Nourollah Pasha a & Zaid Ahmad b a Department of Youth Studies, Institute of Social Sciences,

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1 This article was downloaded by: [Nourollah pasha] On: 13 December 2012, At: 08:04 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Islamic Law and Culture Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: Religious pluralism in Iran Nourollah Pasha a & Zaid Ahmad b a Department of Youth Studies, Institute of Social Sciences, University Putra Malaysia b Faculty of Human Ecology, University, Putra Malaysia To cite this article: Nourollah Pasha & Zaid Ahmad (2011): Religious pluralism in Iran, Journal of Islamic Law and Culture, 13:2-3, To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

2 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture Vol. 13, Nos. 2 3, July October 2011, Religious pluralism in Iran Nourollah Pasha a and Zaid Ahmad b a Department of Youth Studies, Institute of Social Sciences, University Putra Malaysia; b Faculty of Human Ecology, University Putra Malaysia This article spells out the potential contributions to research about religious pluralism that stem from different perspectives about globalization. The approach challenges the conventional thesis of the clash of civilizations, which stresses the importance of challenges that have been raised by extremist and ignores publicly tolerated and moderate perceptions of Islam especially in Iran that have emerged with globalization. When the world of Islam is imagined as a world of fundamentalism and terror, there is no choice except for the clash of civilizations. The question examined here is: does the world of Islam in this case Iran really take into account fundamentalism as prior discourse? The findings show that despite the many forces in the world beliefs, trends, and attempts to highlight the thesis of the clash of civilizations, the people of the world (in this research, high-school students in Tehran, the capital of Iran) mostly recognize the diversity and plurality of other religions and believe that religious pluralism should be taken into consideration as prior discourse in this context. The main focus of this paper concentrates on the micro-level of religious pluralism that depicts personal acceptance of multiple worldviews in religion from Tehranian high-school students point of view. Keywords: religion; pluralism; religious pluralism; globalization; tolerance; Iran Introduction: fundamentalism in Iran A dichotomy, which implies a continuum from fundamentalism to religious pluralism, is precisely the way that the concepts will be employed here as the two poles of that continuum. Fundamentalism and religious pluralism are the two opposite poles of the continuum. Islamic fundamentalism is an extreme perception of Islam, which mostly perceives others as enemies while religious pluralism is a plural perception of religions and accepts others as different people who have different values from us. We should take a position of war with the enemy, but we can coexist with different others in peace. Fundamentalists see the lasting colonization and cultural invasion of the world by the West against the Rest, especially Islam. They encourage others to view the West as the enemy and believe that Islamic nations are exposed to the cultural invasion of the West and that modernity undermines their religious culture. In fact, they believe that Western religion, Christianity, is undermining Islam. On the other hand, advocates of the thesis of clashes of civilization try to convince the West and the world that fundamentalists make up the majority in Muslim society and that fundamentalism is really dangerous and destructive for the world. Corresponding author. Pasha_np2@yahoo.com ISSN X print/issn online # 2011 Taylor & Francis

3 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 211 In the academic era, religious discussions concentrate on the extremists and oppositions, who oppose strongly the secularization thesis against fundamentalism, 1 which takes into account discussion about relationships between the type of religious discourse and modern society, especially late modernity. 2 These approaches neglect cultural considerations, especially religious considerations, 3 and the point is that [m]uch of that attention is somewhat negative, emphasizing religion as reaction against globalization and, within that perspective, centering on religious political movements such as those in Iran or India, often availing itself of pejorative terms like fundamentalism. 4 Although there is a negative, emphasizing religion as reaction against globalization, some of the evidence indicates that this trend is not the dominant discourse, especially in Iranian society. 5 Those with pessimistic approaches to the relationship between globalization and religion believe in the clash of civilizations while optimistic approaches embrace a dialogue of civilizations. When we imagine the world of Islam as a world of fundamentalism and terror, there is no choice except the clash of civilizations. The question we ask is: does the world of Islam, especially Iran, really take into account fundamentalism as prior discourse? We believe that despite the many forces in world beliefs, trends, and attempts to highlight the thesis of the clash of civilizations, the people of the world, from different religions, and in this case Tehranian students mostly believe in toleration about other religions and in the idea that religious pluralism should be considered as prior discourse. This study challenges the claim that fundamentalism is the major and dominant discourse in Iranian society. Fundamentalism could succeed somewhere else, such as in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and maybe other nations. Many suicide operations by people in those countries during this decade indicate their relative success. How they could succeed and what social factors contribute to this success is another story that needs much scrutiny. However, in the Iranian context, they could not succeed because in Iran the thesis of religious pluralism is more acceptable than fundamentalism. This paper is based on research conducted with a mixed method to collect data through interviews and from questionnaires. A total of 31 pre-university high-school students in Tehran from four zones of the educational regions were interviewed, and respondents who were randomly selected from four of 19 education zones in Tehran filled out 206 questionnaires. Religious pluralism in everyday life In a local context, religious pluralism may be described at a macro-level as public tolerance of a multitude of religious organizations. At a meso-level it refers to acceptance by a religious organization of other varieties. At a micro-level it refers to a personal 1 Roland Robertson, Global Millennialism: A Postmodern on Secularization in Peter Beyer (ed) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden 2007) E Fuat Keyman, Modernity, Secularism and Islam: The Case of Turkey (2007) 24(2) Theory Culture Soc Bryan S Turner, Religious Authority and the New Media (2007) 24(2) Theory Culture Soc Peter Beyer, Globalization and the Institutional Modeling of Religions in Peter Beyer (ed) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden 2007) (167). 5 A Soroush, Official Website of Abdolkarim Soroush from Daily Tsite, German Newspaper s Interview with Soroush (March 2009), JonbeshSabzShekastNapazirAst.html

4 212 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad acceptance of multiple worldviews, which, combined with autonomy, opens the formation of a religious (or non-religious) identity to personal choice. 6 The process of globalization represents a new phase of interdependence with others and a consciousness of others ideas. The phases of globalization involve exposure to alternative ways of thinking and believing. Such exposure can relativize people s traditions and their way of seeing the world. 7 Such a cultural relativization and global consciousness is prevailing throughout the world and makes people s perception more plural and moderate. As William Stahl has said, [m]odern communications end cultural isolation and confront even the most traditional people with other values and ways of life especially western materialism and titillation. Global media tends to relativize, and thus undermine, local values. 8 Religious pluralism, at macro- and meso-levels, implies religious dominant structures such as church and mosque with regard to pluralism and diversity. Acceptance of religious pluralism at these levels is more complicated and harder than the micro-level because of the view that a religious organization essentially must protect a particular religion. This position encounters paradoxical choices between invitation to a particular religion and respect and acceptance of other religions. These organizations may be accused of neglecting their duty if they accept truth of other religions, but they can choose a more modest and moderate position than takes a position of terror and war. Religious pluralism, at the micro-level, concentrates on an individual s perception about other religions. At this level, religious pluralism flows in their everyday life. The religious trend in Iran: religious pluralism within the thesis of the Modernization of Islam Muslims make up 98 percent of the 70 million population of Iran. The vast majority of Iranian Muslims are traditional and their religious life has become intertwined with their local and antique beliefs and customs. Political Islam is a fact of life in Iran and reflects all organized and influential structures of Iranian society after the 1979 Revolution. The main leader of the country must be chosen from among the highest rank of jurists and is the so-called Marga e Taghlid (reference of imitation) who has the main political power in Iran and whom the people imitate in their Islamic rituals and manners. In fact, individuals and organizations gain their legitimacy from Islam. Thus, the highest position of the Iranian Islamic Republic is Leader, referred to by Iranians as Velayat e Faghih and who is both political and religious leader of the country. After the Revolution of 1979, the revolutionary government endeavored to shape a modern system of technology and Islamization of the culture. It tried to Islamize social, economic, political, and cultural aspects of the country while using the modern technologies of media, transportation, and so on. However, it seems that instead of Islamization of Iranian society over three decades, what happened was more like the modernization 6 Ole Riis, Religious Pluralism in a Local and Global Perspective: Images of the Prophet Mohammed Seen in a Danish and a Global Context in Peter Beyer (ed) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden 2007) George van Pelt Campbell, Religion and Phases of Globalization in Peter Beyer (ed) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden 2007) (286). 8 William A Stahl, Religious Opposition to Globalization in Peter Beyer (ed) Religion, Globalization, and Culture (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden 2007) (337).

5 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 213 of Islam within society. Conflicts and contradictions between the dominant groups in power and their Reformist opposition party in Iran have given rise to a challenge between Islamization of modernism and modernization of Islam. Islamization of modernism implies a shift to modern systems and technologies in the Islamic direction in manners and way of life. In this view, Islam embraces all aspects of life without limitations of time and place. Thus, when all aspects of social, economic, political, and cultural life are the basis of Islam, critical discourse on every aspect of society means critical discourse on Islam. Islamization of modernism essentially rejects modern rationales and cultural changes. For example, in this view, social sciences are unacceptable as they are seen as translating Western thoughts and corrupting Muslim youth. In this view, the critical approaches of social sciences may destroy Islamic culture. The process of Islamization has been one of the most important missions of the Ministry of Education among three levels of educational institutions (primary school, guidance school, and high school) since Students are encouraged and, over a period of years, are forced to reinforce their religious habits such as daily prayers, fasting during the holy month, and invocation in their daily experience. The process of Islamization of society has also involved the control of Iranian girls to keep their Islamic cover in the street and public places. In the main social process of Islamism, the government encouraged the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life. Islamists are those who want legislated recognition and a direct role for Islam as the religion of the state. 9 This process has been subject to the ebb and flow of different policies at different periods. For example, in the first decade after the 1979 Revolution, there was a concerted attempt and pressure to Islamize all areas of society. Control of Islamic symbols extended to private places and limitations were placed on listening to Western and Iranian singers playing outside of Iran. After the Iran Iraq War ( ), during Akbar Hashemi s presidency, the government eased such control to some extent and imposed limitations only in public places. This process of Islamization generally stopped during the presidency of Mohamad Khatami. Control of public places, forces for conducting Islamic rituals, and morals in school and high school were explicitly limited. Understandably, although there is frustration among the extremists who emphasize a return to Islam for youth in Iran, the governors have seriously pursued the thesis of Islamization of modernism. The Hozehaye Elmieh (College of Juristic Education) mostly advocates and encourages the thesis of Islamization of modernism in Iran in which the government, state media, and especially state television of Iran support them. They also attempt the Islamization of the education and higher education system officially. For example, in the Iranian Ministry of Higher Education, Kamran Daneshjoo said that social sciences must be local and in line with the Islamic religion and culture in order to respond to the country s needs. 10 Modernization of Islam, on the other hand, implies an appreciation of the modern system and technologies for Islamic society. In this view, Islam is a rational trend and has no difficulty with rational and critical discourses. Critical discourses on 9 Carlyle Thayer, Radical Islam and Political Terrorism In Southeast Asia in Terence Chong (ed) Globalization and its Counter-Forces in Southeast Asia (Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asia Studies 2008). 10 Kamran Daneshjoo, Aftab News (June 2011), igiw.html.

6 214 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad Islam, they believe, lead to different interpretations of the Quran and tradition. Nobody can claim that a particular interpretation of Islam is perfect. Multiple and diverse interpretations of the Quran are evidence of imperfection in the interpretation of a religion. If any one of the interpretations is prefect, why is there a need for other interpretations? Modernization of Islam encompasses different trends and interpretations of Islam with regard to political, social, and cultural dimensions. Religious pluralism in Iran was born in the heart of the thesis of modernization of Islam. Modernization of Islam is a thesis which adjusts to modern thought and values such as human rights, equality of man and women, and modern laws that the thesis of Islamization of modernism rejects. Modernization of Islam justifies a modern lifestyle and values with Islamic interpretation. The starting point of the thesis of modernization of Islam is acceptance of diversity and plurality of cultures that flows through different ideas and values throughout the world. Reformers mostly advocate the thesis of modernization of Islam and usually have the support of students, teachers, and lecturers. Mohamad Khatami, former Iranian President, and leaders of the Green movement, Mir Hossein Moosavi and Mehdi Karoobi, are the well-known official advocates of the thesis of modernization of Islam. Religious intellectuals such as Abdulkarim Soroush, Mohsen Kadivar, Mohammad Mojtahed Shabestari, and Akbar Gangi theoretically expand and develop the thesis of modernization of Islam in Iran. In this view, Soroush says: I think we can present a democratic interpretation of a religion (Islam) which takes into consideration pluralism, human rights, freedom, and justice. 11 The main candidacy s slogans of Khatami were democracy and freedom. He presented the thesis of a dialogue of civilization in the United Nations in which he expressed his appreciation of other cultures and civilizations. He defined the dialogue of civilization as a new movement for restricting dominance of cultural monologues, and providing an opportunity for all civilizations to cooperate in a global civilization. 12 The dialogue of civilizations involves listening to other cultures and civilizations. Khatami believes that within dialogue we should respect other beliefs, cultures, and thoughts to direct our dialogue toward peace, security, and justice. 13 Khatami won the second term of his presidency in a landslide, garnering about 22 million of 28 million votes. The cause of this victory was the general Iranian interest in and support of his slogan Freedom and Democracy and his pivotal thesis, the dialogue of Civilizations. Although Khatami could not institutionalize his slogans as democracy, freedom, and dialogue of civilization, the general feeling and hopes of Iranians, despite many limitations, was towards a trend of moderation and tolerance instead of war and terror. The modernization of Islam was grounded on the century-old Iranian movement to adjust modern lifestyle and thought to their local cultures and values. The thesis of religious pluralism also is the idea that strives to facilitate the Iranian interdependencies and interconnections with a plural and diverse globalized world in which each country comes with its different and conflicting culture and values. This idea has its basis in the Theory of Religious Pluralism that encourages the thinking and practice of living in peace with a conflicting world. 11 A Soroush (n 5). 12 M. Khatami, Dialogue of Civilizations (Tehran, Tarhe No. 2009). 13 Ibid.

7 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 215 In the first of the following two parts, this paper will explain the various tenets of the Theory of Religious Pluralism in the Iranian context. It will explain what are the main elements of the theory and, secondly, how the Iranian youth respond to religious pluralism. Finally, it will examine what are the Iranian high-school students point of view about different and conflicting values. Theory of Religious Pluralism War essentially shows and encourages an aggressive and violated picture of society among war. Many people lost their youth in the eight-year war between Iran and Iraq. Consequently, they both felt anger and harbored thoughts of revenge. This could have led to an interpretation of their value sources (for Iranians, the Quran) in the direction of enmity towards others. Thus, some Iranian intellectuals and jurists in the post-war period attempted to give a generous and accommodating interpretation of Islam to soften the feelings of Iranian society. They challenged extremists Islamic discourse which encouraged a hard and harsh position against others. One of the most important and effective approaches which encouraged a moderate image of Islam was the Theory of Religious Pluralism that Abdulkarim Soroush 14 developed in his book Straight Paths. 15 Religious pluralism, according to Soroush, involves two bases: first, it recognizes in the diversity of understandings in religious text, e.g. Quran, and, second, it also recognizes the diversity of interpretations of religious experiences. 16 Soroush states that: [t]ext depends on the context [...] interpretation of Holy Book depends on the different context that may cause expansion and contraction of the religion. Holy books are multilayered and complex. One reads it and finds out meanings of the first layer, and second layer is found to be more complex and difficult for understanding. Then, step by step, reading the holy books becomes more difficult and leads to different interpretations of the text. Thus, each commentator draws some aspects of verses of the Quran that are different and sometimes opposite to those of another interpreter. The Quran declares that some verses of the Quran will be understood at the end of history. 17 That means the Holy Book is multilayered and a hermeneutic approach is required for a true interpretation. On the other hand, there is a diversity of interpretations of the history of religions. Christians today, for example, indicate a type of interpretation of the history of Christianity, and Islam also offers a type of interpretation of Islamic history of religion. These interpretations are different and divergent with regard to their different understandings of religion. Commentators sometimes do not agree with previous interpretations and bring new insights and comments of holy books. Religious cognition and knowledge have been developed by these divergent and different interpretations. As a result, we 14 Professor AbdolKarim Soroush is a well-known Iranian religious philosopher. From the year 2000 onward he has been a Visiting Professor at Harvard University teaching Islam and Democracy, Quranic Studies and Philosophy of Islamic Law. Also a scholar in residence at Yale University, he taught Islamic Political Philosophy at Princeton University in the academic year. In he was a visiting scholar at the Wissenschaftkolleg in Berlin. 15 A Soroush, The Straight Paths (Tehran, Serat Publication 1999). 16 Ibid Ibid. 3.

8 216 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad do not encounter pure interpretations of holy books among divine religions. 18 Soroush believes that God was the first one who implanted the seed of pluralism by sending different prophets and holy books. 19 Each prophet has emerged in a certain society along with a certain language and culture. Pluralism has emerged from this basis. Moreover, multidimensional interpretations are the result of multidimensional histories and in the interpretation of such texts of diverse histories, the hermeneutic approach of multilayered readings has proven to be most enlightening as it was, in fact, developed to make sense of obscure and difficult biblical texts. Soroush quoted John Hick, a Western philosopher, who stated that truth (of God) arises from different and divergent faces and manifestations that bring forth different religions that all take the true path. 20 In fact, the existence of different paths of truth gives rise to different religions. Thus, we should see the world as a set of straight lines leading towards God alongside some parallel lines, rather than take the view of the world as one straight line with many distorted lines. Molavi, a well-known Iranian poet and Sufi, writing in 1207 on the secrets of different religions, believes that there is no distortion, no conspiracy and no blasphemy (although all religions may encounter these threats), but a type of immersion of truth into truth. 21 Soroush in Straight Paths implies that all religions, even sects, believe that they have pure understanding of truth, and others unfortunately deviate from the straightway. 22 Fortunately, we embrace all the truth, and God has chosen us. The other billions of people of the world will be filled with desire if they convert to our religion or share with us the understanding and practices of our Holy Book. Pluralism arises when people discard their illusions and selfishness with regard to their claim about reference of truth and salvation. Another character of pluralism can be seen in the adjustment of truths. All truths are construed in one constellation. If there are some truths in our religion, then these truths are compatible with other truths in other religions. Thus, religious intellectuals should explore and decipher the matrix of these compatible truths among unique religious constellations that originate from God. There are no pure things in the world. The Quran implies this in Rad, Verse 17. Divine religions are genius but an understanding of human beings is always a mixture of truth and falsehood. Indeed, if one religion or sect was pure and the others were false, intellectuals would elect the pure one. However, there is no pure race, no pure language, and no pure religion. 23 Religious purity is often smothered by the dust of history, thus giving rise to obscurity and vagueness. Cause and reason in pluralism Most people s religious beliefs throughout the world are unreasonable. They mostly accept their religion because of their background, e.g. their parents and their nationality that are grounded on causality. I am a Muslim because I was born in Iran among my Muslim family. You are (probably) a Christian because you were born in a Western 18 Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid. 36.

9 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 217 country among a Christian family. You may have been a Muslim if you were born in Iran among a Muslim family. Our faith mostly is imitation and heritage rather than reason. It depends on our environment, substances, and other causal situations. It depends on social, cultural, economic, and political features. Then, with this level and character of faith, we do not deserve to brag and boast about our religion at the expense of other religions; rather we should be humble and modest. God guidance and pluralism If we take into account the billions of people around the world and claim that only Shiah are on the straight path and other religions and sects are misguided and impious, how can we explain the God guidance which is one of the most important aspects of God in the Quran? Does it mean that the many prophets that God sent with His messages were unsuccessful and they were defeated in their missions? On the other hand, Satan was more successful than the prophets because most of the people could not achieve salvation and went the way of the devil? But if we take into account the era of God guidance in a broader context, many people of the world are in paths of truth in their respective religions. It is in this landscape that we can touch pluralism. Pluralism and relativism The biggest controversy with pluralism arises from the claim that religious pluralism gives rise to relativism. The dominance of causality and weakness of reason, in modern epistemology, from Francis Bacon to Karl Marx and up to the present, gives rise to the emergence of relativism. Today, the role of reason has been ignored and all phenomena are explained by means of their causalities. When there are no reasons, relativism will emerge. Typification of reason is different from typification of cause. Cause is grounded on cultural, social, economic, and political features of the phenomenon; reason is based on the logical apparatus of the mind. In our daily life and daily affairs, causality is very important, but in the field of religious cognition, reason is prior to cause. For example, it is not proper and unreasonable to maintain that I am Muslim because I was born in Iran. That is a cause. In any case, there are two types of religious pluralism: causal pluralism and reasonable pluralism. On the one hand, causal pluralism is a type of post-modernistic pluralism which brings forth relativism; on the other hand, reasonable pluralism is never a cause of relativism. Relativism claims that the diversity of social, cultural, economic, and political circumstances cause the existence of different religions. Here there are no discourses of truth. In this view, all religions are constructed socially by the medium of mindful innovations of prophets. Reasonable pluralism, however, claims that all discourse of truth among different religions is truth. Each religion embraces a part of truth that guides their proponents forward to salvation. Critique of religious pluralism Religious pluralism has attracted many critiques among religious intellectuals in Iran. Kadivar, an Iranian jurist, sees serious problems in the Theory of Religious Pluralism from the point of inner-extra religious perspective. 24 He implies that the diverse and different messages of God by prophets are due to the different capacity of human

10 218 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad beings with regard to different time place circumstances. God has sent different prophets in order to guide different people with different capacities, for different substances, in different territories, and at different times. In this regard, the latest religion is superior to an earlier one. Islam is superior to Christianity as Christianity is superior to earlier religions and so on. As such, there are no valid reasons for the equality of religions with regard to pluralism. On the other hand, religious pluralism is incompatible with faith and certainty. The Theory of Religious Pluralism cannot distinguish between truth and falsehood, according to Kadivar. 25 Kadivar criticizes the Theory of Religious Pluralism with respect to God s guidance as well. 26 According to him, one should take into account God s guidance alongside liberty. God grants people the wisdom and liberty to differentiate truth and falsehood. They must try to discover the straight path of guidance; if they cannot find their way, they deserve God s rage. God s guidance is not automatically destined for Paradise, but it is a type of address. Man should find the true path to arrive at the destination of Paradise. Ayatollah Sobhani, another Iranian jurist, criticizes other aspects of religious pluralism. 27 His first point is in relation to the title of Soroush s paper, Straight Paths. Sobhani believes that the title is contrary to verses of the Quran which realizes only one path of salvation when it is written in the Quran at Anam, Verse 153, that this is my straight path, you follow this way, not others. Pluralism is acceptable if its meaning refers to peaceful co-existence of different religions. There is no way of salvation for other religions unless they convert to Islam, according to Sobhani. 28 The response of Soroush to Sobhani may be that if we look at the claim of truth with regard to certain religions, all religions have their only claim to truth and reject others. The Quran says, [t]his is my straight path ; the gospel says the same; the bible says the same as well. The main claim of religious pluralism revolves around the respect for the claim of other religions to truth and belief in the straight path. Discussions on religious pluralism are controversial dialogue among Iranian intellectuals and jurists. There are advocates and opponents among both groups regarding religious pluralism. The most important points are that most commentators believe in pluralism with respect to other aspects of social and cultural lives. This debate also influences the people, especially the youth. The question worth studying is: to what extent the Iranian context is influenced by these discussions? Typification of Iranian high-school students regarding religious pluralism As a starting point, we mentioned that religious pluralism and fundamentalism are two opposite sides of a continuum. Those who believe in plural and diverse values and cultures may not involve the fundamental frame and vice versa. We are focused on one side of the continuum, which is religious pluralism. The Theory of Religious Pluralism is a theoretical framework to examine the Iranian high-school students perception of different and diverse values. One takes into account a religious pluralist who believes 24 M a Kadivar, Tradition and Secularism (Tehran, Serat Publication 2003). 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid. 27 J. Sobhani, Religious Pluralism (Ghom, Institute of Imam Sadegh 2006). 28 Ibid.

11 Table 1. Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 219 Students perception of other religions. Frequency Percentage I appreciate them I respect them I have no idea about them They are in the wrong way Total in different paths to God. Different religions may guide their believers toward salvation by a way that may differ from our religious way. If pluralism expects tolerance and coexistence with other people of different cultures and contexts, religious pluralism believes in the different origins of values and truth with regard to different contexts and religions. Students point of view about other religions actually reflect their degree of pluralism as well. There are different types of perceptions toward religions among students which shape their approach to these questions. Students point of view about other religions, and their perception of the quality of other religions to lead their followers to salvation, are two axes of the discussion. The first question is about the students perception of other religions. Based on Table 1, Tehranian high-school students mostly appreciate and respect other religions while they believe in Islam. Appreciation of other religions means that they believe they also are in the straight path of salvation as are Muslims. Twelve percent of the students accept the idea of other religions, meaning they see their values as the right way to salvation 60 percent of them respect other religions although they are different from Islam, believing that it is the choice of followers of other religions and they respect this. Respect for other religions is based on the idea that one believes in the priority of his/her values, as Hosein, a pre-university student, says their beliefs and religions are their businesses not mine. This is the heart of religious pluralism whereby we believe in our values, respect other values, and allow others their values even though they are different from ours. A total of 22 percent of the students say that they have no idea about other religions, while only 6 percent of the students say that believers of other religions are on the wrong path. Globalization needs our positive perception to interact, communicate, and connect to other peoples with different contexts, and our perception is affected by our type of religious idea. Iranian students, in this research, mostly believe in religious pluralism at this level. Pooyan, a student, believes that all religions have the same message and same mission and all seek salvation from God. He says that: The roots and origins of all the divine religions throughout the world are the same. They want to say the same things. The non-divine religions also principally are the same with ours. For example, Zoroaster notices the good thought, good perception and good action are three characteristics that are encouraged in Islam, but Islam is the most perfect religion. The earlier a religion, the more superstitious values it has. All religions work towards salvation. Their prophet has been sent by God, but their religions are mutilated [...]

12 220 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad Pooyan wanted to say that the same concept, the same principles, and the same words among different religions show that all religions have the same message and the same mission, although they may go in different ways. The most important point is that the students mostly believe Islam has a different source of values compared with other religions. In fact, they respect other religions and are aware of the fact that other religions are different and not compatible with Islam. According to Table 2, 42 percent of the students say that Islam is compatible with other religions in the middle range; 31 percent of them say that Islamic values are not compatible with those of other religions, and 17 percent of the students believe that Islam is compatible with other religions. The most important issue regarding religious pluralism in the age of globalization revolves around peoples interdependencies and interconnections in the global village. The problem is whether people with different values and backgrounds can live beside each other or not. The question is: do the students have problems with living peacefully beside believers of other religions as fellow citizens? Treating these others as fellow citizens implies being able to interact with them in public, as neighbors, professional colleagues in an office, and so on. Based on Table 3, about 13 percent of the students say that they have significant problems living with believers of other religions; and 29 percent of the students have moderate views about living with believers of other religions. The majority (58 percent) says they have no problems. The last general question revolves around the students tolerance level of other cultures. One of the important terms with regard to approaches against differences is tolerance. Jürgen Habermas believes to tolerate is to bear with a situation when we encounter others conflicting and different beliefs and attitudes. 29 If we appreciate otherness, we do not need to be tolerant. We use the term tolerance to designate the general disposition to treat another person or a stranger patiently and generously and we also use it with citizens who are different or are of different origins. 30 Tolerance, in this regard, is based on mutual recognition and mutual acceptance of divergent world views. 31 In the pluralism context there is no expectation of universal values being accepted by all and no belief in the hierarchy of values that all people must believe at the first level. In pluralism, people believe in their values and tolerate others with different and conflicting values. Based on Table 4, only 7 percent of the students say that they have no tolerance of other cultures; and 93 percent of them believe to tolerating other cultures. Typification of the students religious pluralism Interviewees perception of other religions revolves around two axes: first is the students who believe that Islam is the only way toward God and salvation. They say Islam is the latest religion that God gave to the people through to Prophet Mohammad and that it is the most perfect religion and that, as such, the believers of other religions should leave their religions and convert to Islam, for otherwise they will not step on the straight path and never achieve salvation. This type of student believes that the followers of other religions may go to Paradise only by God s forgiveness and kindness. The second type are students who believe in religious pluralism in the way they realize 29 Jürgen Habermas, Intolerance and Discrimination (2003) 1(1) Int J Constitut Law Ibid Ibid.

13 Table 2. Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 221 Students perception of compatibility of other religions with Islam. Frequency Percentage Very much Somewhat Middle range Less than usual Almost nothing Total Table 3. Students problems living with believers of other religions. Frequency Percentage Very much Somewhat Middle range Less than usual Almost nothing Total all religions are equally on the straight path to God and all religions typically guide their believers to salvation. The first group s reasons stem from the priority of Islam other religions due to its later emergence. They believe that other believers may deliver to the extent that their way of salvation becomes closer to us. Poorsafian, an Iranian high school student, believes that advocates of other religions have no chance for salvation unless they convert to Islam, because: Islam is the most perfect religion. I don t believe in other religions essentially. Of course, other religions came to prepare people to accept Islam. For example, a teacher coming to the first grade class gets students ready for second level. Another teacher continues the first level on the higher level and so forth. Religions come in the first grade, prepared for more perfect religion, and at the end, Islam is the latest grade religion. Nevertheless if they conduct themselves in their religious rule may reach salvation, but they didn t today [...]. Practically, Poorsafian sees few people who are in the straight path because they do not practice religious behavior and rituals, e.g. most of the people have no scarves. He believes in Islam s path as the only true path to salvation. Other religions may deliver if their rules and principles are close to Islam. Although he may take into consideration tolerance of other believers, he explicitly is not a religious pluralist. Amir, a student, believes in Islam because of many distortions that occur in the other religions. He says that: Islam is the collection of all religions. Other religions opposed with new prophets. Their religions have been distorted by the passing of time. For example, the gospel has had many books as far as Christians are concerned and they are forced to choose only four valid books. If the religions refer to their essentials it is ok e.g., a nun has her

14 222 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad Table 4. Students level of tolerance for other cultures. Frequency Percentage Very much Somewhat Middle range Less than usual Almost nothing Total habit when performing her religious practice (then, she reaches out to salvation). The Quran says all people must accept the prophet s invitation. If they didn t hear it they must investigate. I don t think they (believers of other religions) ever achieve salvation. The distortion of other religions is the most important reason for believers to deny and reject other religions and believe in the truth of their religion. Islam is a perfect religion which is safe from the distortion, while other religions are exposed to the distortion. This type of statement is the most popular type encountered by some believers of other religions. Mohamad Hossein, another student, differentiates between salvation and getting to Paradise. He believes that salvation is higher than going to Paradise. In all religions adherents may go to Paradise but never reach salvation. He says that: Other religions are imperfect, because they promise to another perfect religion. I heard everybody examine by his/her religion in hereafter. If this sentence is true I think they can go to paradise. But because their religion is not perfect, they cannot reach salvation but they can go to Paradise. Everybody who worships God can go to paradise. If one worships idols, I don t think so. Although in this perception salvation takes into consideration Islam s way, the people of other religions have the chance to go to Paradise. The type of religious pluralism that can be read in this discourse may be called low-level religious pluralism. This type of pluralist may be considered as moderate and modest people who respect other religions. All the first type of students strictly believe in the superiority of Islam over other religions. According to this view, other religions believers should hope for God s forgiveness. They are in a distorted way and are misled for salvation. It is clear that other religions can believe in their way to salvation and truth. Jews believe that God chose to reveal the Torah to them as a people, not as individuals. Not only were they chosen for salvation, but they were also entrusted with a divine mission, salvation of the kingdom of God and the savoir of humanity. 32 Said, another student, divides religions into two different types: divine and nondivine, and the latter cannot find the path of God. In his view only the believers in the divine religions can go to Paradise. Of course, he believes that today there are few real Muslims, real Christians and so on. In his own words: 32 Manochehr Dorraj, The Crisis of Modernity and Religious Revivalism: A Comparative Study of Islamic Fundamentalism, Jewish Fundamentalism and Liberation Theology (1999) 46 Social Compass (229).

15 Journal of Islamic Law and Culture 223 I don t believe to Buddhism, Berhmism and religions like this, but I believe in Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroaster. Buddhism implies only mundane lives and does not believe in afterlife. I think afterlife is important as well. Jewish and Christian ideas are somewhat the same as Islam. There are no differences between religions, for with all of them one can reach God. The second type of religious pluralism among Iranian high-school students is among those who believe in respecting other ways of salvation and truth practiced by other religions. This is called acceptance of other faiths and values. They believe in Islam for reaching salvation and truth and let other believers of other religions findtheirwaytotruthandsalvation.thisperception essentially offers a pure religious pluralism, which provides subjective background for globalization. Farzad says that religion is like law. Each law includes positive and negative aspects. Religion includes some principles forever. Although our law contextually is different from each other, nevertheless they are similar in terms of principle. We can see the type of high level of religious pluralism that respects and appreciates other religions. Hamid Reza insists on good action. His plural idea derives from his respect for all religions. He says: I think if somebody does good things surely he goes to Paradise; never mind what is his religion. In this view, the type of religion is actually not important to truth and salvation, but our practices toward, the straight path is important. Never mind our practice origins, whether from this or that religion. Amin, another student, also believes in different paths to God among religions. He says: I think Christianity is a free religion as a whole. I don t believe that only Muslims can go to Paradise. All the religions are seeking for God in their path. You go from this path, and they go from another path. It is not important. God himself put these paths. When Amin says all religions are seeking for God in their paths, it clearly expresses his pure religious pluralism. His plural idea of other religions brings about moderation and tolerance of other people in different contexts. This subjective preparation is the basis of other levels of interdependency and interconnection, which is mostly expressed among Iranian students. Likewise, Mohamad Hossein believes that if we have the Quran, other religions have another rule from God for them. Then they also know good and bad things that are contained in their books: Religions are the ideology of human beings and we shouldn t change them. I think all religions have some rules for their advocators to go paradise and reach salvation. We have the Quran, they have scripture. They follow their religions. Their religions define good and evil for them [...]. Each student expresses his belief in pluralism with different statements; meanwhile their idea is toward moderation and tolerance that is grounded on religious pluralism. Religious pluralism in meso- and micro-levels in Iran There are different descriptions and functions of religious pluralism at three levels: macro, meso and micro. Although the main focus of this paper is on the micro-level

16 224 N. Pasha and Z. Ahmad that depicts Iranian high-school students personal acceptance of a multiple world view of religion, this section briefly discusses the main orientations of religious pluralism at the macro- and meso-levels in the Iranian context. Public tolerance of a multitude of religious organizations towards pluralism depicts a moderate and tolerant orientation. Iranian Religious organizations publicly show respect for other religions although they do not deny Islam s priority over other religions. Religious organizations try to present Islam and Islamic ideas and comments, but they explicitly do not reject other religions or take a position against other religions. At the meso-level, Ole Riis defines it as acceptance of other varieties among religious organizations, seemingly tending to monism. 33 In this view, Islamic organizations strictly believe in Islam as the only way of salvation and the straight path to God. Acceptance of other religions faith by a religious organization may mislead believers of a religion. There is no acceptance of other religions among Iranian religious organizations. They mostly give respect to and tolerate the approach of other religions, but they strictly believe theirs to be the only way to truth and salvation. There is even an expedient context for extremism and fundamentalism at this level. The main opposition to the thesis of secularism is grounded in Islamic organizations that think they are threatened by secularization. Their reaction towards globalization arises because they view secularization and globalization as two juxtaposed forces. The context of emergence of fundamentalists and extremists undoubtedly is at the macro- and meso-levels in which religious organizations set their activities and train their forces. Islamic organizations mostly believe in the Islamization of society in which there is no place for pluralism. But at the micro-level the story is different. Personal acceptance of multiple worldviews among Iranian high-school students, as discussed above, is a matter of fact. The students mostly hold a diverse and plural perception with regard to their religious belief. Dialogue about different religions may be taken into account at this level. The introduction of the thesis of dialogue of civilizations by Mohamad Khatami verified the emergence of the plural idea publicly in a presentation at the United Nations. Although at the meso-level there is a tendency for negative reaction towards globalization, the main trend at the micro-level, publicly, is towards globalization rather than against globalization regarding religious pluralism in Iran. When we refer to the question asked above ( Does the world of Islam really take into account fundamentalism as prior discourse? ), the answer, in the Iranian context, is negative. Some formal religious organizations sometimes may be oriented towards fundamentalism at the macro/ meso-levels, but the public orientation mostly trends toward religious pluralism that is explicitly oriented against fundamentalism. Conclusion Islamic fundamentalism essentially implies people s perception towards extreme Islam and denial of other religions. The dominant approaches in Western discourses emphasize that Iranian Islamic fundamentalism is a main force against globalization. Meanwhile, Iranian youth, Tehranian high-school students in this research, mostly have plural, diverse, and moderated attitudes towards other religions. The result of this research indicated that there is no extreme and violent trend among Iranian youth as a whole. Students point of view about other religions shows a type of 33 Riis (n 6) 431.