of the things undertaken in Bengal. They did build a strong army. When East India Company declared war on Siraj-Ud-Daulah, successor of Alivardi, the absence of a strong army contributed much to the victory of the foreigner. This war is known as the Battle of Plassey (1756) which laid foundation for the colonial empire. Bengal Nawabs failed to check the growing corruption among their officials. Even their judicial officers, the qazis and muftis were taking bribes. Foreign companies took full advantage of this weakness. Awadh Saadat Khan, popularly known as Burhan-Ul-Mulk was the founder of state of Awadh. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai. Saadat Khan played a crucial role in imperial affairs during the crisis of Nadir Shah s invasion and committed suicide to save his name and honors. He was succeeded by Safdar Jung who also was appointed as Wazir of the Empire in He made an alliance with Maratha Sardars. He undertook wars against Rohillas and Bangash Pathans. Safdar Jang s successor in the governorship of Awadh was his son Shuja-ud-daula. When the hostility of the Turani wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, drove Ali Gauhar (Shah Alam), the heir-apparent of the puppet emperor Alamgir II, to seek safety outside Delhi, he was received at Lucknow by Shuja-ud-daula. In the conflict between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Marathas, which culminated in the third battle of Panipat (1761) Shuja-ud-daula was an ally of the Afgan invader. Mysore This territory located at the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats was ruled by the Wodeyars. Two brothers Deva Raja (Dalwai or commander-in-cheif) and Nana Raja (sarvadikari or controller of revenue and finance) usurped power in the Mysore state. The French and the British got involved in the struggle known as the Second Karnatak war brought about on account of Nana Raja s alliance with the British to west Tiruchurapalli (Tamilnadu). But later on Nana Raja switched his alliance from the British to the French. Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanaraja and established his own authority over Mysore. He established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts. He conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar. He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean. Haider Ali allied with the French and the Nizam and gave a crushing defeat to the British in the First Anglo-Mysore War ( ). Haider captured Arcot and inflicted a very humiliating defeat on the British in But while the war was in progress Haider Ali in 1782 and left the task of continuing the second Anglo-Mysore war against the British to his son Tipu Sultan. This war was concluded by treaty of Mangalore. In the Third Anglo-Mysore war ( ) British with the support of Marathas marched against Mysore. Tipu lost the battle and Treaty of Sri Rangapattanam was signed. In the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) Tipu's army were outnumbered by 4:1 against Tipu. He died at Sri Rangapattanam. 5 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

7 Anglo Mysore Wars Tipu Sultan He introduced a new calendar (a new Mauludi lunisolar calendar), a new system of coinage, a new land revenue system, which initiated the growth of the Mysore silk industry and new scales of weights and measures. He sent an expert to Bengal Subah to study silk cultivation and processing, after which Mysore began developing poly voltine silk. He made Persian the official language throughout his kingdom. He showed seen interest in French Revolution. He also planted a tree of liberty at Sri Rangapattanam and became a member of the Jacobin Club. A scholarly assessment of his religious policy is that it was secular, tolerant to most religious groups, and with regular endowments made to Hindus and Hindu institutions, including lavish gifts to temples such as Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam. He made efforts to build a modern navy. The Mysorean rockets used by Tipu Sultan during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than any of the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant. He sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran, Burma, Egypt etc to develop foreign trade. Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan 6 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

8 Rajputana Rajputs tried to re-establish their independence in the 18 th century. This forced Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah. This forced Bahadur Shah I to march against Ajith Singh. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era. He founded the city of Jaipur. Hemade Jaipur a great seat of science and art. He was an expert in astronomy, geometry, trigonometry and Sanskrit. He was given title of Sawai by the Mughal Emperor, Farrukhsiyar in the year 1699, who had summoned him to Delhi, impressed by his wit. "Sawai" means one and a quarter time s superior to his contemporaries. He erected astronomical observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Delhi, Varanasi, and Mathura. Based on his observations, he published an accurate astronomical table called Zij-i- Muhammad Shahi. He had Euclid s Elements of Geometry translated into Sanskrit. Jai Singh also translated works by people like John Napier. Being initiated in the Nimbarka Sampradaya of the Vaishnava religion, he also promoted Sanskrit learning and initiated reforms in Hindu society like the abolition of Sati and curbing the wasteful expenditures in Rajput weddings. It was at Jai Singh s insistence that the hated jaziya tax was finally abolished by the Emperor Muhammad Shah in In 1728 Jai Singh prevailed on him to also withdraw the pilgrimage tax on Hindus at Gaya. Rajputs at one stage controlled the entire territory extending from some 600 miles south of Delhi to Surat on the Western Cost. However, the internal dissensions prevented the Rajputs from consolidating their position and made them a prey to Maratha intervention. Sikhs Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a militant sect in defense of their religion and culture. He created Khalsa for this purpose. Sikh leader Banda Bahadur began the Sikh war of independence against the Mughal imperial authority. But, he was tortured to death by Mughals. They organized themselves into 12 Misls (military brotherhoods with democratic set-up) which exercised control over different parts of the kingdom. Ranjith Singh Mahan Singh, the father of Ranjith Singh was the leader of the Sukarchakiya misl and controlled the territory between the Ravi and the Chenab. After the death of his father Mahan Singh, Ranjith Singh succeeded at the age of 12 and under him the Sikh power reached its zenith. 7 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

9 Ranjith Singh captured Lahore and Amritsar from the Sardars of the Bhangi misl and made Lahore his political capital. He established his authority over the entire territory from the Sutlej to the Jhelum. In 1809, Ranjith Singh by the treaty of Amritsar accepted the East India Company s greater right over the Cis-Sutlej territories. The British forced Ranjith Singh to sign the tripartite treaty (1838) with Shah Shuja (grandson of Ahmad Shah Abdali) and the English company which gave freedom to British troops to pass through the Punjab so that Shah Shuja can be placed on throne of Kabul. Ranjith Singh dies in 1839 and succeeded by Dalip Singh. During his reign, the British invaded the Punjab (The First Anglo-Sikh War, ), occupied Lahore and dictated a peace treaty (known as the treaty of Lahore) by which the Sikhs renounced all their claims to the territories lying to the south of the river Sutlej. Second Anglo Sikh war ( ), after which the Punjab was annexed to the East India Company under Lord Dalhousie. Rise and fall of the Marathas Marathas have been engaged in hostility with Mughals ever since the times of Shivaji who for the first time give real challenge to Mughal dominance. Shivaji adopted guerilla warfare techniques. Shivaji s grandson (Shahu) was imprisoned by Aurangzeb and was released after his death. However, he couldn t regain his hereditary prestige and influence and internal rivalry saw emergence of second phase of Marathan dominance under Peshwas. Maratha administrative structure comprised of the core kingdom and the extended zones limiting the administrative units of confederacies. These extended zones were under the Sardars (chiefs) who maintained their armies and waged wars of their own. Balaji Vishwanath ( ) He was the first Peshwa. Marathas under Peshwas expanded and made inroads into erstwhile Mughal Empire. He induced Zulfiqar Khan to grant the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan. He assigned Maratha Sardars separate areas for collection of Chauth and sardeshmukhi and a large part of it was kept by the Sardars which in the long run became a major source of weakness. Baji Rao I ( ) He succeeded Balaji Vishwanath. The famous saying Attock to Cuttack, refers to the Maratha Kingdom as visualized by Baji Rao-I, who wanted to plant the Saffron Flag on the walls of Attock. Baji Rao-I fought 41 battles and lost none. Peshwa Family Tree 8 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

10 In his time Marathas had control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand. All his life he worked to contain Nizam-Ul-Mulk power in Deccan. Twice they met on field and both times Baji Rao I held upper hand. He was able to secure Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces. He is credited to have created the later Kingdoms of Scindias (Ranoji Shinde) of Gwalior, Holkars (Malharrao) of Indore, Gaekwads (Pilaji) of Baroda, Bhonsle of Nagpur, and Pawars (Udaiji) of Dhar as part of the Maratha Empire. In 20 years period he was able to transform Maratha state into Maratha Empire. He, however, failed to lay firm foundations for an empire as little attention was given to administration and more on collection of revenues by Sardars (chiefs). Balaji Baji Rao ( ) Baji Rao I died of illness in 1740 and was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji Rao popularly known as Nana Saheb. During his time, Pune became the cradle of Maratha Power. King Sahu died in 1749 and left all management of state affairs into Peshwa s hands. Peshwa became the de facto ruler of the state. Bengal was repeatedly invaded and Nawab of Bengal had to cede Orissa. In the South Mysore was forced to pay tribute. Marathas helped Imad-Ul-Mulk to become Wazir of Empire in 1752 and he became puppet in their hands. The Mughals signed Ahamadiya Treaty, under which Mughals were restricted to Delhi and the northern India was controlled by Marathas from Pune. They replaced agents of Ahmad Shah Abdali from Punjab which brought them into conflict with the warrior king who marched into India to settle accounts.abdali formed alliances with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh. The two forces met in 1761 at Panipat and came to be known as the third Battle of Panipat. Without any allies in the north, because of the animosity with Marathas for their raids, they lost the battle. Numerous Maratha commanders including Balaji Baji Rao son died in the battle. Marathas lost their political prestige and provided an opportunity to British to increase their control in Bengal and South. Madhav Rao ( ) He tried to restore the lost reputation of Marathas. He forced Nizam and Haider Ali to pay tributes. He subjugated central Indian rulers and restored dominance. In 1771, Marathas brought back Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi and controlled him. Narayan Rao ( ) and Raghunath Rao ( ) After the death of Madhav Rao a power struggle began between Narayana Rao (brother of Madhav Rao) and Raghunath Rao (younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao) Narayana Rao was murdered in 1773 which led to Raghunath Rao getting the seat of Peshwa. But Madhav Rao II (Sawai Madhav Rao), the posthumous son of Narayana Rao was considered as the legal heir. Raghunath Rao approached British to capture power with their help. Madhav Rao II ( ) Nana Phadnavis, an influential minister also called as Maratha Machiavelli, supported Sawai Madhav Rao and ran the Maratha state. The defection of Raghunath Rao to the British camp led to the first Anglo-Maratha war. Treaty of Salbai ended the war which was signed by Hastings and Nana Phadnavis MARATHA SARDARS Maratha Sardars started carving out semi-independent states Gaekwads at Baroda, Bhosles at Nagpur, Holkars in Indore and Scindias at Gwalior. Their support to Poona administration changed from time to time. They even conspired with the enemies of Maratha Empire. MahadjiScindia was the most important of Sardars. He organized a powerful European style army consisting of both Hindus and Muslims with the help of French and Portuguese. He established his own ordnance factory at Agra. Like Mughals, Marathas too showed a united face so long as there was a common enemy and in its absence, they suffered internal feuds. Their revenue policy also was detrimental to peasantry. They also failed to boost commerce. All these factors lead to their decline. 9 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

11 Social & Economic conditions in 17 th and 18 th centuries Previous conquerors had overthrown Indian political powers, but they had made no changes in basic economic structure. Revenue demand of state was ever rising and this led to large scale impoverishment of masses. Trade- India s most important item of export was cotton. It was in huge demand overseas and till industrial revolution it was one of the key factors that had kept a positive balance of trade and import of gold to cover that. Another factor that contributed toward surplus trade was self-sufficient nature of Indian economy by virtue of homegrown handicrafts etc and hence lower need for imports. India thus emerged as a sink of precious metal. Industry- India was a land of manufacturers. Cotton, Silk, dying, jeweler factories were put up at various places. Dacca muslin cloth was famous; other famous centers of textile industry were Murshidabad, Patna, Surat, Ahmadabad etc. Indian economy peaked in 17 th century and in 18 th century saw a declining trend owing to domestic political situation and growing influence of Europeans. Industrial Revolution completely changed the scenario in India. India which was once major supplier of finished goods became a supplier of raw material. India exported cheap raw material like cotton and imported expensive factory made goods. Artisans and handicraft ruined due to cheap factory made imports from Europe. Ruin of handicraft was also reflected in the famous cities that were once center of these special crafts. Arrival of railways further hastened the drain. Natural wealth of India from every corner was now taken to shipping terminals. Railways also ruined rural artisans. Factors that ruined Indian artisans and handicrafts also ruined local industries. Industries in Britain were promoted at the expense of local industries. Local industries were deliberately kept backward and modern industries were not established. Thus, India was effectively de-industrialized. Indian fledgling Industries were never provided protection from un-equal competition from Britain and other countries as industries in those countries were provided when they were in infancy. Art and Religion- Many of the painters of the Mughal painting school migrated to provincial courts and new styles developed infusing new vitality. Persian declined and Urdu language flourished. Influence of Bhakti movement brought together various communities including Hindus and Muslims together. Fighting between Hindus and Muslim nobles were economic in nature and communalism in India was non-existent before Education- The education imparted in 18 th century India was still traditional which could not match with the rapid development in the west. The knowledge was confined to literature, law, religion, philosophy and excluded the study of physical and natural sciences, technology and geography. Societal set-up Society of 18 th century India was characterised by traditional outlook and stagnation. People were divided by caste, religion, tribe and language. Family was patriarchal and caste was central feature of society. Even though Islam preached social equality on the Muslims, they too were divided by considerations of caste, race and tribe. Slavery too was practiced. But, the status of slaves is better compared to the slaves in west. Upper class women remained at home; lower class women worked in the fields and supplemented family income. Purdah system, Sati, child marriage, polygamy, and dowry system existed. Women were given little individuality. They were not allowed to get education and hindered their progress. Nature of British rule British rule was different from erstwhile rulers in a fundamental way. Unlike earlier rulers, British never made India their home. While earlier rulers also exploited India, but their revenues were used in India directly or indirectly through investment or extravagance. During British rule, Indian wealth was drained to Britain and it led to weakening of the domestic economy as a whole. India didn t get anything in return of the excess of imports. Poverty and famines were characteristic features of the British rule. Indians may be poor, but poverty was never so extreme to be on verge of starvation. According to some estimates famine alone led to death of some 3 crore people from lakh people died in famine of Bengal in IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

12 2. European Penetration and the British Conquest of India The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt. Though India had a very long history of trade relations with Europe, India s external trade was originally controlled by the Arab traders and all major land routes were controlled by the Arabs who constantly restricted the European merchants. But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da Gama in Thereafter, many trading companies came to India and established their trading centers. They entered India as traders at the outset but by the passage of time indulged in the politics of India and finally established their colonies. THE PORTUGUESE The Portuguese were the first European community to discover a direct sea route to India. On 20th May 1498, a Portuguese sailor named Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut, an important sea port of South-West India. He was cordially received by King Zamorin, the local ruler, and was offered certain privileges. Vasco da Gama stayed in India for a period of three months. On his return, he carried with him a rich cargo and sold it in the European market at 60 times the cost of his voyage. Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 and Vasco da Gama also made a second trip in They established trading stations at Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin. In 1505, Francisco de Almeida was sent as the first governor of the Portuguese possessions in India. Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India. In 1510, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon. He also built a fort at Calicut. He encouraged marital relations between the Portuguese and the Indians. Albuquerque tried to wipe out the sati system from the Indian society. In this regard, he was the forerunner of Lord William Bentinck, who later banned this cruel practice. However, he was particularly intolerant towards the Muslims. Probably, it was due to the enmity of the Portuguese with the Arabs, who were Muslims by faith. Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India. The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast. However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century. They lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman in the next century. THE DUTCH In 1602, the United East India Company of the Netherlands was formed and it received the sanction of the government to trade in the East Indies. The merchants of this company came to India and established their settlements at Masulipattinam, Pulicat, Surat, Karaikal, Nagapattinam, Chinsura and Kasimbazar. In the seventeenth century they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power in European trade in the East. Pulicat was their main centre in India and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam (near Chennai). They monopolized the trade in black pepper and spices. The most important Indian commodities the Dutch traded in were silk, cotton, indigo, rice and opium. In the middle of the seventeenth century the English began to emerge as a big colonial power. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry lasted for about seven decades during which period the Dutch lost their settlements to the British one by one. THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY The English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600 as per the Royal Charter issued by the Queen of England, Elizabeth I. The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1608 to secure permission to establish a factory (store house of goods) at Surat. It was turned down initially. However, in 1613, Jahangir issued the farman permitting the East India Company to establish its first trading post at Surat. Subsequently, Sir Thomas Roe obtained more trading rights and privileges for the East India Company. Accordingly, the English set up business centers at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach. Slowly the English East India Company succeeded in expanding its area of trade. In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras and constructed the Fort St. George. On the west coast, the Company obtained Bombay on lease from their King Charles II for a rent of 10 pounds per annum in By the year 1690, Job Charnock, the agent of the East India Company purchased three villages namely, Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta, which, in course of time, grew into the city of Calcutta. It was fortified by Job Charnock, who named it Fort 11 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

13 William after the English King, William III. The factories and trading centres which the English established all along the sea-coast of India were grouped under three presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. In 1717, Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar granted the British through a royal Farman (charter) some valuable trading facilities in Bengal. By this Farman the Company was permitted to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes. It also authorized the Company to issue Dastaks (passes) for the transportation of such goods. Thus, we may observe that the English East India Company earned a number of trading concessions in Bengal from the Mughal authority by means of flattery and diplomacy. THE FRENCH The French were the last European people to come to India with the purpose of trade. The French East India Company was formed in The first French factory in India was established at Surat by Francis Caron. Later, Maracara (a Persian) set up a factory at Masulipattinam. Francois Martin obtained a village called Pondicherry in 1673 from Sultan of Bijapur. Other French factories in India were Chandranagore, Mahe and Karaikal. Francois Martin was the first governor of Pondicherry, the headquarters of the French possessions in India. The vision of the French power in India was further reinforced by the appointment of Joseph Francois Dupleix as the Governor of the French East India Company in In fact, Dupleix was the first European statesman to dream of establishing an empire in India. During his time political motives began to overshadow business interests. Dupleix successfully used the mutual mistrust and weakness of the local rulers for securing more and more political benefits. ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the English and the French were competing with each other to establish their supremacy in India. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire in their favour and indulged in internal politics. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal. THE CARNATIC WARS The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory, and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. They were mainly fought on the territories in India which were dominated by the Nizam of Hyderabad up to the Godavari delta. The First Carnatic War ( ) In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Great Britain was drawn into the war in 1744, opposed to France and its allies. The trading companies of both countries maintained cordial relations in India while their parent countries were bitter enemies on the European continent. Although French company officials were ordered to avoid conflict, British officials were not, and were furthermore notified that a Royal Navy fleet was en route. Thus they came into conflict in India also. The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the First Carnatic War ( ). They captured the British Outpost at Madras. The English sought help from the Nawab of Arcot, Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded a treaty with his rival Chanda Sahib. The Nawab then sent a 10,000-man army to take Madras from the French but was decisively repulsed by a small French force in the Battle of Adyar. The French made several attempts to capture Cuddalore but it backfired on them. Not only did British defended Cuddalore but also besieged Pondicherry. In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappell was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end. Implications of First Carnatic War In this war, the defeat of forces of Nawab of Arcot gave confidence to French about their military supremacy because only 500 French soldiers were able to repel a 10,000 strong army of Nawab. This was used by Dupleix to extend French influence. The war was principally notable in India as the first military experience of Robert Clive, who was taken prisoner at Madras but managed to escape, and who then participated in the defense of Cuddalore and the siege of Pondicherry. The Second Carnatic War ( ) After the First Carnatic War ended, a proxy war between British and French continued in India. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War ( ). In 1748 he saw an opportunity when Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah I died and a 12 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

14 war for succession broke out. Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot. The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic War, and killed him in the Battle of Ambur in After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot. However, soon, French protégé Muzaffar Zang was killed. French quickly put his nominee Salabat Zang on throne and maintained French Influence on Hyderabad for several years. For military support, the Nizam of Hyderabad gave them four rich districts of the Coromandel Coast known as the Northern Sircar. Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in support of him. At this juncture, Robert Clive, who was a Clerk at that time in the Company suggest to attack on Arcot. This plan was approved, Arcot was occupied Chanda Sahib was captured and executed. Mohammad Ali was made Nawab of Arcot/Carnatic. With this, Dupleix s hopes dashed to the ground. The war came to an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in Implications of Second Carnatic War After the war, both the countries denounced the policies of their companies in India. Dupleix was recalled to France and was replaced by Godehu. This treaty gave British a stronghold in Carnatic. The French were able to keep stronghold in Hyderabad for some time but their prestige had gone down heavily. Third Carnatic War ( ) The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe in 1756 resulted in renewed conflict between French and British forces in India. The Third Carnatic War spread beyond southern India and into Bengal where British forces captured the French settlement of Chandernagore. However, the war was decided in the south, where the British successfully defended Madras, and Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French at the Battle of Wandiwash in In the next year Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops. The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in1763. The Third Carnatic War also ended. The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam. Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure. The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows: Commercial and naval superiority of the English. Lack of support from the French government. French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal. English had three important ports Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only Pondicherry. Difference of opinion between the French Generals. England s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India. ESTABLISHMENT OF POWER IN BENGAL Bengal remained one of the fertile and wealthy regions of India. The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for the expansion of English rule in India. In 1717, the Company bribed a feeble and short-lived Mughal Emperor to give them a farman in Bengal to trade duty free in return for a small annual fee to the Mughal court. But the local Bengali rulers resented this privilege that deprived them of tax revenue. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, challenged the increasing power of the British as they were building a fort at Calcutta. Nawab s soldiers easily conquered the fort, they crammed the British prisoners into a small, dark basement. The majority of the prisoners slowly suffocated to death and this episode is popularly known as the Black Hole of Calcutta. THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY As it turned out, it fell to a young, impetuous, and inexperienced Company colonel, Robert Clive, to change the course of British and Indian history. With luck, pluck, and a dash of treachery, Clive turned events to his advantage at the Battle of Plassey (1757). As chance would have it, Afghan troops sacked the Mughal capital of Delhi and were reportedly heading towards Siraj to plunder his palace. The attack never came, but it so worried Siraj that he left the siege of Calcutta. As the Nawab hesitated, Clive turned and successfully attacked the French at Chandernagar, eliminating a potential European ally of the Nawab. Next, he coopted disgruntled generals in the nawab s army to agree to a secret pact. Mir Jafar, the key Bengali general, agreed to betray Siraj during battle and, in return, take the place of the nawab. At the last minute, however, one co-conspirator, a wealthy Bengali merchant, threatened to expose the secret treaty unless the cabal agreed to promise him 5% of Siraj s treasure. This was blackmail. Clive simply prepared two treaties, a real one (White Treaty) and a fake one (Red Treaty) to fool the unreliable co-conspirator. The subterfuge worked. 13 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

15 At the Battle of Plassey, 3,000 Company troops only one third of them European defeated the nawab s army of 50,000. It was a sham battle; the Bengali general, Mir Jafar, betrayed Siraj. Clive fulfilled his side of the bargain and allowed Mir Jafar to ascend the Bengali throne. The co-conspirator who had been tricked by the fake treaty had a heart attack and died the moment he found out about Clive s deceit. Clive took a jagir, an endowment of tax revenue for life and, at the age of 33, became one of the richest men in England. Effects of the Battle of Plassey As a result of the war of Plassey, the French were no longer a significant force in Bengal. Mir Jafar felt threatened by the English and tried to get support from the Dutch. The British then got the wind of the plans and deposed Mir Jafar and installed Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal. There was an unleashing of excesses, malpractices and atrocities by the British East India Company in the name of tax collection. The most productive region in India was quickly reduced to poverty. Famine spread throughout the province and even then not only tax collection continued but also land tax was increased. Emboldened Company officials forced Nawab s officials and Zamindars to pay them bribes and also compelled Indian merchants, artisans and peasants to sell cheap and buy dear from the Company. The Company replicated the model in Bengal elsewhere, creating compliant puppet rulers so that it could rule territory efficiently and inexpensively. THE BATTLE OF BUXAR (1764) Mir Qasim tried to improve the situation of Indian merchants and check the misuse of farman of He abolished duties on both Indian and English merchants. But, the British could not tolerate the equal treatment and wanted re-imposition of duties. Mir Qasim belied English hopes and soon emerged as a threat to their position and designs in Bengal. Mir Qasim was defeated in series of battles in 1763 and fled to Avadh, where he formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II, the fugitive ruler of Mughal Empire. The three allies crashed with the English army under Major Munro at Buxar on 22nd October, 1764 and were thoroughly defeated. The British victory at Buxar had at one fell swoop, disposed of the three main scions of Mughal power in North India. Aftermath The English military superiority was decisively established. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the Governor of Bengal. In the same year, the Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by which the Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights over areas of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English East India Company. They also secured from Shah Alam II a formal grant of Northern Circars which the British had wrested from the French. The emperor resided in the fort of Allahabad for six years as pensioner of the Company till he was escorted back to Delhi by the Marathas under MahadjiScindia. Thus the British power in India was thoroughly established. THE DUAL ADMINISTRATION OF BENGAL As the Viceroy of Bengal, Nawab had two functions namely Nizamat(Military Power and Criminal Justice) and Diwani(Revenue Collection and Civil Justice). British directly got the power of revenue collection and Civil Justice while Nawab retained the power of police and criminal justice. The system was very advantageous for the Company as it had power without the responsibility. As the Diwan, the Company directly collected its revenues, while through the right to nominate Deputy Subahdarit controlled the Nizamat or the Police and Judicial powers. The Nawab and his officials had the responsibility of administration but not the power to discharge it. This arrangement is known as Dual Government. The biggest fall out of this system was that the Indian Merchants were reduced to beggars. On the one side, British kept enjoying the duty free trade; the Indian merchants were to pay around 40% of the revenue. The peasants were now under the British revenue collection. The British left no stone unturned to extract each penny. In periods of famine Company administration offered no food relief for the starving and, shockingly, some Company officials made fortunes by hoarding and charging exorbitant prices for food. Nearly one third of Bengal population (nearly 10 million people) was wiped out in 1770 Bengal famine. 14 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

16 Depiction of 1770 Bengal Famine Robert Clive himself quotes: I shall only say that such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal, nor such and so many fortunes acquired in so unjust and rapacious manner. The company purchased goods to be exported from India from the revenues of Bendal. In addition to this, the company was asked to pay 400,000 per year to the British government from Nearly 5.7 million were drained from Bengal in the following three years. 15 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

17 3. Early Governor Generals WARREN HASTINGS ( ) Period of 1775 to 1782 was challenging for British as they have to face multiple oppositions from Marathas in Central and North India, from Haider Ali, Nizam Southern India. Marathas proved a formidable enemy; Haider Ali too inflicted many defeats. Outside India they were facing a losing war against America. Warren Hastings became the first Governor General at this time was at the helm of affairs. He led First Anglo Maratha war in 1773 in which neither side won and a peace treaty was signed. While British made their position stronger in Bengal, Marathas frittered away the time in infightings. In South, Warren Hastings fought two Anglo Mysore wars with Haider Ali. Warren Hastings introduced several administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of justice. From 1772 a new system of justice was established. Each district was to have two courts a criminal court (faujdariadalat) and a civil court (diwaniadalat). Maulvis and Hindu pandits interpreted Indian laws for the European district collectors who presided over civil courts. The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors. Significant Events in Their Rule Regulating Act of Act of 1781, under which the powers of jurisdiction between the governor-general in council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta, were clearly divided. Pitt's India Act of The Rohilla War of The First Maratha War in and the Treaty of Salbai in The Second Mysore War in Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the Maharaja of Benaras, which led to Hastings' subsequent impeachment in England. Foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784). ANGLO MYSORE WARS A tripartite alliance was formed against Haider Ali by the Britishers, the Nizam Ali of Hyderabad and the Marathas. Haider Ali bought Marathas and succeeded in breaking the alliance and alluring the Nizam with territorial gains. Together with the Nizam he launched an attack on Arcot and later on the English by appearing at the gates of Madras known as the First Anglo-Mysore war. The panic-stricken Madras government signed the Treaty of Madras on 4th April 1769, under which basis was mutual restitutition of each other s territories and a defensive alliance, where the English committed to help Haider in case he was attacked by another power. Mutual distrust between the English and Haider Ali caused the Second Anglo Mysore War. Haider Ali accused the Company of not observing the terms of the defensive treaty when they refused to help him when the Marathas attacked Mysore in Furthermore, Haider Ali was helped by the French by meeting his military demands. The British captured Mahe, a French settlement which was within Haider s protection. This led to the formation of an alliance by Haider Ali with the Hyderabad Nizam and the Marathas against the English Company in The second Anglo Mysore War began in July 1780, when Haider attacked the Carnatic and captured Arcot by defeating an English army under Colonel Baillie. Meanwhile the English, detached the Marathas and Nizam from Haider s side. After being deserted, Haider was defeated at Porto Novo in In 1782, Haider died, leaving the task unfinished for his son, Tipu, who continued the war with English for another year. The war ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) on the basis of mutual restitution of each other s territories was agreed. 16 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

18 FIRST ANGLO-MARATHA WAR ( ) The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third Battle of Panipet (1761). The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy. In 1775, there was a dispute for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle Ragunatha Rao. The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March Rahunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when he was unwilling to fulfill his promise, the British captured them. This action of the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha leader. However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren Hastings also considered the Treaty of Purandar as a scrap of paper and sanctioned operations against the Marathas. In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief, MahadajiScindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior. Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and MahadajiScindia. Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein were given to the British. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa. The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian politics. It provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas. The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territories from Haider Ali. REGULATION ACT OF 1773 This act was passed to address the problem of management of company in India; address the problems created by dual system of governance, control the company which had now evolved into a semi-sovereign political entity. This act was first step of British government to regulate the affairs of the East India Company. The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter in the constitutional history of the Company. Previously, the Home government in England consisted of the Court of Directors and the Court of Proprietors. The Court of Directors were elected annually and practically managed the affairs of the Company. In India, each of the three presidencies was independent and responsible only to the Home Government. The government of the presidency was conducted by a Governor and a Council. Provisions of the Act The Regulating Act reformed the Company s Government at Home and in India. The important provisions of the Act were: The term of office of the members of the Court of Directors was extended from one year to four years. Onefourth of them were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not eligible for re-election. The Governor of Bengal was elevated to the Governor-General of Bengal whose tenure of office was for a period of five years. A council of four members was appointed to assist the Governor-General. The government was to be conducted in accordance with the decision of the majority. The GovernorGeneral had a casting vote in case of a tie. The Governor-General in Council was made supreme over the other Presidencies in matters of war and peace. Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta consisting of a Chief Justice and three junior judges. It was to be independent of the GovernorGeneral in Council. In 1774, the Supreme Court was established by a Royal Charter. This Act prevented the servants of the Company including the Governor-General, members of his council and the judges of the Supreme Court from receiving directly or indirectly any gifts in kind or cash. The greatest merit of this Act is that it put an end to the arbitrary rule of the Company and provided a framework for all future enactments relating to the governing of India by bringing Company under control of the Parliament. The main defect of the Act was that the Governor-General was made powerless because the council which was given supreme power often created deadlocks by over-ruling his decision. PITTS INDIA ACT (1784) The Regulating Act was a failure. In the first Anglo-Mysore war and First Anglo Maratha war its failure was seen in the confusion of treaties and these flaws were taken up by William Pitt, the younger (Prime Minister of Britain). He introduced the Pitts Bill in 1784 with an objective to provide better regulation and management of the company. 17 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

19 Prior to Pitts India Act, Jame Fox had introduced an Edmund Burke s bill to reform East India Company. But this bill failed in the House of Lords. Provisions A Board of Control consisting of six members was created. They were appointed by the Crown. It maintains the political affairs. The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration in its composition. It maintains the commercial affairs. The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian administration. It reduced the number of the members of the Governor-General s Council from four to three including the Commander-in-Chief. Governor-General was authorized to veto the majority decisions. As there was no clear demarcation of boundaries between Board of Control and Court of Directors there was confusion. In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolized the Company. CORNWALLIS ( ) Cornwallis arrived at scene at a time when Marathas were becoming weak. Haider Ali died in 1782 after Second Anglo Mysore war due to cancer. He led Third Anglo Mysore War in which Mysore faced defeat in The war broke out in late 1789 when Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, attacked Travancore, an ally of the British East India Company. Some notable events in his period: The Third Anglo-Mysore War ( ) and the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792). Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms, and separation of revenue administration and civil jurisdiction. Permanent Settlement of Bengal in Europeanization of administrative machinery and Introduction of civil services. THIRD ANGLO-MYSORE WAR ( ) The third Anglo Mysore War was caused by an attack on Travancore by Tipu, because he had differences with the Raja of Travancore in The English declared war against Tipu supporting the ruler of Travancore. They were helped by the Maratha and Nizam s troops under the English army which was led by Cornwallis and marched towards Seringapatam (1792). Tipu offered tough resistance but eventually signed the Treaty of Seringapatam in March 1792 resulting in the surrender of nearly half of Mysore territory to the victorious allies in Third Anglo Mysore War. Tipu also had to pay a war indemnity of over three crores rupees. Reforms under Cornwallis Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Banaras, Bihar, Carnatic (North Karnataka) and Orissa. As per this system, the Zamindars who formerly collected revenues were recognized as landlords and the ownership of the land was made hereditary. Zamindars were given rights to confiscate the land and kick out the tenant cultivators. The separation of the three branches of service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue. The collectors, the kingpins of the administrative system were deprived of their 18 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

20 judicial powers and their work became merely the collection of revenue. Civil and criminal courts were completely reorganized. The highest civil and criminal courts of appeal, namely SadarDiwani Adalat and SadarNizamat Adalat were functioning at Calcutta. Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the judicial system. Cornwallis was merciful by temperament. He hated barbarous punishments and abolished those like mutilation and trial by ordeal. Cornwallis made all officials answerable to the courts. Each district was divided into thanas or police circles each of which was about 20 square miles. It was placed under an Indian officer called the daroga who was ably assisted by many constables. CIVIL SERVICE REFORMS Warren Hastings laid the foundation of civil service and Charles Cornwallis reformed, modernised and rationalised it. Hence, Charles Cornwallis is known as the 'Father of Civil Service in India'. He introduced Covenanted Civil Services (Higher Civil Services) and Un covenanted Civil Services (Lower Civil Services). Following are some of the reforms Cornwallis took in his time. He raised the salaries of company servants He strictly enforced rules against any private trade He prohibited the civil servants from taking presents and gifts He enforced the criteria of seniority in promotions He organized a regular police force as a part of civil service LORD WELLESLEY ( ) The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as Governor General marks an epoch in the history of British India. He was a great imperialist and called himself a Bengal tiger. Expansion under Wellesley was perhaps one of the largest British expansions. He used many tactics for expansion from outright war to usurping the throne of erstwhile subsidiaries. Subsidiary Alliance was one such tool and it had following features Indian rulers were made to sign alliance under which British stationed their forces permanently in their allies and the Indian ruler has to pay for them ad also accept British paramountcy. Indian ruler himself has to disband his own forces and was also debarred from making any transactions from other foreign power without British approval. A Resident of British was appointed in the court of ruler as British representative. Ruler was promised protection from external attacks. British also promised non-interference in internal affairs, but this promise was broken more often than was kept. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payments required by the alliance, then part of their territory will be taken as a penalty. Wellesley s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British imperialism. It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the protected states. The territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the British power in India. The position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-indian enemies. Under the system, expansion of British power became easy. Thus Wellesley s diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India. But, due to disbanding of armies lakhs became unemployed. The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where the menace of Pindaris affected the people. Ruler cared little for the welfare of the people, as they relied on British to subdue any internal rebellion or discontent. Princes of the protected states preferred to lead easy-going and pleasure seeking lives. As a result misgovernment followed. In course of time, the anarchy and misrule in several states had resulted in their annexation by the British. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a preparation for annexation. 19 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

21 British administration at time overthrew the allies under alliance on charges of being inefficient. Nizam of Hyderabad became first to sign this treaty in Awadh was also forced into it in Mysore fell after Tipu refused to accept Subsidiary Alliance of Wellesley and later death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in seize of Seringpattanam or the Fourth Mysore war and it was returned to the erstwhile ruler, Wodeyars, and some part was taken by British. Marathas were now the only major force outside British control. Wellesley now focused his attention towards them. Second Anglo-Maratha War ( ) By the end of eighteenth century all the experience Maratha leaders were dead. Due to internal conflicts between Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao Scindia city of Poona fell due to marching of Holkar. Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to Bassein, where he signed subsidiary treaty. Due to the treaty the office of Peshwa was restored under the protection of British forces. The combined forces of Bhonsle and Scindia were defeated by Wellesley s forces at Assaye and Argaon in The campaign of British commander Lord Lake against the forces of Scindia was rather dramatic. Lake triumphantly entered the historic city of Delhi and took Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor under British protection. Lake was quick in consolidating his conquests. During the war against Bhonsle and Scindia, Holkar remained aloof because he was Scindia s enemy. However, when Wellesley offered an alliance, Holkar made extreme demands. This made Wellesley to declare war against Holkar. The campaign against Holkar was well-organized but the English generals for the first time committed blunders. Holkar remained unsubdued. Major events in Wellesley s administration Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance System (1798), first alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad. Fourth Mysore War (1799). Second Maratha War ( ). Took over the administration of Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800) and Carnatic (1801). Treaty of Bassein. (1802). The continuous wars with Mysore and Marathas and his policy of launching educational projects in India caused the financial strain which made the Court of Directors impatient. Lord Wellesley was recalled in July 1805 and once again Lord Cornwallis was sent to India. He was advised by his peers to bring peace in the British dominions. He came in the rainy season and the bad weather of India claimed his life. He was succeeded by Sir George Barlow. His term was till 1807 when there was a mutiny at Vellore in He was succeeded by Lord Minto ( ) who concluded the Treaty of Amritsar (also known as Minto-Metcalfe treaty) with Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1809, which is discussed in previous chapter. The Charter Act of 1813 was passed during this period. LORD HASTINGS ( ) Like Lord Wellesley Lord Hastings adopted an aggressive forward policy. His imperial policies paved way for the expansion of the British Empire. The conditions in India when he assumed power posed a serious threat to the British administration. There was anarchy in central India. The Pindaris plundered the whole region and the Marathas could not control them. The Peshwa was secretly plotting against the British. Hastings was also troubled by the expansion of the Gurkha power. Therefore, Hastings determined to restore order by suppressing the Pindaris and to eliminate threats to the British power by waging wars with the Marathas and the Gurkhas. Suppression of Pindaris The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. The first reference about them is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did not belong to any particular caste or creed. They used to serve the army without any payment but instead were allowed to plunder. During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army. Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities. Pindaris plundered across Rajputana, districts of Mirzapur, Shahabad, Deccan and Northern Circars. Lord Hastings gathered a large army of 1,13,000 men and 300 guns and attacked the Pindaris from four sides. By 1818, the Pindaris were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated. THIRD ANGLO-MARATHA WAR ( ) The Marathas resented their loss of freedom to the British. This was aggravated by the rigid control exercised by the British residents on the Maratha Sardars. This led to third Anglo-Maratha war in The result was disastrous for 20 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

22 the Marathas as the Peshwa was dethroned. Just to placate the Marathas and avoiding any indignity to them, a separate kingdom of Satara was carved out of Peshwas s territories. Finally, the strongest contenders to British were defeated and it made British the paramount power. War against GURKHAS/ ANGLO-NEPAL WAR ( ) In 1801, the British acquired the districts of Gorakhpur and Basti from the Nawab of Oudh. This move brought the boundary of Nepal to touch the British frontier. The aggressions of the Gurkhas into the British territories culminated in a war. In 1814 several battles were fought between the British and the Gurkhas. Amar Singh Thapa, the able General of Nepal Army was forced to surrender. Reforms of Hastings He approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue introduced in the Madras Presidency by Sir Thomas Munroe. In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government collected taxes directly from the peasants. The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land. In the sphere of judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved. The Police system of Bengal was extended to other regions. The importance of Indian Munsiffs had increased during his administration. The separation of judicial and revenue departments was not rigidly followed. Instead, the District Collector acted as Magistrate. Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries and others. In 1817, the Hindu College was established at Calcutta by the public for the teaching of English and western science. Hastings was the Patron of this college. He encouraged the freedom of the Press and abolished the censorship introduced in The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore missionary. Major events of Lord Hastings administration Anglo-Nepal War ( ) and the Treaty of Sagauli, Third Maratha War ( ) and dissolution of Maratha Confederacy Creation of Bombay Presidency (1818). Strife with Pindaris ( ). Treaty with Sindhia (1817). Establishment of Ryotwari System by Thomas Munro, governor of Madras (1820). Abolition of Censorship act Establishment of the Hindu college LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK ( ) William Bentinck refused reappointment to the governorship of Madras in 1819, waiting to attain his real ambition the appointment as governor-general of Bengal, which came in Bentinck s immediate instructions were to rescue India from its financial difficulties; at this time the government in India operated on an annual deficit of about 1.5 million. Bentinck soon succeeded in turning the deficit into a surplus of about the same amount. The result of his efforts was the renewal of the East India Company s government by the Charter Act of 1833, whereby Bentinck became the first governor-general of India. He was undoubtedly the first Governor General of British India who acted on the dictum that the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the primary, duty of the British in India. His tenure is known for the social reforms such as Abolition of Sati in 1829, Suppression of Thugee, and Suppression of Infanticide etc. English was introduced as a medium of higher education on the advice of his council member, Thomas Babington Macaulay. Policy towards Indian States William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and non-aggression with Indian states. If at all he interfered in the affairs of the Indian states, it was only to end any form of misgovernment and never to annex any territory. It was only when the incompetent ruler of Mysore could not redress the problems of peasants and the peasant movement broke out, did the British administration taken over the administration of Mysore state.also in case of Cachar and Jaintia territories that came under the protection of British after first Anglo-Burmese war ( ) were annexed under the wishes of people and to stop cruel acts of human sacrifice respectively. Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to India. Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. His 21 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

23 earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any possible invader. The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus Navigation Treaty was concluded between them. This treaty opened up the Sutlej for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with Ranjit Singh. CHARTER ACT OF 1833 The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the Company s Charter after twenty years. The Charter Act of 1793 extended the charter of Company for another 20 years. Charter Act of 1813 provided one lakh of rupees annually for the promotion of Indian education. Provisions of the act It redesignated the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India. Under this provision Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor General of India. It deprived the Governor of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers. The Governor-General was given exclusive legislative powers of the entire British India. It ended the activities of the Company as a commercial body and became a purely administrative body. It attempted to introduce a system of open competitions for the selection of civil servants. However this provision was opposed by Court of Directors who still held the privilege of appointing the company s officials. A Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General s Council T. B. Macaulay was the first Law Member of the Governor-General-in-Council. Reforms of Bentinck Financial reforms To improve the state finances from a deficit of about 1.5 million he reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff was removed. In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta. JUDICIAL REFORMS: Judiciary required reforms because of the following reasons: The new territories acquired in last 3 decades expanded the territorial jurisdiction of the SadarDiwani Adalat at Calcutta, but it was now too far away from them. The Provincial Courts of appeal were thought to be worthless and a burden on the administration. The people who were in prison had to be kept for months before a Circuit Court met at district headquarters and disposed the cases. So, the under trials suffered badly under the Police oppression. The entire system was considered too expensive. The language of the courts was Persian and it was not easy for the litigants to fight in this language. Following reforms were introduced by Lord William Bentinck: The first reform done was to abolish the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit Courts altogether. This was done by a regulation passed in In place of the Provincial courts of appeal and Circuit, the Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit were appointed to do this job. For this purpose, the Bengal Presidency was divided into 20 divisions and each division was placed under a separate commissioner. For revenue cases these commissioners worked directly under the Board of Revenue and for Criminal cases they worked under SadarNizamat Adalat. Separate Diwani and SadarNizamat Adalat were opened at Allahabad. Another good measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local languages in the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of Persian. In 1831, another regulation was passed by which the Respectable Indians were to be appointed in the Zilla or City Courts. They were called Munsifs. Munsifs were to be appointed on a salary and they could decide the cases worth less than Three Hundred Rupees. Then, in a separate regulation, it was decided the Governor General in Council would appoint respectable Indians to the post of SadarAmins. The SadarAmins would hear appeals from the Zilla and city courts. Sadar Amin was now the highest Judicial Indian authority. However, neither Munsifs nor SadarAmins could trial the Europeans. 22 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

24 In 1832, a sort of Jury was introduced in Bengal, which was like Indian Jury (Panchayat) that could help the European Judges. SOCIAL REFORMS Abolition of Sati: He became a crusader against practice of Sati and promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting the practice of sati. Those who practiced sati were made liable for punishment by law courts as accessories to the crime. The Regulation was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in Suppression of Thugs: Thugs were the hereditary assassins whose profession was to deceive people and strangle them to death with their Pugree or handkerchief. They used to travel in gangs, disguised as merchants or pilgrims. They were bound together by an oath on the rites of their deity goddess Kali. A campaign was systematically organized by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs. During the course of five years nearly 2000 of them were captured. For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman was known as Thugee Sleeman. Female Infanticide: This practice killing female infants was very much prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa and Kutch. He not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them as punishable crime. English Education Introduction: He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations for the promotion of education. Macaulay produced and circulated a Minute on the subject. Macaulay argued that support for the publication of books in Sanskrit and Arabic should be withdrawn, support for traditional education should be reduced to funding for the Madrassa at Delhi and the Hindu College at Benares, but students should no longer be paid to study at these establishments. The money released by these steps should instead go to fund education in Western subjects, with English as the language of instruction. The Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official and literary language of India. In the same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the Calcutta Medical College. Major events in William Bentinck period Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829). Suppression of thugi (1830). Charter Act of Resolution of 1835, and educational reforms and introduction of English as the official language. Annexation of Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834) and Central Cachar (1834). Treaty of 'perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh. Abolition of the provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment of commissioners of revenue and circuit. In 1835 Sir Charles Metcalfe succeeded Lord William Bentinck. Lord Metcalfe is called Liberator of India Press because he passed a new Press law which freed the Press from previous restrictions. Next followed Lord Auckland ( ) in whose stint first Afghan war happened. Lord Ellenborough ( ) and Lord Hardinge I ( ) became Governor-Generals later. First Anglo-Sikh war in leading to treaty of Lahore in 1846 occurred in Lord Hardinge s period. LORD DALHOUSIE ( ) Lord Dalhousie was the youngest Governor-General of India when he assumed charge at the age of 36 in Earlier he had served as the President of the Board of Trade. During this period, Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849) was fought in which the Sikhs were defeated again and Dalhousie was successful in annexing the whole of Punjab to the British administration. He annexed many states by doctrine of lapse. During his tenure, first railway line between Bombay and Thane was opened in 1853 and in the same year Calcutta and Agra were connected by telegraph. His other reforms include setting up of Public Works department and passing of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856). POLICY OF ANNEXATION His aims for expanding the Company s territories were administrative, imperial, commercial and financial. Although he used different reasons for annexation, his main objective was to end misrule in the annexed states, as in the case of the annexation of Oudh. He aimed at providing the beneficent administration to the people of the annexed states. At the same time he had in his mind the advantages of annexation to the British such as imperial defence, commercial and financial benefits. The Punjab and Pegu were the conquests of war.the Kingdom of Oudh was the only great Indian state whose ruler Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dispossessed on the ground of intolerable misgovernment. 23 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

25 THE DOCTRINE OF LAPSE According to this policy, any princely state or territory under the direct influence of the British East India Company or as a vassal state under the British subsidiary system, would automatically be annexed if the tuler was either manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir. This took away the right of Indian rulers to choose the heir in case there was no one to succeed from the family. In addition, the British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough. This was one of the primary reasons why many princely states supported the revolt of The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was annexed in Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in Also Nagpur, Sambhalpur, Jaitpur, Bhagat and Udaipur were annexed. As a result of these annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came under the British rule. Dalhousie was blamed for using the Doctrine of Lapse as an instrument in pursuing his policy of annexation. After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn. Reforms of Dalhousie The introduction railways in India inaugurated a new economic era. There were three major reasons for the British to take interest in its quick development. The first reason was commercial. The second main reason was administrative. The third reason was defense. The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was opened in Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to the Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854 and from Madras to Arakkonam in The 800-mile telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra was opened in March, 1854, and two years later 4000 miles were in operation, including lines to Bombay and Madras. The telegraph played an important role during those times and is credited to have saved India in mutiny of The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie. A new Post Office Act was passed in A uniform rate of half an anna per post card was charged throughout India. Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for cutting canals and roads. The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in By modernizing the Public Works Department he laid the foundations of the engineering service in India. THE WOOD S DESPATCH (1854) Charles Wood drafted an education policy for India in 1854 considered as Magna Carta of English Education in India. It recommended the following: An educational department was to be set in every province. Universities on the model of the London University to be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. At least one government school to be opened in every district. Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid. The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also. Provision was made for a systematic method of education from primary level to the University level. Lord Canning s ( ) tenure coincided with the upheaval caused by the Revolt of It was an unprecedented upsurge of anger due to which the East India Company lost the role of political masters of India. 24 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

26 4. The Revolt of 1857 Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the Company the right to the "collection of Revenue" in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, known as "Diwani" to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars ( ) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars ( ) led to control of even more of India. In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo-Nepalese War of and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the Company was the government of much of India. ONSET OF REVOLT The introduction of new Enfield rifles enhanced the growing disaffection of sepoys with the Government. The new rifles used cartridges which had to be bitten off before loading. These cartridges contained cow and pig fat. This hurt the religious sentiments of both Hindus and Muslims. Moreover, there were also reports about mixing of bone dust in the flour used to prepare meals for the sepoys. This and many such incidents enraged the sepoys. On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore parade ground, near Calcutta, 29-year-old Mangal Pandey, angered by the recent actions of the East India Company, declared that he would rebel against his commanders. Informed about Pandey's behaviour Sergeant-Major James Hewson went to investigate, only to have Pandey shoot at him. Hewson raised the alarm. When his adjutant Lt. Henry Baugh came out to investigate the unrest, Pandey opened fire but hit Baugh's horse instead. The Sergeant-Major ordered the Indian commander Jemadar of the unit Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but he refused. Other sepoys present, with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey. Shaikh Paltu restrained Pandey from continuing his attack. After failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, Mangal Pandey tried to take his own life, by placing his musket to his chest and pulling the trigger with his toe. He managed only to wound himself. Court-martialled on 6 April, he was hanged two days later. The JemadarIshwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on 22 April. The regiment was disbanded and stripped of its uniforms because it was felt that it harboured ill-feelings towards its superiors. This became a source of discontent among the sepoys. The sensibilities of Company officers became clear to the sepoys who went back to their home in Awadh to spread this notion among the people there. The British instead of diffusing the explosive situation paved the way for a mighty crisis by the above act. A chain reaction was set in motion. At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges. Therefore, on 10 May the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the officer commanding at Meerut was helpless to prevent the army s march. Next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. The city of Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May Soon, the mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty as the Emperor of India. CENTERS OF THE REVOLT Rebels turned to those who were leaders before the British came. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout northern and central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banaras, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other places. 25 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

27 Delhi The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the real control was exercised by General Bakht Khan. On the side of the British the combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson, Baird Smith and Neville Chamberlain enabled the recapture Delhi by September In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he remained in exile till he died in Kanpur Nana Saheb was the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II. He was not conferred the title of Peshwa but instead he was banished from Poona. As he was living near Kanpur he was urged by the sepoys to assume the leadership of the revolt there. Tantia Tope was one of his able lieutenants. Sir Hugh Wheeler the commander of the British garrison at Kanpur surrendered on the 27 June But, soon Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin Campbell. Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal undertook the task of leading the rebellion in Lucknow. Her son, BirjisQadir, was proclaimed as the Nawab. Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner tried to defend the British. Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the fight. The final relief for the British forces in Lucknow came in the form of Sir Colin Campbell, who suppressed the revolt. Bareilly Khan Bahadur was the descendent of the ruler of Rohilkhand. After British annexed most of the Rohilkhand, he was reduced to a pensioner. When the revolt broke out he assumed administration, organized an army of 40,000 soldiers and offered stiff resistance to the British. Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao played a heroic role in this revolt. Rani Lakshmi Bai was affected by Dalhousie s Doctrine of Lapse. Driven out of Jhansi by British forces, she gave the battle cry "main apni Jhansi nahidoongi" (I shall not give away my Jhansi). She was joined by Tantia Tope, a close associate of Nana Saheb, after the loss of Kanpur. The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope saw the capture of Gwalior. The Scindhia, the local ruler, however, decided to side with the English and took shelter at Agra. Nana Saheb was proclaimed the Peshwa and plans were chalked out for a march into the south. Gwalior was recaptured by the English in June The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier s death on 17 June Tantia Tope was captured and hanged on charges of rebellion. Bihar In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. An old man in his seventies, he nursed a grudge against the British who had deprived him of his estates. He unhesitatingly joined the sepoys when they reached Arrah from Dinapore. He had a good fight and harried British forces for nearly one year and remained invincible till the end. But he was defeated by William Taylor and Eyre and died in the battle. 26 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

28 Causes of the Revolt The revolt expressed the underlying dissatisfaction and anger among the masses. It reflected the prevalent mood of the Indian society which was reeling under pressure from several quarters most of which were product of British policies. These policies had a profound impact of every section of Indian society. All these dimensions are analysed in the following section: 1) Socio-Religious Causes Racial overtones and superiority complex characterised the British administration towards native Indians. The reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwarchand Vidyasagar pressurised the government to pass laws against child marriage, legalizing widow remarriage, abolition of Sati etc. This was seen as interference in social, cultural and religious affairs of Hindus by a large conservative society. These fears were further compounded by the Government's decision to tax mosque and temple lands and legislative measures, such as the Religious Disabilities Act, 1856, which modified Hindu customs, for instance declaring that a change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father. The rumours of mixing bone dust in flour used in military cantonments for making Chapattis further fuelled the suspicion against the British. The activities of Christian missionaries who followed the British flag in India were looked upon with suspicions of proselytising activities. A more immediate reason was the presence of pig and cow fat in Enfield rifles which were required to be bitten off before loading. 2) Economic Causes The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry and increasing land revenue had become the common features of the latter half of the eighteenth century. The East India Company, after attaining political power, used it to fund the growth of British trade and commerce at the cost of Indians. The British damaged the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian goods, and by encouraging all means the import of British goods to India. A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable misery for the Indian peasants. This was the result of permitting Englishmen to acquire land plantations in India. The hard hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar. The case to Zamindars land being forfeited led to the loss of their prestige. A peasant working in a particular taluqdar estate had a bond of loyalty towards him and taluqdars were paternalistic figure for them. Therefore loss of land by one taluqdar was not acceptable for peasants. 3) Political Causes The policy of aggressive expansion of British territories by East India Company had cast suspicion in the minds of various local rulers. Policy of Effective control, Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were used by British to get control over local princes. It was not just the princes that were discontent but also the commoners. When the Nawab of Awadh s administration was taken over, there was loss of identity among the subjects. The complex bond of patronage was broken with Nawab losing his territory and taluqdars losing their prestige and power. 4) Administrative Causes Rampant corruption in the Company's administration, especially among the police, petty officials and lower law courts, and the absentee sovereignty character of British rule imparted a foreign and alien look to it in the eyes of Indians. 5) Military Causes The sepoys in Bengal army were drawn mainly from Awadh and North-West provinces where there was already a looming discontent from moneylenders and landlords. The British military officers at times showed least respect to the social values and religious sentiments of Indian sepoys in the army. Moreover, the native sepoys were mainly Brahmins and Rajputs who were high caste men and could not tolerate any suggestion or practice which endangered their freedom to display caste symbols. The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such tendencies on the part of the military authorities. The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their low salaries and poor prospects of promotion. Another important cause of the sepoys dissatisfaction was the order that abolished the foreign allowance or batta when they served in foreign territories. Another grievance was regarding serving in British forces 27 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

29 abroad. The sepoys refused to serve in Burma as it meant loss of caste as they were supposed to cross sea. This led to passing of General Services Enlistment act in 1856 by Lord Canning which forced sepoys to give an undertaking that they would serve anywhere there services are required by the government. 6) Agrarian Causes The British laws of revenue settlement were largely responsible for indebtedness. Initially the permanent settlement was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal to bring predictability and security in terms of revenue. It made Zamindars responsible for collecting a fixed amount of revenue in perpetuity. But the revenue demand was set high and it led to loss of land as it was auctioned to recover the loss of revenue. Land thus became a commodity that can be sold. Moreover, the private armies of landlords were disbanded which led to loss of ability to enforce their influence. Thus there was resentment against British among both peasants and landlords. COMPANY S RESPONSE It brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then moved into the storm centers of the revolt. Not only the police and military personnel, but ordinary Britons were empowered to punish the Indians suspected of rebellion. Rebellion had only one punishment Death. Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces after 4 months in September The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the rebellion died down after that. People continued to resist and battle the British. The British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion. They used not only military force to suppress rebellion, they also used divisive tactics, and they promised landlords to give them their lost land back. One by one, all the great leaders of the revolt fell. Military operations for the recapture of Kanpur were closely associated with the recovery of Lucknow. Sir Colin Campbell occupied Kanpur on December 6, Nana Saheb, defeated at Kanpur, escaped to Nepal in early 1859, never to be heard of again. His close associate Tantia Tope escaped into the jungles of central India, was captured while asleep in April 1859 and put to death. The Rani of Jhansi had died on the battlefield earlier in June Jhansi was recaptured through assault by Sir Hugh Rose, By 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana Saheb) and Maulvi Ahmadullah were all dead, while the Begum of Awadh was compelled to hide in Nepal. At Benaras a rebellion had been organized which was mercilessly suppressed, by Colonel Neil, who put to death all suspected rebels and even disorderly sepoys. By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully reestablished. The British Government had to pour immense supplies of men, money and arms into the country, though Indians had to later repay the entire cost through their own suppression. Causes of Failure of the Revolt For any revolt to continue for long it must have a coherent ideology and a plan of action. It further requires efficient coordination and leadership. But revolt of 1857 falls short in all these areas. Some of the reasons for falling short are: Lower income peasants bore grudge against usurious moneylenders and exploiting landlords. However, most of the landlords in areas under revolt were against the British. This led to incoherent definition of who is the enemy. The Nawabs, Princes and aristocracy were against British due to loss of power and being reduced to pensioners. But they were unable to organize a revolt and could not coordinate amongst themselves. Bahadur Shah proved to be a weak leader and the weakest cog in the revolt. Most of the educated Indians were actually against the Revolt. The lack of interest shown by the intellectuals in the movement was a serious setback. The Indian soldiers were poorly equipped materially, fighting generally with swords and spears and very few guns and muskets. On the other hand, the European soldiers were equipped with the latest weapons of war like the Enfield rifle. In addition, the British were aided by new scientific inventions such as the telegraph system and postal communications. This enabled the British to keep in touch with all parts of the country and to maneuver their troops according to their needs. The revolt started as a mutiny which spread to include civilian population. They took benefit of the turmoil to vent their grievances. Hence it was a reactionary event rather than a calculated plan to shake off the British authority. The eastern, southern and western parts remained unaffected. 28 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

30 EFFECTS OF THE REVOLT Following were the prominent changes that were brought about QUEEN S PROCLAMATION All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown. The Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in India was strongest between 1858 and Government of India Act, 1858 The Act was termed as - Act for Good Government in India.The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs. A viceroy was appointed in India i.e. end of Governor General System; Canning, last governor general, became first viceroy. An Executive Council was provided for the Governor General/Viceroy. It abolished Board of Control (British Crown s appointed body to look into political affairs of India) and Court of Directors (Company body to look into administrative and trade functions) and instead a Secretary of State was appointed. He was a member of British Cabinet and directly responsible to British Parliament. Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians. Secretary of State was made highest authority, directly responsible to crown. Charles Wood made first secretary of state. India Council, a 15 member body, was established for assisting him. Reduction in Indian Soldiers It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European soldiers would be increased. It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans. Indians were prevented to take higher ranks in army. Crucial branches of army like Signals, Artillery etc were in hands of Europeans only. Policy towards Princely States In the words of Lord Canning, Princely states acted as breakwaters in storm. They were rewarded by the announcement that they will now be allowed to adopt heirs and their territorial integrity will be respected. British now saw them as useful allies. However, subordinate position of the princely states remained. States have to acknowledge Britain as paramount power. Antagonism towards Muslims The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicionand hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way. However, post 1870 British started to attract Muslims to counter the national movement. It used allure of government jobs to divide various communities. India Councils Act 1861 It was passed and it expanded the council of viceroy and it now alsoperformed legislative functions also and was known as Imperial Legislative Council. It wasmerely an advisory body to viceroy. The year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was that of British paramountcy in the first half, and the other is that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century. Hindu Muslim Unity Factor During the entire revolt, there was complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims at all levels people, soldiers, leaders. All rebels acknowledged Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as the emperor and the first impulse of the Hindu sepoys at Meerut was to march to Delhi, the Mughal imperial capital. Rebels and sepoys, both Hindu and Muslim, respected each other's sentiments. Immediate banning of cow slaughter was ordered once the revolt was successful in a particular area. Both Hindus and Muslims were well represented in leadership, for instance Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim and an expert in political propaganda, as an aide, while Laxmibai had the solid support of Afghan soldiers. 29 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

31 5. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS Indian society in the nineteenth century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and social obscurantism. Hinduism had become a compound of magic, animism and superstition. The priests exercised an overwhelming and, indeed, unhealthy influence on the minds of the people. Idolatry and polytheism helped to reinforce their position. Unlike the previous intruders who came to India, settled here, became a part of its people and were absorbed by its superior culture the British came at a time when Indian society and decadent. Position of women was the most distressing feature of the social life. From the birth of a girl child to widowhood, women of all sections suffered grave disabilities and discrimination. Caste system had become restrictive. Untouchables and Scheduled castes suffered social stigma which led to social injustice the impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new awakening. There was awareness that a vast country like India had been colonized by a handful of foreigners because of internal weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture. For some time it seemed that India had lagged behind in the race of civilization. This process of reawakening is sometimes called as renaissance although there are academicians who disagree with the term in Indian context. Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Sarawathi and Swami Vivekananda were responsible for the social and cultural awakening in India. The spread of liberal ideas of the west provided further stimulus for the emergence of reform movements. These movements introduced important changes in social and religious life of the people of India. IDEOLOGICAL BASE There was also an ideological shift in the enlightened section of Indian society. These people were focused on Rationalism, Universalism and Humanistic thought. Raja Rammohan Roy upheld the principle of causality linking the whole phenomenal universe and demonstrability as the sole criterion of truth. Rationalism: All the tradition and beliefs were sought to be evaluated on the basis of rationality and social utility. There was a move to reconcile religious tenets with the needs of modern age. Universalism: There was a comparison between different religions and basic commonality of universalism was promoted. All religions were found to have some basic universal principles. Humanism: Those values which favour the human progress are the ones which should be promoted. Morality was linked to those values which remove disabilities in all round human welfare. Religious scriptures were reinterpreted in the new spirit of human welfare. Akshay Kumar Dutt held that all natural and social phenomena could be analysed and understood by purely mechanical processes. This perspective enabled them to adopt a rational approach to tradition and evaluate the contemporary socio-religious practices. For instance, in the Brahmo Samaj the repudiation of the infallibility of the Vedas was the result, while the Aligarh movement emphasised reconciliation of Islamic teachings with the needs of the modern age. Religious reforms Religion was the primary source of India socio-cultural value system. It was inextricably linked with the way of life. Priests exercised unhealthy influence over the minds of people. On this backdrop rose religious movements. These can be classified into two types. They are Reformist movements and Revivalist movements. Both the reformist and revivalist movements depended, with varying degrees, on an appeal to the lost, purity of the religion they sought to reform. The only difference between one reform movement and the other lay in the degree to which it relied on tradition or on reason and conscience. HINDUSIM RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY AND BRAHMO SAMAJ He is considered as the first modern man of India and Father of Indian Renaissance. He was a pioneer of socioreligious reform movements in modern India. He visited England as an envoy of the Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II who gave him the title Raja. In 1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha. Later, it was developed into the Brahmo Sabha in August Through this organisation, he preached that there is only one God. He combined the teachings of the 30 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

32 Upanishads, the Bible and the Koran in developing unity among the people of different religions. The work of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj. He believed in rationalistic and modern approach to religion and therefore declared that Vedanta is based on reason and even if situation demands a departure from scripture it would be justified to do so. He put his faith in monotheism. He wrote Gift to Monotheists (Tuhfat-Ul-Muwahhidin) in1 809 and translated into Bengali the Vedas and the five Upanishads to prove his conviction that ancient Hindu texts support monotheism. In Precepts of Jesus (1820), he tried to separate the moral and philosophical message of the New Testament, which he praised, from its miracle stories. He earned the wrath of missionaries over his advocacy to incorporate the message of Christ in Hinduism. Raja Rammohan Roy, William Carey and one more friend HariharanandaVidyabagish, who was a tantric, published a work on Trantrism known as Maha Nirvana Tantra in This work tried to portray the One God of ancient religious texts and endeavored to link the Brahma with Jesus, but the work could not impress the British, who termed it a forgery. BRAHMO SAMAJ Brahmo Samaj believes that the most fundamental doctrines of Brahmoism are at the basis of every religion followed by man. Brahmo Samaj believes in the existence of One Supreme God. Brahmo Samaj believes that worship of Him needs no fixed place or time. Swami Vivekananda was a member of the Brahmo Samaj when he was studying in Scottish Church College, India, from 1881 to 1884, and remained with the Brahmo Samaj until he met his guru, Sri Ramakrishna in November After the publication of Hemendranath Tagore's Brahmo Anusthan (code of practice) in 1860 which formally divorced Brahmoism from Hinduism, the first Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1861 at Lahore by Pandit Nobin Chandra Roy. It is practiced today mainly as the Adi Dharm after its eclipse in Bengal consequent to the exit of the Tattwabodini Sabha from its ranks in In 1858, Keshub Chandra Sen was made the Acharya of the Samaj. Sen tried to change the organization by introducing teaching from other religions and went too ahead of his times by openly supporting inter-caste marriages. In 1865 he was shown the door. Later he found Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866 and the older Samaj came to known as Adi Brahmo Samaj. In 1873 Keshub Chandra Sen committed the inexplicable act of getting his 13 year old daughter married in a ritualistic orthodox way. This led to the exit of some of his followers and set up Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. Doctrine of Brahmo Samaj Brahmo Samajists have no faith in any scripture as an authority. Brahmo Samajists have no faith in Avatars Brahmo Samajists denounce polytheism and idol-worship. Brahmo Samajists are against caste restrictions. Brahmo Samajists make faith in the doctrines of Karma and Rebirth optional. Brahmo Samajists believe in love of mankind irrespective of caste, creed, race, colour Roy s Contribution to Women s Rights The turning point in his life came in 1811 when wife of his deceased elder brother committed Sati. This event filled Raja Ram Mohan Roy with unspeakable remorse and pity for women. Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord William Bentinck to declare the practice of Sati a punishable offence in This regulation, though was effective in Bengal only, began the process of social reform through social legislation. He also protested against the child marriage and female infanticide. He favored the remarriage of widows, female education and women s right to property. Roy s Contribution towards Education In 1817, in collaboration with David Hare, he set up the Hindu College at Calcutta. In 1822, Roy found the Anglo-Hindu school, followed four years later (1826) by the Vedanta College; where he insisted that his teachings of monotheistic doctrines be incorporated with "modern, western curriculum." 31 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

33 In 1830, he helped Rev. Alexander Duff in establishing the General Assembly's Institution (now known as Scottish Church College) He supported induction of western learning into Indian education. Roy s Contribution towards Indian Nationalism Roy published journals in English, Hindi, Persian and Bengali. His most popular journal was the SambadKaumudi and edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-Akhbar. It covered topics like freedom of press, Indianisation of superior services, judicial equality between Indians and Europeans and separation of the executive and judiciary. Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of maximum rents. He also demanded abolition of taxes on tax free lands. He called for a reduction of export duties on goods abroad and abolition of the East India Company's trading rights. Roy was an internationalist with a vision beyond his time. He supported the revolution of Naples and Spanish America and condemned the oppression of Ireland by absentee English landlordism. PRARTHANA SAMAJ PrarthanaSamaj was founded by Atmaram Pandurang with the help of Keshav Chandra Sen in 1867, with an aim to make people believe in one God and worship only one God in Bombay. It had four point agenda: Promotion of women s education Supporting widow remarriage Raising the minimum permissible age of marriage for both the genders Against caste system Its major leaders were M.G. Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar and N.G. Chandavarkar SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI AND ARYA SAMAJ The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswathi at Bombay in A few years later its headquarters were set up at Lahore. Born in Kathiawar in Gujarat, Swami Dayanand ( ) he left home in order to escape the entanglement of marriage when he was 21. He spent two and a half years at Mathura as a disciple of a blind saint scholar Swami Virjananda, who taught him the philosophic interpretation of the Vedas. He believed the Vedas were the source of true knowledge and is infallible. His motto was Back to the Vedas. Maharshi Dayananda advocated the doctrine of Karma and Reincarnation. He emphasized the ideals of Brahmacharya including celibacy and devotion to God. He was against idol worship, child marriage and caste system based on birth. He encouraged inter-caste marriages and widow remarriage. He started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had converted to other religions to its fold. He wrote the book Satyartha Prakash which contains his ideas. He was the first to give the call for Swaraj as "Indian for India" in 1876, a call later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak. The Paropakarini Sabha located in the Indian city of Ajmer was founded by the Swami himself to publish and preach his works and Vedic texts. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA AND RAMAKRISHNA MISSION The original name of Swami Vivekananda was Narendranath Dutta ( ) and he became the most famous disciple of Shri RamkrishnaParamahamsa. He was born in a prosperous Bengali family of Calcutta and educated in Scottish Church College. In 1886 Narendranath took the vow of Sanyasa and was given the name, Vivekananda. He preached Vedantic Philosophy. He condemned the caste system and the current Hindu emphasis on rituals and ceremonies. Swami Vivekananda participated at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in September 1893 and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high. He asked the people to improve the lives of the poor and depressed classes. He believed that service to mankind is service to God. He founded the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in Howrah in It is a social service and charitable society. The objectives of this Mission are providing humanitarian relief and social work through the establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals and orphanages. 32 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

34 He advised his followers to be holy, unselfish and to have shraddhā (faith). Vivekananda supported brahmacharya (celibacy), believing it the source of his physical and mental stamina and eloquence. GOPAL HARI DESHMUKH (LOKHITWADI) Attacked Hindu orthodoxy supported social & religious equality. (Said if religion does not sanction social reform then change that religion.) PANDITA RAMABAI founded org named Mahila Arya Samaj THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY The Theosophical Society was founded in New York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian lady, and Henry Steel Olcott, an American colonel. Their main objectives were to form a universal brotherhood of man without any distinction of race, colour or creed and to promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies. They arrived in India and established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in The society believed in reincarnation and Karma. Their beliefs were based on the philosophy of Upanishads and Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta school of thoughts. Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of the Society after the death of Olcott. Mrs. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras which later developed into the Banaras Hindu University. ISLAM The Muslim reform movements started a little later because they had avoided western education in the beginning. The first effort was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise the study of English and western sciences. It established a number of schools in Bengal. SIR SAYYID AHMED KHAN Sayyid Ahmed Khan, born in 1817 in a respectable Muslim family, was a loyalist member of the judicial service of the Government. He wantedto reconcile western scientific education with the teachings of the Quranto be interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science even though he also held the Quran to be the ultimate. After retirement in 1876, he became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in His loyalty earned him a knighthood in He was also a zealous educationist as an official, he openedschools in towns, got books translated into Urdu and started themohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in He opposed purdah and polygamy, advocated easy divorce, and condemned the system of piri and muridi. He believed in the fundamental underlying unity of religions or 'practical morality'. He also preached the basic commonality of Hindu and Muslim interests. His mouthpiece Tahdhib-ul-Akhaq was a medium of propagation of his ideas. He argued that Muslims should first concentrate on education and jobs and try to catch up with their Hindu counterparts. He opposed political activity by the Muslims fearing hostility from government. In his enthusiasm for Muslim welfare he let the British use him as part of policy of divide and rule. ALIGARH MOVEMENT The Aligarh Movement emerged as a liberal, modern trend among the Muslim intelligentsia based in Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh. It aimed at spreading (i)modern education among Indian Muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam; (ii) social reforms among Muslims relating to purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women's education, slavery, divorce, etc. 33 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

35 DEOBAND SCHOOL The Deoband Movement was organised by the orthodox section among the Muslim Ulema as a revivalist movement with the twin objectives of propagating pure teachings of the Quran and Hadis among Muslims and keeping alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers. The Deoband Movement was established in Deoband in Saharanpur district (United Provinces) in 1866 by Mohammad QasimNanotavi ( ) and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi ( ) to train religious leaders for the Muslim community. On the political front, the Deoband School welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress and in 1888 issued a fatwa (religious decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan s organizations The United Patriotic Association and the Mohammed Anglo-Oriental Association. Some critics attribute Deoband s support to the nationalists more to its determined opposition to Syed Ahmed Khan than to any positive political philosophy. WAHABI MOVEMENT The Wahabi movement was a revivalist movement which tried to purify Islam by eliminating all the Un-Islamic practices which had crept into Muslim society through the ages. Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareli, the leader of this movement in India was influenced by the teaching of Abdul Wahab of Arabia, but even more by the preaching of the Delhi Saint Shah Waliullah. The movement was organized around two fold ideas (i) Convergence of all four schools of thought of Muslim jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali, and the al-shafi i schools) (ii) Contradictory interpretations of Quran and Hadiths be left to the individual conscience According to the tenets of Wahabi movement, India was considered to be Dar-ul-Harb (unholy land) and it was needed to convert it to Dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam). The movement shifted its target to the British from Sikhs which the former annexed Punjab. The movement died during the 1870s unable to face colonial might. PARSIS The RAHNUMAI MAZDAYASNAN SABHA (Religious Reform Association) was founded in 1851 by a, group of English-educated Parsis for the "regeneration of the social conditions of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity". It composed of intellectuals like Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama and S.S. Bengali. The message of reform was spread by the newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller). In the social sphere, attempts were made to uplift the status of Parsi women through removal of the purdah system, rising the age of marriage and education. Gradually, the Parsis emerged as the most westernized section of the Indian society. SIKHS Punjab also came under the spell of reforms. Baba Dayal Das founded the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar (formless). The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh. His followers wore white clothes and gave up meat eating. The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amritsar in 1870 was aimed at reforming the Sikh society. They helped to set up the Khalsa College at Amritsar in They also encouraged Gurmukhi and Punjabi literature. In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the Sikh gurudwaras. The British government was forced to make laws on this matter. Later, the Akalis organised themselves into a political party. The Akalis started a satyagraha movement in 1921 which was peaceful non-cooperation and culminated in the passing of Sikh Gurudwara Act in It legally defined Sikh identity and brought Sikh Gurdwaras (houses of worship) under the control of an elected body of orthodox Sikhs. SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS The humanistic ideals of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals which inspired the newly educated middle class had a major impact on the field of social reform. The social reform movements formed an integral part of the religious reforms as many evil practices claim legitimacy from religion. In later years though, the social reform 34 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

36 movement gradually dissociated itself from religion and, adopted a secular approach. Also social reform movements were limited to upper and middle classes but it later penetrated into lower strata too. Generally social reform movements had two fold objectives i) For the upliftment of status of women and children ii) Removal of disabilities imposed based on caste ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR Vidyasagar's ideas were a happy blend of Indian and western thought. He believed in high moral values, was a deep humanist and was generous to the poor. In 1850, he became the principal of Sanskrit College. He was determined to break the priestly monopoly of scriptural knowledge, and for this he opened the Sanskrit College to non-brahmins. He introduced western thought in Sanskrit College. Vidyasagar championed the uplift of the status of women in India, particularly in his native Bengal. With support from people like Akshay Kumar Dutta, Vidyasagar introduced the practice of widow remarriages to mainstream Hindu society. He persuaded the British Government to take action and pushed for it to pass The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, He was also a crusader against child marriage and polygamy. As secretary of Bethune School (established in 1849), he was one of the pioneers of higher education for women in India YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young Bengal Movement. He was born in Calcutta in 1809 and taught in the Hindu College, Calcutta He organised debates where ideas and social norms were freely debated. In 1828, he motivated them to form a literary and debating club called the Academic Association. Due to his unorthodox (legendarily free) views on society, culture and religion, the Hindu-dominated management committee of the college, under the chairmanship of Radhakanta Deb, expelled him as a faculty member. He died of cholera in His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement the Young Bengal Movement. They attacked old traditions and decadent customs. advocated women s rights and their education. They founded associations and organized debates against idol worship, casteism and superstitions. JYOTIBA PHULE Jyotiba Phule belonged to the Mali (gardener) community and organized a powerful movement against upper caste domination and brahminical supremacy. Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers' Society) in 1873, with the leadership of the Samaj coming from the backward classes, Malis, Telis, Kunbis, Saris and Dhangars. The main aims of the movement were (i) social service, and (ii) spread of education among women and lower caste people. Phule's works, SarvajanikSatyadharma and Gulamgiri, became sources of inspiration for the common masses. Phule was bestowed with the title of Mahatma on 11 May 1888 by another social reformer from Bombay, Vithal Rao KrishnajiVandekar. Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the, brahmins' symbol of Rama. He and his wife, Savitribai Phule, were pioneers of women's education in India; couple started the first indigenously-run school for girls in Pune in He championed widow remarriage and started a home for pregnant Brahmin widows to give birth in a safe and secure place in B.R. AMBEDKAR Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April December 1956),was an Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer who inspired the Dalit Buddhist Movement and campaigned against social discrimination against Untouchables, while also supporting the rights of women and labour. Ambedkar was born into a poor low Mahar (dalit). In 1913, Ambedkar moved to the United States at the age of 22. He presented a thesis, Ancient Indian Commerce. In 1916 he completed his second thesis, National Dividend of India A Historic and Analytical Study.. In Bombay, he formed a Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha in July 1924 for the welfare of the outcastes. Later, he also organized the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha to fight against caste oppression. He led a 35 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

37 Satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. In 1920, Ambedkar had also started a weekly paper called Mooknayak (Leader of the Dumb) to champion the cause of the depressed classes in India. In a conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classic Hindu text, the Manusmriti for justifying caste discrimination and publicly burned copies of the ancient text. He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with the all-european Simon Commission in This commission had sparked great protests across India, and while its report was ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of recommendations for the future Constitution of India. The depressed classes were represented by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar at the First Round Table Conference. Ambedkar formed the Independent Labour Party (ILP) in August, 1936, which participated in the provincial elections of Bombay and won 13 seats out of 15 seats reserved for scheduled castes. Independent Labour Party was transformed by Ambedkar as the All India Scheduled Castes Federation in Ambedkar was first elected to the Constituent Assembly from Bengal but he lost his seat after the partition. However, he was chosen by the Bombay Congress Legislative Party in place of M.R. Jaykar who resigned earlier. Ambedkar was elected as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly. He is called the father of the Indian Constitution. SREE NARAYANA GURU DHARMA PARIPALANA (SNDP) SNDP movement was an example of a regional movement born out of conflict between the depressed classes and upper non-brahmin castes. It was started by Sri Narayana Guru Swamy among the Ezhavas of Kerala, who were a caste of toddy-tappers and were considered to be untouchables. The movement as a whole brought transformative structural changes such as upward social mobility, shift in traditional distribution of power TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT Lot of work in this direction had already been done by Shri Narayan Guru & N. Kumaran Asan Social reformer T.K Madhavan took up the issue, Vaikom in northern part of Travancore became centre of agitation Gandhi undertook a tour of kerla in support of the movement JUSTICE MOVEMENT This movement in Madras Presidency was started by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja to secure jobs and representation for the non-brahmins in the legislature In 1917, Madras Presidency Association was formed which demanded separate representation for the lower castes in the legislature. TITU MIR S MOVEMENT Mir Nithar Ali (TituMir) disciple of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi organized Muslim Peasants of Bengal against Hindu Landlords of Bengal & British Indigo Planters. British records described the movement as militant but it was not, in 1831 last year of Mir s life there was a confrontation between him and British police in which Titu Mir was killed. VARIOUS SOCIAL REFORM LEGISLATIONS Abolition of infanticide by Bengal regulation act of 1795, by Lord Wellesley by regulation of 1804 again. Abolition of sati- by Lord William Bentinck through under regulation of Lot of contribution in this direction was made by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, initially this ban applicable in the presidency of Bengal only. In 1830 the regulation was extended to Bombay and madras presidencies also. Abolition of slavery by Lord Ellenborough Widow Remarriage act through act 15 th in Approval of widow by Hindu widow remarriage act this was result of the pioneering efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. Native marriage act banned the child marriage, polygamy & approval of inter caste marriage & widow remarriage. Fixed the minimum age: 18y for boys & 14y for girls. Act was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims, & other recognized faiths. Age of consent act 1891 prohibited child marriages. Marriage age for girls increased to 12 years, this was result of the pioneering efforts of Behramji Malabari & K.C Sen. 36 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

38 Positive Aspects of Reform Movements Use of vernacular languages Emphasis on individual s rights Reason based thinking Creation of national awakening among the masses Creation of the feelings of sacrifice, service and rationalism Negative Aspects of Reform Movements Narrow social base Communal consciousness The modern education neglected mass education Concentrated upon and benefited only a microscopic minority of the Indian population Lack of unity and a sound organization Opposition from orthodox elements was there at every attempt of the reformers Did not give proper emphasis to certain issues like casteism, untouchability, inheritance rights of women s etc. 37 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

39 6. RISE OF MODERN NATIONALISM GROWTH OF NEW INDIA Factors that played imp role in growth of modern nationalism: Grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies Political and administrative unity Administrative unification of India under British rule English Language and Western Education Development of Transport and Means of Communication Emergence of modern press Economic Exploitation Revival of Glorious Indian Heritage Repressive policies and racial arrogance of British Emergence of Conscious Middle Class Strong reaction to British imperialist policies in India Impact of contemporary movements in world Indian renaissance All these factors jointly, had promoted the growth of nationalism in India. Indian nationalism was not the hand maid of a particular class, but the result of a common consciousness among all classes of India PRINTING PRESS & ROLE OF PRESS IN INDIA the printing press was first brought to India in 16 th century by JAMES HICKY an Irishman. In 1780 he released 1 st printed newspaper in India the name of news paper was BENGAL GAZETTE. SAMACHARDARPAN was 1 st newspaper in Indian language Bengali started in UdantMartand (the rising sun) was the first Hindi language newspaper published in India Started on May 30, 1826, from Calcutta the weekly newspaper was published every Tuesday by Pt. Jugal Kishore Shukla In 1878 Lord Lytton brought the vernacular press act 1878, it imposed various restrictions on vernacular press which was previously removed by Metcalf in 1835 At that time there was a famous newspaper named Amrit Bazar Patrika by Shisir Kumar Ghos it adopted a new strategy to save itself from vernacular press act of Lytton and over the night converted it into English newspaper from Bengali Early Organizations or organizations before congress LAND HOLDER S SOCIETY 1838 The Zamindari Association, more popularly known as the Landholders Society was founded in 1838 to safeguard the interests of the landlords. It marked the beginning of an organized political activity and use of methods of constitutional agitation for the redressal of grievances. BENGAL BRITISH INDIA SOCIETY 1843: Founded with the objective to collect information on ground reality & actual condition of the people of British India & to secure interest, rights of all classes. In 1851 both the Land holder s society 1838 & Bengal British India Society merged to form BRITISH INDIAN ASSOCIATION EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION 1866: The East Indian Association was organized by DadabhaiNaoroji in 1866 in London to discuss the Indian question and to influence British public men to promote Indian welfare. Later he organized branches of the Association in prominent Indian cities INDIAN ASSOCIATION 1876: The Indian Association founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876 superseded the Indian League. It hoped to attract not only the middle classes but also the masses by keeping low membership fee. Soon the Indian Association became the center of the leading representatives of the educated community of Bengal 38 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

40 BOMBAY ASSOCIATION 1852: The first political organization of the Bombay Presidency was the Bombay Association which was started on 26 August 1852, to vent public grievances to the British POONA SARVAJANIK SABHA 1867: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by Mahadeo Govind Ranade and others, with the object of serving as a bridge between the Government one the one hand and the people on the other MADRAS MAHAJAN SABHA 1884 In 1884, the Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya Aiyer and P. Anandacharlu.. Founded by 72 political delegates, it was the first organised expression of indian nationalisim on all India scale A.O Hume a retired ICS officer, played an important role in its formation. The first session of congress presided by Womesh Chandra Bonerjee & held at Gokuldas Tejpal sanskrit college Bombay in Dec As prelude to this two session of Indian National Confrencehad been held in 1883 and 1885,which had representative drawn from all major towns of india. Surendranath banarjea and Anand Mohan Bose were the main architect of Indian National Confrence. SAFETY VALVE THEORY Theory was put forward by Lala Lajpat Rai in paper Young India n He supported arguments with refrences contained in Hume s biogrophy written by willium widderburn in According to this theory INC was started by Hume and others under the official advice of Lord dufferin, The Viceroy,to provide safety valve for the rising discontent among masses. FACTS ABOUT CONGRESS 1 st session Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College Bombay. Earlier Poona was selected but shifted to bombay because of the outbreak of the cholera. 1 st President Womesh chandra banerjee of Bengal. 1 st session was attended by 100 men of whom 72 were non-officials & were recognised as members. Founder members were Fherozesah mehta, Badruddin tyabji, W.C banerjee, RC Dutt,Dada Bhai Naoroji. Initially it was named Indian National Union. Educated middle class had the largest share in the beginning. Brahmins among the castes were comparatively large in numbers. Among the provinces,bombay, Madras,Calcutta took the leading part. Landed class and the masses were not represented properly. Congress started a journal India in IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

41 COMMENTS AGAINST CONGRESS Congress is a begging institution B.C Pal Congress sessions are 3 days Tamasha Aashwini kr. Dutta Congress leaders playing with Bubbles Aurobindo Ghos Congress sessions as croaking once a year like Frog- Tilak Congress represents only a microscopic Minority in india-lord Dufferin 40 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

42 7. FREEDOM STRUGGLE Moderate phase Extremist phase Revolutionary terrorists in twophases Aim Awakening people Aim Swaraj (not independence) Aim Freedom Social Base Some people Social Base people Social Base Narrow Strategy Constitutional method Strategy Mass mobilization, they called moderates political mendicants Strategy Arms MODERATE PHASE Imp. Leaders DADABHAI NAROJI (Grand old man) He was the 1 st to give the theory of Drain of wealth, His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India brought attention to the draining of India's wealth into Britain. Naoroji founded the RAHNUMAE MAZDAYASNE SABHA (Guides on the Mazdayasne Path) in1851 to restore the Zoroastrian religion to its original purity and simplicity. In 1854, he also founded a Gujarati fortnightly publication, the Rast-O-Goftar (or The Truth Teller), to clarify Zoroastrian concepts and promote Parsi social reforms. He became the member of House of Commons of the British Parliament means he was the 1 st Indian to become the member of British parliament. Dadabhai was honored by being thrice elected president of Indian national congress. GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHLE He was the political Guru of Mahatma Gandhi. He was the founder of theorganization Servants of India Society in 1905 with the help Of M.G Ranade, The aim of the society to train national missionaries for the service of India an involved himself in social cause. After Gokhale s death (1915), Shrinivas Shastri took over as the president. The society still continues to function through its shrunken base in many cities of India. FEROZ SHAH MEHTA Mehta was born on in Bombay to a Parsi business family Was an Indian political leader, activist, and a leading lawyer of Bombay,Became the municipal commissioner of Bombay Municipality in 1873, President of Indian National Congress in 1890 Calcutta session. In 1910, he started Bombay Chronicle, an English-language weekly newspaper, 41 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

43 IASBEE MODERN HISTORY SURENDRANATH BANERJEE He founded the Indian National Association, through which he led two sessions of the Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885, along with Anandamohan Bose. After the foundation of INC, Banerjee merged his organization with it. He was elected the Congress President in 1895 at Poona and in 1902 at Ahmedabad. BADDRUDDINTAIYABJI Taiyabji was the 3 rd president of Indian national congress in madras session 1887 and 1 st Muslim president. He was also the 1 st Indian Barrister in Bombay in 1867; He became the 1 st Indian to hold the post of chief justice in Bombay. In 1885 he helped to found Bombay Presidency association along with Pheroz Shah Mehta & Kashinath Telang. He campaigned against purdah. He supported Age of consent Bill 1891, Despite Hindu and Muslim opposition. M.G RANADE He was among the foremost reformers, who deprecated the caste system and Untouchability, Favored the enhancement of the status of women and was a champion of widow Re-marriage. Ranade believed that unless social reforms were achieved, there could be no real economic or political progress. Ranade was a founder of the National Social Conference 1887,He was one of the founders of the Widow Marriage Association 1861He was one of the first members of the Prathana Samaj, founded in 1867Established the Maharashtra Girls Education Society and Huzurpaga, the oldest girls' high school in Pune. R.C DUTTA He was an Economic historian of India of the nineteenth century His famous works are in which he described deplorable condition of India due to British Rule are England and India,Famines in India& his most Famous work the two volumes of The Economic History of India. W.C BANERJEE Womesh Chandra Banerjee was the first President of Indian National Congress (INC) He was the first Indian to contest the election for the British House of Commons although he lost. In 1865 DadabhaiNaoroji founded the London Indian society and Banerjee was made its general secretary. He was the member of the East India Association also. APPROACH OF MODERATES Moderates never asked for independence of India, they always declared themselves the loyal citizen of British rule, they believe in the essential goodness of British. They didn t believe in pressure politics Moderates believe that the British basically wanted to be just to the Indians but were not aware of the real conditions. 42 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

44 Therefore if the public opinion could be created in the country and public demands be presented to the government through resolutions, petitions, meetings etc., the authorities would concede these demands gradually. To achieve these ends they worked on two prolonged methodologies Prayer & petition Constitutional agitation The moderates did not take up social reform as a part of congress agenda and government too didn t heed to the moderates demands. LIMITATION OF MODERATES They believe in essential goodness of British. They did not mobilize the masses. They did not take up social reform as an agenda of congress. They failed to put pressure on British for Action. ESTIMATE OF MODERATES It appears that moderates were a failure but actually they were not, there constitutional activities were reported in News Papers &through which political education of Indians carried out Under their influence The Indian council act 1892 passed. This act for the 1 st time introduced the element of discussion & question in legislature. Though this act was toothless but with the help of same they can enter into legislature & there they would give speeches & participate into the proceedings, till now Indians know only traditional politics, but by their activities in legislature they laid the foundation of modern Indian politics. Economic critique of British imperialism analysed by early nationalists Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C.Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha and they put forward the Drain Theory to Explain British exploitation in India They opposed the transformation of basically self sufficient Indian economy into colonial Economy (a supplier of raw material and food stuff, an importer of finished goods and a field of investment for British capital) Thus, the moderates were able to create an all India public opinion that British rule in India is major cause of India s backwardness and poverty EXTREMIST PHASE Indian council act, 1892 Main provisions 1-Enlarged the size& function of central and provincial councils 2-Element of indirect election introduced for 1 st time. 3-councils to have right to discuss budget under certain conditions 4- Member of councils granted right to ask questions. Imp Leaders LALA LAJPAT RAI: participated actively in the non-cooperation movement against British rule, which was started mainly to oppose the Rowlatt Act.For showing bravery in opposing this new legislation, in Punjab, Lala Lajpat Rai was given the title of 'Punjab Kesari'. BAL GANGADHAR TILAK: He was the first leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities called him "The father of the Indian unrest." He was also conferred with the title of "Lokmanya", He is known for his quote Swarajya is my birthright and I shall have it He organised the Deccan Educational Society in 1884 with a few of his college friends, Limitations -supplementary questions were not allowed - Budget could not be voted upon -the officials retained their majority in the council, thus making ineffective the non official voice 43 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

45 including Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev, Ballal Namjoshi and Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar. Their goal was to improve the quality of education for India's youth Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in He opposed its moderate attitude, especially towards the fight for self-government. He was one of the most-eminent radicals at the time. Published two news papers Kesari (Marathi) & Maharatta (English) BIPIN CHANDRA PAL Along with Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak he belonged to the LAL, BAL and PAL trio that was associated with revolutionary activity. In fact Aurobindo Ghosh and Pal were recognized as the chief exponents of a new national movement revolving around the ideals of Purna Swaraj, Swadeshi, boycott and national education. AUROBINDO GHOSH Sri Aurobindo came to the active politics with an evolutionary idea of Independence instead of Swaraj. He was a believer that the nation had the right to obtain its freedom from foreign rule by any means possible. In 1905, with the partition of Bengal, Aurobindo pleaded for leaving moderate politics and join the extreme politics of prominent contemporary leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal Viceroy Lord Minto was quick to term him as the Most dangerous man in India. Sri Aurobindo was tried twice for sedation but acquitted both the times. However, in May 1908 he was arrested in Alipore Bomb case and imprisoned for one year. In 1910 he left active politics to become a yogi. ASHWINI KUMAR DUTTA The Partition of Bengal drew him to the Swadeshi movement. He founded the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti to promote the consumption of indigenous products and boycott foreign goods. When the moderates and the extremists parted ways in the Surat session, he attempted reconciliation between the two groups. REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM Rise of revolutionary terrorist movement: The failure of Moderates and Extremist to get anything substantial from British. Repressive policies of British government, restriction on freedom of press(1908),imprisonment of Imp leaders like Tilak and other important personalities for preaching nationalism Influence of western ideas & method of struggle i.e. Irish Movement. Existence of militant nationalist school of thought in the Nationalist movement- Raj Narain, A.KDutt (Bengal). Vishnu Shastri Chipulankar Vasudev BalwantPhadke -Ramosi Peasant Force (Maharashtra)& The emergence of eminent extremist leaders in beginning of 20 th century e.g. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Bipin Chandra pal & Aurobindo Ghosh (Bengal),Lala Lajpat Rai & Ajit Singh (Punjab), T. Prakashan & M. Krishna Rao (Andhra) etc. 44 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

46 DEVELOPMENT OF MOVEMENT IN VARIOUS PHASES st Political murder at poona by brothers Damodar Chapekar& Balkrishna Chapekar, they wanted to kill Mr. Rand The president of Plague committee but Lt. Ayerst shot dead accidentally. Mitra Mela Association set up by V.D Savarkar a secret Society at Nasik. In1904 Savrkar Organized Abhinav Bharat. Mitra Mela was merged with Abhinav Bharat. Savarkar described 1857 as War of independence in his book The Indian war of independence Anushilan Samiti by P.Mitra& Satish Chandra Bose at Calcutta. Aurbindo Ghosh and Sister Nivedita greatly encouraged and supported it. Putin Das organized another Anushilan Samiti at Dacca. It had about 500 branches in East Bengal. India Home Rule Society by Shyamji Krishna Verma at London popularly known as India House. He also published a monthly journal Indian Sociologist to espouse Indian causes. In may 1907 house celebrated the golden jubilee of revolt 1857 and Savarkar described it a war of independence. Barindrakumar Ghosh & Bhupendra Nath Dutta made unsuccessful attempt on the life of Fuller the Lt. Governor of West Bengal. Prafulla Chaki & Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a carriage which they believed was occupied by Mr. Kingsford. The unpopular judge of Muzzafarpur. By mistake this bomb hit a carriage carrying Mr. Kennedy and two ladies were killed. Chaki and Bose were arrested. Chaki shot himself & Bose was tried & hanged. Ghose Brothers i.e. Aurobindo & Barindrakumar tried in Allipore Conspiracy Case. Paris India Society in Paris by Madam Bhikaji Kama. She also Founded Independent India Society. She also published a Journal Vande Matram to espouse Indian Causes. She represents India at international socialist congress at Stuttgart in August After the end of the conference she unfurled the tricolor. This was the first occasion when Indian tricolor was unfurled. Ras Bihari Bose & Sachin Sanyal threw a bomb on the viceroy Lord Hardinge while he was passing through Chandani Chowk at the time of his state entry in Delhi. Hardinge was wounded and his assistant was killed and the case is known as Delhi Conspiracy Case. 13 persons were arrested in this case. Lala Hardayal founded Hindi Association in Portland in may A weekly Paper Gadar was started and set up their HQ called Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco. The Gadar was published in Urdu, Gurumukhi, Gujrati and Hindi. The Gadar party planned an all India Revolution. LalaHardayal, Baba Harnam Singh, Sohan Singh Bakhana were main leaders of Gadar Movement. Ras Bihari Bose, Sachindranath Sanyal, Ganesh Pingle, BaghiKartar Singh prepared master plan for this purpose. This plan for All India revolt failed because Kirpal Singh passed all the secrets to government. 45 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

47 Kamagatamaru Incident took place Provisional Government of free India in Kabul formed by Raja Mahendra Pratap (President), Barkhatullah (Prime Minister) and associates, Raja MahendraPrtap met Lenin to seek support Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha) Jatin tried to capture Fort William he was captured and killed after a heroic fight After C.R Das Congress Leadership in Bengal got divided into two wings, one led by Subhas Chandra Bose and the other by J.M Sengupta. The Yugantar group joined forces with the first and Anushilan with second. Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) by Ram Prasad Bismil,JogeshChaterjee, Chandra Shekhar Azad, SachindranathSanyal in October 1924 at Kanpur. Revolutionary was the main mouthpiece of HRA Sanyal wrote journalbandijivan HRA declared that its aim is to over through colonial rule from India Through Armed Revolution. On August 09, 1925 The revolutionaries carried out a train robbery at Kakori. Asfaqullah Khan, Bismil, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri were hanged. Four others were sent to Andaman for life imprisonment and 17 long term imprisonment, only Azad could escape. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) Under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad with young revolutionaries such as Bijoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Verma, &Jaidev Kapoor of (U.P), Bhagat Singh, BhagvatiCharan Vohra and Sukhdev from (Punjab), Jatindrnath, Ajay ghosh and FannindranathGhosh (Bengal) met at FerozshahKotla ground at Delhi, they created new leadership adopted socialism as their goal and changed the name of HRA to HSRA. Lala Lajpat Rai was beaten brutally by police while he was leading anti Simon agitation at Lahore. On 17 December 1928 Bhagat Singh, Azad and Raj guru assassinated Saunders at Lahore Railway station. Action taken by government in this connection is known as Lahore conspiracy case 1929 On 8 th April 1929 Bhagat Singh and BatukeshwarDutt threw a bomb in Central Legislative assembly against the passes of Trade dispute bill & Public safety bill. Bomb was deliberately thrown on empty benches because they don t want to kill anybody. Here Bhagat Singh 1 st time used slogan Inquilab Zindabad. (Written by Iqbal). They were arrested and tried later their trial was combined with Lahore Conspiracy Case. Jatin Das died in jail on 64 th day of his epic fast. He was opposing inhuman treatment meted out to the revolutionaries. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj guru were sentenced to be hanged. Indian Republican Armyon18 th April 1930 group led by Ganesh Ghosh captured the Police armory at Chittagong, another group of 10 revolutionaries led by Lokenath Paul took over the auxiliary force armory along with its guns and 303 army rifles. But they could not take cartridges with them in hurry. Ganesh Ghosh, Kalpana Dutta, Lokenath Paul Ambika Chakrvarti were members of IRA under Surya Sen. In all 65 revolutionaries were involved in the raid which was undertaken in the name of IRA s Chittagong branch After this loot all the revolutionaries shouted slogans of BandeMataram&Inquilab Zindabad outside police armory under the leadership of Surya Sen & proclaimed a 46 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

48 provisional revolutionary government.sen was finally arrested & was tried and hanged on 12 th January In 1933 Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested and sentenced two year term in jail for sedition because he praised the heroism of revolutionaries. Bina Das fired at governor of Bengal at point blank range while receiving her degree at convocation. Udham Singh killed Michael o dwyer in London to take revenge of Jalliawala Bagh Killings. Michael o dwyer was Lt. Governor of Punjab at that time BOOKS, JOURNALS & ORGANIZATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES 1940 Bharat Mata Society Punjab Naujawan Sabha The Philosophy of Bomb Bomb Manual Yugantar Varrtaman, Rananiti Vande Mataram VandeMataram Indian Sociologist Bhavani Mandir Bharat Mata Bandi Jivan J.M Chaterjee Bhagat Singh BhagvatiCharan Vohra P.N Bapat Barindrakumar Ghosh &Bhupendranath Dutta Barindrakumar Ghosh Madam Bhikhaji Kama (Paris) Aurobindo Ghosh (India) Shyamji Krishna Verma Barindra Kumar Ghosh,Aurobindo Ghosh Ajit Singh Sachindranath Sanyaltried 47 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

49 SWADESHI MOVEMENT Swadeshi Movement was started to oppose the British deceision to partition Bengal,In 1903 British Government declared the intention to partion Bengal,it was argued that it is a large territory an so for the administrative convinience it should be partitioned. Immidiately Moderates started a movement to change the mindset of British through Constitutional means they tried hard from 1903 to 1905 and the moment called Anti Partition Movement led by moderates. In a meeting held at Calcutta Town Hallthe Nationalist give a call for swadeshi movement against partition on 07 August 1905, the boycott resolution passed in the meeting. On 16 th october 1905 the Viceroy Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal, partition done on the basis devide & rule policy of British& a seprate muslim provience of Est Bengal was created. Now the extremist get the chance to criticise the moderates for getting nothing in the name of constitutional propoganda, now under the leadership of Extremist a new movement named Swadeshi was started. On 16 th october 1905 Day of mourning declared in Bengal, people didn t cook food, they tied Rakhis on each others hand. Congress supported Boycott movement only for Bengal in its Banaras session 1905 presided by Gopal Krishna Gokhle. Surendranath Banerjee, K.K Mitra, Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajapat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh were important leaders. Rabindranath Tagore composed Amar Sonar Bangal. In the sphere of painting, the names of Nanda Lal Bose & Abanindranath Tagore contributed. In the field of science, J.C Bose, Prafullchandra Roy and others pioneered origional reserch. In 1906 session of congress at Calcutta, Dadabhai Naroji (President)declared the aimof congress SWARAJ like that of other British colonies. Four compromise resolutions were passed at this session: (a)swadeshi (b)boycott (c) National Education (d) Swarajya (self Government). THE ECONOMIC BOYCOTT AND SWADESHI In the economic sphere Swadeshi movement advocated for fostering indigenous industrial and other enterprises and boycott to foreign goods. According to Sumit Sarkar, Swadeshi may be defined as the sentiment that- indigenous goods should be preferred by consumers even if they were more expensive and inferior in quality to their imported substitutes. SWADESHI AND SOCIAL BOYCOTT The social boycott was an outcome of economic Swadeshi movement. It was preached to go against the repressive measures of the Government. The social boycott was a very powerful weapon. A man selling or buying foreign goods or in any way opposing Swadeshi movement and helping Government in putting it down, would be subjected to various degrees of humiliation. 48 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

50 EFFECTS AND ESTIMATE OF SWADESHI: It is difficult to form an accurate estimate of the effect of the Boycott movement on the import of foreign goods in Bengal, as no exact statistics are available. It appears, however, from the official and confidential Police reports that for the first two or three years, there was a serious decline in the import of British goods, particularly cloth. Passive resistance could not go for long and its ultimate result could never be in doubt. This was the genesis of the sudden emergence of a network of secret revolutionary organizations which were determined to meet the Government on equal terms, by collectively arms and opposing terrorism by terrorism Swadeshi Movement in different parts of the country Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh - Punjab Syed Haider Ali - Delhi Hari Sarvottam Rai -Andhra Pradesh Indigenous organizations in various fields developed due to Swadeshi Movement Bengal National College was established. Bengal council of National education headed by Guru Das Banerjee Bengal chemical factory established by Acharya P.C Ray Nandalal Bose became the 1 st recipient of scholarship offered by Indian Society of Oriental Art SURAT SPLIT 1907 The extremists were expelled from the congress by the moderates in December 1907 at Surat session. The moderates dominated the session and their main leader was Firoz shah Mehta; Lala Lajpat Rai was the presidential candidate of the extremists. But later on he withdrew his nomination and Ras Bihari was elected as the President of Congress. 49 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

51 8.INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING 1 ST WORLD WAR GADAR MOVEMENT In 1907 Ramnath puri a political exile,issued a circular-i-azadi in USA pleading for support to the swadeshi movement in india Tarak nath das leader of indian community in North America started a paper named Free Hindustan, Swadesh sewak home was started by G.D Kumar in Vancouver on the lines of India House In London. In 1910 G.D Kumar and Taraknath set up United India House in Seattle (USA). Lala Hardayal Founded Hindi Association in portland in A weekly paper The Gadar was started and set up their HQ called Yugantar Ashram in Sanfransisco. Caption of Gadar was Angreji Raj Ka Dushman & front page of each issue titled Angrezi Raj Ka Kaccha Chittha. The Gadarites attempted to organise armed revolt in india by instigating public and British Indian Military. Failure of the Revolt : Finally, 19 February 1915 was fixed as the date for an armed revolt in the Punjab. Unfortunately, the authorities came to know of these plans and took immediate action. The leaders and members of Ghadar party in Punjab was arrested on a mass scaled and tried. 42 of them were hanged, 114 were transported for life and 93 was sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Impact of World War I : The other important development that made the Ghadar revolution popular was the outbreak of World War I. During this period Hardayal and other Indians abroad moved to Germany and setup the Indian Independence committee in Berlin. Important Gadar Leaders: Lala Har Dayal, Kartar singh Saraba, Raghubir Dayal Gupta, Ras Bihari Bose, Bhai Parmanand,Barkatullah. KOMAGATAMARU INCIDENT The Komagata Maru was a steamship by Hong Kong-based businessman Gurdit Singh. It set off from Hong Kong in April 1914, reaching Vancouver s harbour a month later with 376 people on board, most of them Sikhs Ship was not allowed to disembark in vancouver by canadian authorities. The tired and angry passengers had to return from vancouver.the Indian government also gave them a rough treatmenton return to calcutta on september 27, there were nerarly 250 Sikhs who got down from the ship and a clash followed between the police and the passengers leading to death of 18 th passengers at Budge-Budge Port calcutta. HOME RULE MOVEMENT (HRM) Two short-lived organizations of the same name in India established in April and September 1916, respectively, by Indian militant nationalist Bal Gangadhar Tilak and British social reformer and Indian independence leader Annie Besant. The term, borrowed from a similar movement in Ireland. Apology from Canadian Government In 2008 by the Prime Minister Stephen Harper of Canada after 94 years issued apology on the incident. In a goodwill gesture, in 2014 the people of Canada marked the centenary of Komagata Maru incident in a solemn ceremony. Again, recently the incumbent Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau delivered a formal apology in his country s House of Commons for Komagata Maru incident and called it as a great injustice. Factors leading to the movements: A section of Indian nationalist felt that popular pressure was required to attain concession from government. 50 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

52 IASBEE MODERN HISTORY Moderates were disillusioned with Morley Minto Reforms Morley Minto Reforms War time miseries war led to increase miseries among poorer classes of Indians, for them the war means heavy taxation and soaring prices of the daily necessities of life, they were ready to protest. The main aim of league was Home Rule (Self-government) by means of agitation; this was to be achieved by promoting political education & discussion. It was decided to establish libraries containing materials on national politics, organize classes, print & circulate pamphlets, collect funds, organize social work, take part in local government, arrange political meetings & lectures etc. League soon attracted the government s anger.in june 1917 Besant was arrested with her associates B.P wadia,c.p Ramswamy Ayyar and George Arundale.Popular protest forced the government to release her in September This act is an extension of ICA Element of election was introduced in legislative council -Categorization of the members of the Legislative - Councils (both at the Centre and Province's) into four classes (a)ex-officio members (b)nominated official members (c)nominated nonofficial members(d)elected members -The number of members of the legislative council at the center increased from 16 to 60 -The number of members of provincial legislatives was also increased, fixed 50 in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal & for the rest it was 30. -Right of separate electorate was given to Muslims. -At the center official members were to form majority, but in provinces Non-officials would be in majority. Tilak s League Started in - April 1916 Operated in Maharashtra (Except Bombay) Karnataka Central Province & Berar; had 6 branches Besant s League Started in-september 1916 Operated in Rest of India; Had200 branches Jawahar Lal Nehru led Home Rule at Allahabad, B. chakravarty and J. Banerjee at calcutta, MA Jinnah,MM Malviya, S.N Banerjee also participated in HRM. Gandhi didn t join Home Rule Movement Tilak linked his demad of Self Government with formation of linguistic states & Education through Vernaculars. A special train was started to carry delegates to lucknow. The new sec. of state, Montague, made a historic declaration in the hoouse of common s on 20 Aug (The importance of declaration was that after this demand for self government could no longer treated as seditious.) The movement in 1917 gradually dissolved because the moderates who had joined after arrest of Besant were pacified by the promise of reform and by Besants release. Positive Gains Imphasisshifted to masses permanently. Organisational link established between town and country. Influenced Moderate- Extremists reunion at Lucknow pact. LUCKNOW CONGRESS & Lucknow pact/ Congress League pact The 31st Session of the Congress was held at Lucknow in It was presided over by the Ambicacharan Majumdar. Lucknow pact was signed between Congress & Muslim League at Lucknow in League accepted the national goal of Swarajya. Annie Besant and Tilak had made vigorous efforts for the reunion.to allay the moderates suspicions,tilak had declared that he supported a reform of administration an not an overthrough of government he also denounced act 51 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

53 IASBEE MODERN HISTORY of violence. Both parties held their annual session simultaneously at Bombay in 1915, Tilak & Jinnah played important role in bringing both the group togather at Bombay Prominent leaders, Gandhi,Malviya and sarojani naidu spokes from league platform. League appointed a committee to prepare a scheme for India in consulation with congress.the report of the committee was the basis of the Lucknow pact. Change in the attitude of Muslim League Anullment of partition of Bengal (1905) in Britain s refusal to help Turkey(ruled by khalifa relegious leader of all muslims)had angered the Muslims The refusal of British to muslims for setting up of Aligarh University with affiliation powers. Younger Muslims were Infuriated by government repression during 1 st world war. Maulana Azad s Al-Hilal and mohammad Ali s Comrade faced supression. Provisions of the Pact India to be treated as self autonomous state of Empire with equal rights and responsibility. The representative assemblies at the central as well as provincial level should be expanded with an elected majority and with more powers. Defence,forein affairs and political relations of india to be excluded from the control of emperial legislative. The minorities should be given adequate representation in the elected bodies. At least half the member of governor General s executive council should be Indians More autonomy to provices in their internal matters. Judiciary should be seprated from Executive. Drawbacks of the Lucknow Pact Since congress agreed for seprate electrorate for Muslims it lost its secular character With the introduction of communal veto in legislation, no legislature could be proceed with any bill if 3/4 th of the members of a pacticular community opposed it. MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI IN SOUTH AFRICA In the year 1898 Gandhi went to South Africa in connection with a case involving his client, Dada Abdullah. On reaching South Africa Gandhi faced racial discrimination, decided to stay there to organize the Indian workers to enable them to fight for their rights. Gandhi s activities in South Africa can be divided in two stages: 1 ST - MODERATE PHASE OF STRUGGLE ( ) During this phase he tried to inform government about the problem through petitions & memorials hoping that once the authorities were informed of the things happening with their fellow subjects, they would take sincere steps to redress their grievances, he started an organization named Natal Indian Congress& started a Newspaper Indian opinion 2 ND THE PHASE OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE OR SATYAGRAHA ( ) Method was passive resistance or civil disobedience to which Gandhi called Satyagraha During this phase it was made compulsory for indians to carry a registration certificate. Toll tax of 3 pounds was imposed on all ex-indentured Indians. Supreme court of South Africa said that any marriage not done in christian fashion would be considered illegal. Indians in South Africa under the leadership of gandhi protested against it, during these protest Gandhi established two ashrams: 52 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

54 (a)tolstoy settlement (b)phoenix Farm These places housed the styagrahis. Gopal Krishna Gokhle came to South Africa to support Gandhi, ultimately protest was succesful & all the issues were resoved by the South Africa government. INFLUENCES ON GANDHI : Jhon Ruskin s book Unto the last, Johannesberg works of Tolstoy & Gita, Concept of Swaraj given by Upnishads, Edward Carpenter s critcism of morden system of medicine, and Aurobindo- were influential in shaping his idealogy. Later in india Gandhi wrote a book named Hind Swaraj which criticised the machine based civilisation & idealised the rural life. Gandhi In India Gandhi returned to india in 1915 in 1 st year he didn t involved himself in any active political movement or organisation but travelled all over india to understand the present situation and demand of the country and he was convinced that the only technique capable of meeting nationalist aims was a non voilent satyagraha and then In 1916 in Lucknow Congress Raj Kumar Shukla invited Gandhi to come to champaran in Bihar. CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917) 1 st civil disobedience- It was the 1 st satyagraha of Gandhi in India Rajkumar Shukla requested gandhi,to look into the difficulties of farmers in context of indigo planters of champaran in Bihar.Farmers were forced to indigo on 3/20 th part of total land and the system was known as Tinkhatiya systemand if they the farmers refuse to grow indigo they were beaten by white planters. When towards the end of 19 th century german synthetic dyes replaced indigo,the european planters demanded high rents and illegal dues from peasants in order to maximize their prophit. Gandhi organised satyagrah drive against the opression of peasants. Rajendra Prasad,Braj Kishore Mahadev desai,j.b Kriplani Were with Gandhi during Satyagraha This led to the abolition of Tinkhatiya,reduction in Shahbarbeshi and giving back to the peasants 25% of the total money extracted illegally. Rabindranath tagore called Gandhi Mahatma Fore his role during Champaran. AHMEDABAD SATYAGRAHA st hunger strike Organised by Gandhi in support of mill workers and against mill owners. Issue was the Plague Bonus, demand of workers was 35% and the owners being agreed to pay only 20%. Gandhi observed hunger strike for the 1 st time. Satyagraha was successful, mill owners agreed to the demand of the Bonus of 35% to the workers. KHEDA SATYAGRAHA st Non- cooperation Due to failure of the rain crops damaged, but land revenue was still collected by government officials. According to revenue code, if the yield was less than 1/4 th of normal produce the farmers were entitled to remission. Gandhi started his satyagraha against this and asked the farmers not to pay the Taxes. Sardar vallabhbhai played very important role in this patel along with colleagues organised the tax revolt. The satyagraha was successful and government agreed to give concession. 53 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

55 MONTAGUE CHELMSFORD REFORM-1919 Montague was the secretary of state and Chelmsford was the viceroy. They suggested certain reforms and as the part of their reform the government of India act 1919 was passed. Main provisions of act The provincial legislative councils were enlarged and majority of their members were to be elected. The provincial government were given more powers under the system of Dyarchy (a)reserve subjects Finance,Law and order remained under direct control of Governor. (b)transfer subjects were for the Indians, department comes under the list -Health,Agriculture,Land revenue,education etc. Now these departments would be run by elected Indian ministers.it established bicameral legislature at the centre. The governor could overrule the ministers on any ground that he considers special. The legislature had virtually no control over governor general and his executive-council. Congress was not satisfied, called special session at Bombay in august 1918 under the presidentship of Hasan Imam to consider the reform proposal,they condemned them and demanded effective self government instead. THE ROWLETT ACT Passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council. Act authorised the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities and detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press. The act was passed as per recommendations of the Rowlett Committee chaired by a judge, Sir Sidney Rowlatt. The act was widely condemned by Indian leaders and the public. The act was passed despite unanimous opposition from the Indian members of the council, all of whom resigned in protest. These included Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq. In response to this act, a nationwide hartal was called by Gandhiji on 6 th April. This was called the Rowlett Satyagraha. The movement was cancelled by Gandhiji when it was marred by rioting in some provinces, particularly in Punjab where the situation was grim. The British government s primary intention was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country. The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country. Two popular Congress leaders Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested. Protest was very intense when the act came into effect and the army was called in Punjab to tackle the situation. JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE August Declaration of 1917 August declaration is the declaration of Montague,The secretary of state for India on 20 th august 1917 The declaration called for responsible government for india with increasing participation of indians in every branch of administration and gradual devlopement of self governing institutions. Objections The objections of the indian leaders to declaration were two fold (a)no specific timeframe was given. (b)government alone was to decide no participation of the indians. The situation in Punjab was alarming as there were riots and protests against the Rowlatt Act,Martial law was imposed in Punjab. The Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at that time was Michael O Dwyer. Lord Chelmsford was India s Viceroy. On the day of the festival of Baisakhi on 13th April 1919 in Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar, a crowd of non-violent protestors had gathered. Also among the crowd were pilgrims who had come to celebrate Baisakhi. General Dyer came there with his troops and blocked the only narrow entrance to the garden. Then, without warning, he ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well. 54 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

56 IASBEE MODERN HISTORY The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people. This tragedy came as a rude shock to Indians and totally destroyed their faith in the British system of justice. National leaders condemned the act and Dyer unequivocally. The government set up the Hunter Commission to inquire into the massacre. Although the commission condemned the act by Dyer, it did not impose any disciplinary action against him. In protest against the massacre and the British failure to give due justice to the victims, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood and Gandhiji relinquished his title Kaiser-e-hind bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa. Michael O Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Brigadier General Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre. Udham Singh is believed to have witnessed the massacre as a child. THE KHILAFAT AND NON-COOPRATION MOVEMENT( ) The Khilafat Movement The sultan of turkey or the head of Ottoman empire was the caliph/khalifa (Relegious head of all the muslims of the world) All the holy places of muslims were under his control,and in 1914 the 1 st world war started in that war Britain & Ottoman were on the opposite sides,ultimately the ottoman empire was defeated,the Muslims of india feared that their holy places would now come under the Britain and France, so a movement was started named Khilafat Movement pressurise the Britain and their demand was. The Khalifa s control over muslim sacred places should be retained. The khalifa should be left with enough territories after territorial arrangements. A Khilafat committee was formed under the leadership of Ali brothers Shaukat Ali,Muhammad Ali and supported by Maulana Azad,Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani News paper by Muhammad ali-comrade, news paper by Maulana AzadAl Hilal Gandhi supported the movement because he felt that this is an golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and to bring muslim masses into National movement;now different sectionof society Hindu,Muslim,Sikh,peasants,capitalists,tribals, Womens,students could come into the national movementby fighting for their own rights and realising that the colonial rule was opposed to them; Gandhi was elected as the president of Khilafat committee. Congress was losing faith in constitutional method,especially after Punjab wrong and Hunter committee report, congress knows that the masses were eager to give expression to their discontent. NON COOPRATION MOVEMENT A joint Hindu-Muslim delegation met the Viceroy and British P.MLyod George to ask for the change in the Humiliating terms of treaty of severs, P.M refused,in February 1920 gandhi asked Khilafat committee to launch a Non Coopration on Khilafat issue. The movement was launched formally on 1 st August 1920 after the expiry of notice that gandhi had given to the viceroy. A special session of INC was called at calcutta under the presidentship of Lala Lajpat Rai in sep and on 4 th sep. congress agreed to launch NCM on three issues. (a)punjab Wrongs (b)swarajya (c)khilafat Issue 55 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

57 IASBEE MODERN HISTORY Jinnah left the Congress over the acceptence of goal of swarajya and non-coopration Boycott of legislative council by C.R Das and followers of Tilak Boycott of schools by Lala Lajpat Rai. Goal of swarajya by Jinnah and M.M Malviya Programmes of NCM Boycott of foreign goods,schools,collages,court,legislature(prince of Wales visited india in 1921 but he was boycotted everywhere) Refusal to vote Surrender of titles Gandhi renounced Kaiser-i-hindi (Gandhi declared at nagpur session that swarajya could be achieved within one year) Hindu muslim unity Nationalisation of education National fund raising,tilak s Swarajya fund amounting for 1cr. Was created. Resignation from govt. services. Non payment of taxes. Bonfires Affected areas U.P Bihar Assam Orissa Punjab Bengal Bombay Why Gandhi withdrew the movement? In feb 1922,violence took place at the place named Chauri-Chaura here the mob torched the police station and killed 22 policemen,gandhi said the movement is turning voilent and called off the movement,gandhi knows that a violent moment could be easily supressed by colonial regime and they will make voilence an excuse for using the armed might of the state against the protestors. MOVEMENTS DURING NCM Awadh Kisan Sabha In Awadh, the peasant movement was led by Baba Ramchandra-a sanyasi who had earlier worked in Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents from the peasants. Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords' farms without any payment. The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords. EKA MOVEMENT Eka Movement or Unity Movement is a peasant movement which surfaced in Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur during the end of 1921 by Madri Passi. The initial thrust was given by the leaders of Congress and Khilafat movement. The main reason of movement was higher rent, which was generally higher than 50% of recorded rent in some 56 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

58 areas. Oppression of thikadhars who were entrusted to collect rent and practice of share rent also contributed to this movement.by March 1922, due to severe repression of British the Eka Movement came to an end. MOPALAH MOVEMENT The Moplah peasant movement was engineered in August 1921 among the peasants of Malabar district in Kerala. The Moplah tenants were Muslims and they agitated against the Hindu landlords and the British government. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive landlord exactions SIKH GURUDWARA REFORM During NCM the sikh gurudwara reform movement was also carried out,the Gurudwara s werer under the control of corrupt Mahants,They were British loyalist. The Akali s started a movement to free the gurudwara s from the corrupt hands of mahhants,this was an Non Violent Movement,The mahhants carried out lot of voilence but ultimately the Gurudwaras were freed. Government passed a law and the control of gurudwaras now shifted into the hands of new committee called Siromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC). SWARAJ PARTY After the end of NCM the most important question before the nationalists was what to do during this transition period beacause Gandhi was in Jail,there was two groups of thinkers. One is led by-c.r Das, Motilal Nehru and Ajmal Khan Known as Swarajist they argued that Congress should fight elections and enter the legislation not for the power but to create problems for the government and expose these assemblies. The other group was that the No changers The no changers argued that entering legislature would be a wrong decision and in it s place Nationalist should go to Villages for constructive works among the masses The main leader of this group Rajendra Prasad,Vallabh Bhai Patel In 1922 annual session of INC took place in Gaya C.R Das was the president,he supported the decision of council entry, but the resolution was defeated C.R Das and Motilal Nehru resigned and later in 1923 he started Swarajya Party When Gandhi came out from the jail he allowed the Swarajist to remain within the congress and to no changers to do constructive work from the platform of congress The swarajist won the elections and enters in the council with good numbers. In many provinces they did brilliant work In 1930 swarajists finally walked out as a result of Lahore Congress resolution on Poorna Swaraj and the beginning of the Civil disobedience Movement. The period of Emergence of new Forces Rise of Communists After the 1917 Bolshevik/Russian Revolution Communist ideology started spreading in india also A communist party was started in 1925 in Kanpur The founding members of the party were M.N. Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy (Roy's wife), Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani's wife), Mohammad Ali (Ahmed Hasan) Revolutionary Terrorisim (Please go through the tables in which all revolutionary activities are covered.) SIMON COMMISSION The act of 1919 contained provisions for the appointment of royal commission at the end of the ten after passing the ACT with the aim of the enquiring into the functioning of the act, A new Commission was appointed the aim of the commission was to enquire into the working of provincial governments. The commission was an all white Commission which shocked almost all Indians and at the Madras congress 1927,The congress decided to boycott the commission. Commission greeted with strong protest by all parties including congress,section of Muslim league,hindu mahasabha etc. 57 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

59 Commission reached Bombay on 3 rd february,1928 and was greeted with slogan of Simon Go Back A procession led by Lala Lajpat Rai in Lahore was lathi charged and Lalaji succumbed to his injuries on 17 th Nov Madras congress session 1927 a resolution was passed for boycotting the commission.the working committee authorised to prepare a constitution for India in consultation with other organisations Leaders of all organisations met at Delhi at a conference in February 1928,this came to known as all All Party Conference which was presided by M.A Ansari In May 1928 a committee was appointed by the all parties conference with Motilal Nehru as the President,the Nehru committee was the response to simon commission by the nationalists and the challenge given by Lord Birkenheadto indians. Recommendation of Simon Commission Diarchy should be abolished and there should be complete autonomy in the provinces,but the governor should be given overriding powers in certain matters. There should be a federal government at centre,consisting of British India and princialy states. British troops and officers should stay on indian regiments. Provincial legislative councils should be expanded. High courts should be under administrative control of Government of India. The communal representative should continue. NEHRU REPORT-1928 The Nehru report was the 1 st major attempt by the Indians to draft a constitunal framework for the country,committee submitted its report on 28 th August 1928,Report was aprooved by All Parties Conference held held at Luccknow. Provisions of the Report Dominion status for India, within the British Commonwealth. This point was a bone of contention with the younger set of leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose who favoured complete independence. Nineteen fundamental rights including the right to vote for men and women above 21 years of age, unless disqualified. Equal rights for men and women as citizens. No state religion. No separate electorates for any community. It did provide for reservation of minority seats. It provided for reservation for seats for Muslims at the centre and in provinces where they were in a minority and not in Bengal and Jinnah s fourteen Points Federal constitution with residual powers with the provinces. Provincial autonomy. No constitutional amendment without the agreement of the states. All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate Muslim representation without reducing Muslim majority in a province to minority or equality. Adequate Muslim representation of Muslims in the services and in self-governing bodies. 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature. 1/3rd Muslim members in the central and state cabinets. Separate electorates. No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of a minority community considers it against its interests. Any reorganization of territories not to affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, Punjab and the NWFP. Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan. Full religious freedom for all communities. Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language rights of Muslims. Punjab. Similarly, it provided for reservation for non-muslims in the NWFP. A federal form of government with residual powers with the centre. There would be a bicameral legislature at the centre. The ministry would be responsible to the legislature. Governor-General to be the constitutional head of India. He would be appointed by the British monarch. A proposal for the creation of a Supreme Court. The provinces would be created along linguistic lines. DELHI MANIFESTO AND PURNA SWARAJ (LAHORE CONGRESS 1929) Ramsay McDonald leader of labor government came to the power in may 1929,Lord Irwin The Viceroy called for discussion and assured a round table conference for attainment of dominion status. 58 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

60 After two days a conference of major national leaders held at Delhi and passed a manifesto known as Delhi Manifesto where they demanded that the purpose of Round table conference should not be to discuss when dominion status was to be granted but to formulate a scheme for its implementation. This was rejected by viceroy,stage of negotiation was thus over and the stage for confrontation began. Hence at the congress session at Lahore in dec 1929 under the presidentship of J.L Nehru Poorna Swaraj was adopted as the goal of freedom struggle Major decisions were taken at Lahore Congress Round table conference was to be boycotted Complete independence Launch of civil disobedience and resign from legislatures january 26,1930 was fixed as 1 st independence (Swarajya)Day,to be celebrated everywhere 1 st time tricolor was hoisted at the bank of river ravi 0n midnight of december 31 st 1929 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT One year time was given by Congress after Lahore session to British government for Purna Swaraj and congress warned the government if within year Purna swaraj will not be given then a Civil Disobedience Movement would be started,but no action was taken by the British Government. Finally Gandhi Started Civil disobedience with Dandi March on 12 March 1930, togather with 78 choosen followers gandhi walked nearly 375 KM from Sabarmati ashram to Dandi a village on Gujrat sea coast to broke salt law. After that Gandhi was supposed to go to Dharasana to make salt,but he was arrested so Abbas Taiyabji and Sarrojani Naidu carried out the movement at Dharasana,soon Salt laws were started to be broken all over country and people refused to pay land and Chaukidari taxes. Manipuris and Nagaland people took a brave part in it and Nagaland produced a brave Heroine in Rani Gaidilieu. She wasted her bright youthful years in asam jail,and released only after independence. o Jawahar Lal Nehru was to wirite of her in 1937: A day will come when India also will remember her and cherish her. In NWFP Khan Abddul Gaffar Khan Carried out a movement He is also called Frontier Gandhi. o He organised Pathans for non voilent struggle,the volunteers were called Red Shirt or Khudai Khidmatgars. In 1930 in london British government summoned 1 st Round table Conferenceto discuss the Simon Commission Report,but INC boycotted it. 2 nd Round Table conferencein 1931 Government negotiated an agreement with the congress to attend the 2 nd RTC and angreement was made between viceroy Irwin and Gandhi called Gandhi Irwin Pact. Government agreed to release political prisoners who had remained non voilent,the congress suspended CDM and agreed to attend 2 nd Round Table Conference. In 2 nd RTC there was a difference between gandhi and ambedkar,and British government also refused to concede the basic nationalist demand for Dominion Status, on return Gandhi had no choice but to resume CDM. COMMUNAL AWARD 1932 Then the British P.M Ramsay McDonal introduced seprate electrorate for Muslims, Sikhs, Inndian Christians,Anglo Indians and Womens. At that time Gandhi was in yerwada jail,he started fast unto death against the award and ultimately a compromise was reached between Gandhi and Ambedkar known as Poona Pactwith the efforts of MM Malviya. According to this pact the demand of seprate electrorate for dalits was givenup and greater representation was provided in Legislature After this Gandhi raise the issue of sensitive untouchability,started a News paper Harijan and an organisation Harijan Sevak Sangh. 59 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

61 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT-1935 It abolished Diarchy at the centre. 3 rd RTC 1932 (round table conf) Provided for establishment of an all India federation which was While the congress was in the thick of never introduced battle the 3 rd round table conference met Provincial autonomy was given. in london in November 1932, it couldn t The representatives of states were not to be elected by people,but make any progress towards appointed directly by the rulers. Only 14% of the total population swaraj,however the deliberations at the was given the right to vote. 3 rd RTC formed the basis of GOI act Government of provices will be carried out by indian ministers. T.B Sapru and Ambedkar participated in it Defenceand Foreign affairs remained outside of its control. The Governor General and Governors were to be appointed by British government and were to be responsible to it. Supreme court of India estd. o Based on the 1935 act Elections were conducted and Congress formed Government in 6 provinces with absolute majority in July o Provinces Bihar, U.P, Orissa,Central province,madras,bombay later congress ministries were also formed innwfp and Asam. o Congress won 715 out of 836 seats HARIPURA SESSION AND TRIPURI CRISIS Haripura session 1938 Tripuri session President S.C Bose President S.C Bose by defeatingpattbhi Sitaramaiyah Gandhi s Candidate This annoyed Gandhi and bose resigned and formed Forward block in IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

62 9. INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE 2 ND WORLD WAR On Sptember 1 st 1939 Hitler attacked Poland and on September 3 rd Britain attacked Germany and declared that India is the party to the war from our side. The assurences the congress sought from the government were not forthcoming only vague half hearted phrases and pious platitudes were offered instead,hence 7 congress ministries tendered their resignations. Mr. Jinnah made the occasion a Day of Deliverance and thanks giving,as a mark of relief that the congress regime had at least seased to function. To allay the resulting discontent,the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow in January 1940,declared that Dominion status of westminister variety as soon as possible after war was the goal of British policy in India.So what had been denied by act of 1935 was to be conceded after the war. AUGUST OFFER This was a statement by the Viceroy on behalf of British government to the effect that-notwithstanding differences amongst political parties the expansion of governor general s executive council and the establishment of an advisory war council should no longer be postponed. Main provisions Dominion status was explicitly offered. Demand for a constituent assembly was conceded In constituent assembly mainly the Indians would draft a new constitution. No constitutional plan will be adopted without consent of the minorities. Reaction Congress rejected Dominion status as as dead as a door nail Muslim League welcomed the veto power given to League (minorities) INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA Also known as Dilli Chalo Andolan The Congress was in a confused state again after the August Offer,radicals and leftists wanted to launch a mass Civil Disobedience but Gandhi insisted forindividual Satyagraha. The non-violence was set as the centerpiece of Individual Satyagraha All over the India many satyagrahi s came forwad,the first Satyagrahi was Acharya Vinoba Bhave, who was sent to Jail when he spoke against the war. He was followed nearly by individual satygrahis. Second Satyagrahi was Jawahar Lal Nehru. They all were sent to jails for violating the Defence of India Act. CRIPPS MISSION-1942 Now a new devlopement took place in world war 2 nd Japan entered into the war from the side of Gemany it soon captured large part of South East Asia including Burma now they were preparing to invade India,British were under pressure,so to win India s support British P.M Winston Churchill sent a Mission to India under Sir Stafford Cripps. Main Provisions An Indian Union with a dominion status,would be set up, it would be free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and and other international bodies. After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes. The British Government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions. (a)any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate Union. (b)the new constitution- making body and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to effect thetransfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities. In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the governor-general s powers would remain intact. 61 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE

63 The Congress objected to: The offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence. Representation of the states by nominees and not by elected representatives. Right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of national unity. The Muslim League Criticised the idea of a single Indian Union. Did not like the machinery for the creation of a constituent assembly and the procedure to decide on the accession of provinces to the Union. Thought that the proposals denied to the Muslims the right to self-determination and the creation of Pakistan. QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT The japanese were virtually knocking at the doors of the country.gandhi now started his campaign for orderly British withdrawalfrom India.In his views Parallel governments whatever the consequences to India her real safety and British s too lie in an orderly British Withdrawal. The all india congress working committee met at Bombay on 08 August and passed Quit India resolution and proposed the starting of a non voilent mass struggle under the leadership of Gandhi. And then on 09 August 1942 all the important Leaders of congress were arrested and all the congress committees were banned. The movement was carried out by 2 nd level of leadership they carried out underground activities, the main active leaders Jai Prakash Narayan,Ram Manohar Lohiya,Achyut Patwardhan,Y.D chwan,sucheta kriplani,aruna asaf ali,usha Mehta (underground Radio station in Bombay) Gandhi kept in Agha khan fort at poona and others were kept in the fort of Ahamadnagar. But the people didn t take this action of government lying down.there were numerous act of voilence and destruction of or damage to public property and in quite a number of places there was a breakdown of government machinery and dislocation of normal life and communication.on the government side severe repression went on and hundreds were put to death or thrown in prision. League observed on 23 rd march 1943,The Pakistan Day; Mr. Jinnah sent a massage to muslim population in India stating that the scheme of Pakistan was the final National goal of Muslims. Gandhi gave the slogan Do or Die Ambedkar opposed the movement, Hindu Mahasabha also opposed the movement. Princes, merchants, Landlords kept themselves aloof from the movement Balia (U.P) under Chittu pandey was the 1 st Parallel govt. Tamluk(Midanapur dist. Bengal) by Satish samant helped people during Bengal Famine. Satara(Maharastra) by Y.D Chawan and Nana patil from Longest Parallel govt. C.RAJGOPALACHARI FORMULA In March 1944 C.Rajgopalachari issued a pamphlet entitled The Way Out for the congress league coopration.the main points in CR plan were: League to endorse Congress demand for independence. League to cooprate with congress in forming a provisional govt. at centre. 62 IASBEE.DELHI@GMAIL.COM IASBEE