Part 3: Western Views of Islam and Africa. Oct 13: Medieval, Early Modern Perspectives

Transcription

1 Part 3: Western Views of Islam and Africa Oct 13: Medieval, Early Modern Perspectives

2 European Views: Islam, Africa Robinson: traditions shaping European views 1) Climes of Greek Ptolemy 2) Atlantic Slave Trade 3) Association Islam with Arabic/Arab 4) Islamdom vs Christendom 5) Racialization of civilization

3 Ancient/Medieval Muslim Views Robinson: - notes ancient Greeks understanding of climes as articulated by Ptolemy but - notes Europe s first knowledge of Africa filtered through Muslim World - Arab/Arabic travellers, merchants, compilers provided information on geography, flora/fauna, ethnography, wealth of Sahara and bilad as-sudan (West Africa); Swahili City-States (East African coast) to cosmopolitan Muslim Spain - translated by scholars, moved into medieval Europe intellectual sphere - connection with Ptolemy probably 12 th C. writer Al-Idrisi

4 Ancient/Medieval Muslim Views Medieval Arab views of Sahara predicated on belief that: - river ( large body of flowing water ) linked Atlantic to Nile - rich sources of gold lay beyond it -(from 9 th C): Africans (in and south of Sahara) converting to Islam. - importance: what these realities meant for commerce Origin appears to have been: -10 th C. map (al-masudi) - 12 th C. text (al-idrisi) tried to fit new information into existing Ptolemaic conceptual framework -postulated divided Nile: one flowing north into Egypt, other across Sudan - imagined all major towns lie along the river Historians realize confusion, do not always factor it into textual reading

5 Ancient/Medieval Muslim Views Neither Muslim writers nor Europeans had means to challenge perceived wisdom : - both either lacked knowledge of African interior [Portuguese until late 15 th C] - or saw it through Islamic prism, strongly shaped by pre-existing views of climes (eg Ibn Battuta) - reflected in maps 10 th -15 th centuries

6 10 th C. View of Africa Map of World (African-Iranian part) from al-masudi (916) [note: view is from north to south]

7 12 th C. View of Africa T and O map with Jerusalem at the center. This reflected the Church s view of God s World. [ Book of Kells ]

8 Arabs Concept Africa: 13 th C. From Robinson, p.75

9 Medieval Mapamundi (c )

10 Genoa Chart of North Africa (c.1490) [The Work of Christopher Columbus?]

11 European Views of Islam Robinson: also shaped by European understanding Islam: - presented by Christians as heresy - Mohamed last of prophets, Abraham, Jesus and others predecessors - therefore, they too were Muslims (those who submit to God) - clearly heresy from point of view Church Following arrival Muslims North Africa (7 th C), Almoravids in Spain (11 th C), two events key in shaping views between : Christian re-conquest Toledo (Spain) - Crusades (began 1099)/Saladin (Muslim leader who took Jerusalem, 1187) Argues: led to demonizing of Islamic religion: Prophet and Qur an

12 European Views of Islam Need to add : role of Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople (1453) - mentions (later) in context of role of Ottomans in Africa - crucial in process of demonizing - Constantinople: capital former Eastern Roman Empire - then centre Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Byzantine Empire Sultan Mehmet II carried out successful siege, using rapidly built fortress, navy, army of janissaries, clever strategies - several European eyewitnesses : awed by military power, authority of Sultan, taking of booty (property, jewels, slaves ) - reported back to Europe - reactions: darkest day in the history of the world

13 European Views of Islam From the moment when Constantinople fell, Europeans regarded the Turks with a mixture of horror and fascination. They were outside the bounds of society, and almost beyond the real of humanity. John Lyly described the Turk as "vile and brutish". Other authors made much of the Turks' supposed addiction to unnatural vice...an image of the "Terrible Turk" who ate children alive -- a stereotype which rapidly was becoming universal in the West and which mothers found useful for terrifying naughty children. [Andrew Wheatcroft, The Ottomans (1994) - contemporary secondary source, 'reporting' on European response to news of Fall of Constantinople; see Wheatcroft, Additional Readings]

14 European Views of Islam Legend of Prester John - aspect of beliefs about Islam was collaborating belief that Christian King continued to rule wealthy kingdom hidden behind Dar al-islam - was awaiting European assistance to fight back the evil Muslims and retake Holy Land (as well as trade with East) - geographical location varied but by medieval era, believed to be situated in Horn of Africa - when Portuguese accepted invitation Christian King Ethiopia (early-mid16 th C.), believed they had found Prester John - disappointed when battle was for local power, not destruction Muslim World [refer back to lecture on Islamization: Horn of Africa, Ethiopia]

15 European Views of Islam Robinson: after 1500, these European views did not change (in terms of their essential beliefs) in spite of experiences in dealing with Islamic Regimes (Morocco, Ottoman Empire) Robinson himself comments upon two additional factors arising from these: - Orientalism [from late 18 th C.] - Abolition [of the slave trade mostly 18 th -19 th centuries] Each of these experiences continued to shape European views of Islam and Muslim Societies including in Africa We will look at each in turn during the next two lectures.

16 European Views Robinson: rise of Atlantic Slave Trade - shifted European focus - can easily trace how stereotypes of black Africa developed in context of legitimizing Atlantic Trade - makes point: process not applicable to Muslim Africans (in other words, Islamic Africa left out of Europe s developing vision of Africa) - implication: therefore left out, period [until late 18 th C.] Argument can (should) be nuanced.

17 European Views Important: - where were the Europeans? - why were they there? - what were they seeing of Islamic Africa?

18 European Views Where were they? - Horn (Ethiopia see earlier lecture on Islamization ) - North Africa (Morocco Portuguese; Egypt Venetians) - East Africa (Portuguese coast, islands) - Sahara (Portuguese) - Senegambia (region surrounding Senegal and Gambia Rivers French, British)

19 European Views: North Africa North Africa: from 16 th C. Europeans encountered Ottomans - Venice major trading partner with Ottomans, Mamluk Egypt (paid each tribute to ensure peaceful trade) - ties between Venetians (oligarchy, nobility, merchants) and Mamluks particularly strong - closest years prior to Ottoman conquest Egypt (1517) - longest reigning doge of Venice ( ) born in Mamluk Egypt - Venetian physician, member of nobility (Nicolo Barbaro) one of most important eye-witnesses to fall of Constantinople - account one of those referred to by Wheatcroft: long, detailed description military power evil, wicked, faithless Turks - fed back into European impressions of, relations with Ottomans in North Africa:

20 European Views: North Africa North Africa Ottomans, under Suleiman the Magnificent, controlled most of North Africa from Egypt to Algiers

21 European Views: East Africa Portuguese: part of Gold, Glory and God exploration of Prince Henry ( the Navigator ) - monopoly of Arab knowledge Muslim Africa challenged East Africa: - Vasco da Gama 1498 (in search of India) - discovered wealthy Swahili City States [Davidson video Caravans of Gold Swahili Coast] - next expedition returned 1505, sacked Kilwa and other cities - claimed coast 1515 [lecture, Sept. 20] - as in West Africa: goal to intercept gold trade (from southern Africa [also in Davidson Swahili Coast] - built Fort Jesus (off Mozambique) - failed to establish control

22 12 th C. View of Africa East Africa Dar al-islam according to al-idrisi (12 th C.)

23 European Views: East Africa Frustrated by military weakness, inability to access wealth the saw: - presented descriptions of East African "Moors" as if they were still engaged in Crusades - women were victims of these infidels ('proof' of Islam's oppression) - and potential Christian converts -(Malindi women resisted, those of Mombasa embraced ) [Davidson video Caravans of Gold narration sacking of Kilwa; McDougall Women in African Muslim Societies, Resources]

24 European Views: Morocco North Africa: - Portuguese drawn into Morocco 1415, Ceuta - hoped to attract trans-saharan trade failed s, established Santa Cruz on coast - hoped to intercept trade - generated powerful Moroccan opposition, rise of new dynastic state Sa adiens, based in Sahara (looked South to Sudan and East to Tafilelt) Moroccans forced Portuguese out - took over fort overlooking harbour: renamed Agadir (meaning fort/fortress )

25 European Views: Mauritania - Meanwhile established Arguin (trading factory) Mauritanian coast - information about Sahara, its peoples now filtered through Portuguese lens - was acquired initially from coastal raids (random kidnappings of Saharans along the coast) - subsequently from commercial exchanges at Arguin - explorations along the extensive Senegal-Gambian coast (named for two rivers) - Alvise de Ca da Mosto, Valentim Fernandes and Pacheco Pereira most important sources of information trade, people

26 European Views: Mauritania - highlighted operations of gold, salt and slave trades - reported that gold and slaves crossing the desert taken to entrepot of Wadan - Cargoes divided: some diverted towards Arguin, most continues north to Barbary coasts - Impact of information: 1487 Portuguese establish trading factory at Wadan (presumably to intercept more of northern trade) - Short-lived - Local tradition: Portuguese driven out - Pereira: hostile reception forced them to leave - First (and last) attempt at establishing inland in Sahara failure

27 .Arguin.Wadan Tarra Hodges

28 European Views: Mauritania - knowledge thereafter generated from coastal exploration - Continued interest in commerce, described tribal participation different Saharan groups - Also: conflict between indigenous Muslim Sanhaja clerics (zawaya) and immigrant Muslim Arab warriors (hassan) - formed base of European understanding Saharan society from the sixteenth century onwards [as argued more generally by Robinson]

29 European Views: West Africa interior But not end of knowledge of Muslim interior: representative Royal African Society, Cornelius Hodges, sent via Gambia river to interior - aim: intercept slave trade oriented to French (Senegal) - find out why Moors do not want to trade - described active desert-side trade in region near ancient Awdaghust [recently confirmed by archaeological work] - also insight into evolving relations between Morocco West Africa (apart from traditional focus on conquest of Niger Bend 1591)

30 European Views: West Africa interior His men reported, they were directed to a large town named Tarra, verry neare as bigg as ye Citty of London with ye walls [in] ye Moores Countrey said to be the only mart for slaves in all those western parts of Africa. Any merchants carrying European goods, wishing to purchase slaves here, had first to turn their goods into cloth and with cloth purchase the Salt of ye Moores who bring it above 1100 miles on Camells and will Truck it for no othr soart of commodities than Cloathes, Gold and Slaves. After acquiring the salt, merchants could truck it for slaves wch is ye Reason yt many times before they can dispatch ye goods of 4 or 5 slaves yt costs ym ½ as much for Lodgin and Provisions. But it goes with 500 ozs of gold, pays no customes and may turn it into what commodity he pleasethe, In less yn two Dayes If he pleaseth

31 .Arguin.Wadan Tarra Hodges

32 European Views: West Africa interior Also recounted that three days after their arrival in Tarra, some horsemen and camels [arrived] to Lay siege to It. Ye Emperor drew his forces and incamped without ye towne to receive ym there Hodges men were drawn into assisting ye Moores : it pleased God to give ym such good success, they being all very good firemen, yt the Emperor attributed ye victory and safeguard of his country wholely to Mahamit. - believe Hodges men saw army of Moroccan Sultan sent to Tarra to assist Saharan clan allied with him, resist demands for tribute from local inhabitants insight into Muslim society and economy

33 European Views: West Africa interior Why is this information not part of Robinson s discussion? - rise of Atlantic Slave trade - not only shifted contemporary European focus away from Muslim Africa (as Robinson argues), subsequently shifted historians attention as well - triumph of caravel over caravan [see McDougall, Resources] - assumption that Atlantic Slave trade overshadowed economy of interior made desert-side commercial activities and societies invisible - clear that end of 17 th century ye Moores dominated economy - also that Sahara and sub-saharan region ancient Awdaghust considered part of larger Moroccan empire from Morocco s point of view

34 European Views: West Africa interior Europeans aware: - shaped commercial strategies -18 th C. French archival report notes Moors still obstructing trade along Senegal river: ongoing problem But in 18 th century, new influences began to shape reports, interact with pre-existing ideas of Moors and Turks : - account by Christian Slave Thomas Pellow (Morocco) - Napoleon s conquest of Egypt, growth Orientalism [to be explored further, next day]