Islam: Historical and Contemporary Discourses amongst Muslims, London, New York: I. B.

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1 Chapter 8 The Shīʿa For an illustration of a variety of scholarly approaches to Shiʿism see the articles assembled in Etan Kohlberg, Shῑʿism, Aldershot, Ashgate Variorum, The Shīʿī understanding of its origins On the general notion of unity and diversity in Islam see Roy P. Mottahedeh, Pluralism and Islamic Traditions of Sectarian Divisions, in Zulfikar A. Hirji (ed.), Diversity and Pluralism in Islam: Historical and Contemporary Discourses amongst Muslims, London, New York: I. B. Tauris, 2010, pp On the meaning of sectarianism in the Muslim context see the useful discussion in A. Kevin Reinhart, On Sunni Sectarianism, in Yasir Suleiman (ed.), Living Islamic History: Studies in Honour of Professor Carole Hillenbrand, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2010, pp On the description of sectarianism as conceived in the context of the Shīʿa see the translation of the text by al-nawbakhtī (d. between 912 and 922) in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 6.8. The Shīʿa and the Qurʾān On variants in the text of the Shīʿī Qurʾān see, for example, the text by al-qummī (d. after 919) on Shīʿī readings of the Qurʾān in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 5.2. For a full treatment of the subject with extensive bibliography see Etan Kohlberg and Mohammed Ali Amir-Moezzi, Revelation and Falsification: The Kitāb al-qirāʾāt of Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-sayyārῑ, Leiden, Brill, The acceptance of the common Muslim text of the Qurʾān is also illustrated by the way in which Furāt al-kūfī (d. ca 922) interprets sūra 98 to have references to ʿAlī within it; see

2 Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 5.5. The Shīʿa and ḥadīth On Shīʿī tradition see E. Kohlberg, Shīʿī Ḥadīth, in A. F. L. Beeston, T. M. Johnstone, R. B. Serjeant and G. R. Smith (eds), Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp The authority of the Shīʿī Imām For the best explanation of the emergence of a doctrine of the occultation of the Imām see E. Kohlberg, From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-ʿashariyya, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 39 (1976), The formation of the Shīʿa The role of Muḥammad al-bāqir (d. 935) in the emergence of the doctrines of the Shīʿa is the thrust of Arzina R. Lalani, Early Shīʿī Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muḥammad al-bāqir. London: I. B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, The occultation of the last Imām On ideas related to the final days see Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shiʿism, Albany, State University of New York Press, On the Shīʿa and the ʿAbbāsids see H. A. R. Gibb, Government and Islam under the Early ʿAbbasids: The Political Collapse of Islam, in C. Cahen (ed.), L élaboration de l Islam: Colloque de Strasbourg, juin 1959, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1961, pp Shīʿī theology On the ghulāt see Matti Moosa, Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects, Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1988.

3 Ibn Bābawayh An excerpt from Ibn Bābawayh s (d. 991) work on ḥadīth is available in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 3.5. For his method of theological argumentation see David Thomas, Two Muslim-Christian Debates from the Early Shīʿite Tradition, Journal of Semitic Studies, 33 (1988), Later theologians For the theology of al-shaykh al-mufīd in comparison with that of the Muʿtazila, Ibn Bābawayh (Ibn Babūyā) and al-sharīf al-murtaḍā see Martin J. McDermott, The Theology of al-shaykh al-mufīd (d. 413/1022), Beirut, Dar el-machreq, Also see Wilferd Madelung, Imāmism and Muʿtazilite Theology, in T. Fahd (ed.), Le Shîʿisme Imâmite: Colloque de Strasbourg 1968 (6-9 mai 1968), Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1970, pp , reprinted in his Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam, London, Variorum, 1985, chapter 7; Tamima Bayhom-Daou, Shaykh Mufid, Oxford, Oneworld, The later development of Shīʿī theology is also illustrated by the work of ʿAllāma al-ḥillī (d. 1325) as found in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 6.9. Shīʿī legal thought and practice An excerpt from the work of al-kulaynī is available in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 3.6. The texts by Ibn Bābawayh and al-ṭūsī (d or 1482) in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, sections 3.5 and 7.8 respectively, illustrate the issues related to khums, the portion of the booty from military raids payable, in Shīʿī thought, to the Imām. On the relationship between the Imām s function and those of the fuqahāʾ see Norman Calder, Judicial Authority in Imāmī Shīʿī Jurisprudence, British Society for Middle Eastern

4 Studies Bulletin, 6 (1979), 104 8, and Wilferd Madelung, Authority in Twelver Shiism in the Absence of the Imam, in George Makdisi and Dominique Sourdel (eds), La notion d authorité au Moyen Age: Islam, Byzance, Occident: Colloques internationaux de la Napoule 1978, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1982, pp , reprinted in his Religious Schools and Sects in Medieval Islam, London, Variorum, 1985, chapter 10. For more details on juridical development among the Shīʿa see Norman Calder, Zakāt in Imāmī Shīʿī Jurisprudence, from the Tenth to the Sixteenth Century A.D., Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 44 (1981), , reprinted in his Interpretation and Jurisprudence in Medieval Islam, Aldershot, Ashgate Variorum, 2006, chapter 17, and his Khums in Imāmī Shīʿī Jurisprudence, from the Tenth to the Sixteenth Century A.D., Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 45 (1982), 39 47, reprinted in his Interpretation and Jurisprudence in Medieval Islam, Aldershot, Ashgate Variorum, 2006, chapter 18. The topic of temporary marriage as dealt with by al-kulaynī (d or ) is found in Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 3.6. Also see Arthur Gribetz, Strange Bedfellows: Mutʿat al-nisāʾ and Mutʿat al-ḥajj: A Study Based on Sunnī and Shīʿī Sources of Tafsīr, Ḥadīth and Fiqh, Berlin, Klaus Schwartz Verlag, On the Shīʿī shahāda see Joseph Eliash, On the Genesis and Development of the Twelver- Shīʿī Three-tenet Shahādah, Der Islam, 47 (1971), , and Liyakat A. Takim, From bidʿa to sunna: The wilāya of ʿAlī in the Shīʿī Adhān, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (2000), On the significance of ʿĀshūrāʾ see Mahmoud Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of ʿᾹshῡrāʾ in Twelver Shῑʿism, The Hague, Mouton, Variations within the Shīʿa On the Ismāʿīlīs see F. Daftary, The Ismaʿilis: Their History and Doctrines, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2 nd ed For an illustration of the conception of the Imām among the Ismāʿīlīs see Norman Calder, Jawid Mojaddedi and Andrew Rippin, Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature, London, Routledge, 2003, section 7.10 for the text by Nāṣir-i Khusraw (d. between 1072 and 1078).

5 On the Druze see Nissim Dana, The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status, Brighton, Sussex Academic Press, On the Zaydīs see R. B. Serjeant, The Zaydis, in Arthur John Arberry (ed.), Religion in the Middle East: Three Religions in Concord and Conflict, Volume 2, Islam, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1969, pp