REGENTS REVIEW READINGS BY TOPIC

Transcription

1 Index of Topics by Page Number: REGENTS REVIEW READINGS BY TOPIC 2-3 Neolithic Revolution and River Valleys Golden Ages in Greece (Athens), India (Gupta), and China (Tang and Song Dynasties) 6-7 Rome, Byzantine, and Han Empires 8-9 Islam, Mongol, Ottoman, Mughal Empires and West African Trade Empires The Middle Ages and the Crusades The Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution The Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther) The Columbian Exchange The Commercial Revolution and the growth of capitalism and mercantilism Absolute Monarchs in Europe The Enlightenment (John Locke) The French Revolution and Napoleon Latin American Independence Movements (Bolivar, L Overture, Hidalgo) The Industrial Revolution Laissez Faire Capitalism vs. Communism (Adam Smith vs. Karl Marx) Imperialism in Africa, India, and China and the Meiji Restoration in Japan World War I The Russian Revolution (Lenin, Stalin) World War II The Cold War The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and the End of the Cold War Communism in China (Mao, Deng Xiaoping and the Tiananmen Square Massacre) 51 - Communism in Korea, Vietnam, and Cambodia African Independence, Apartheid in South Africa and Nelson Mandela Indian Independence (Gandhi) and the Partition of Africa 57 - Modern Middle East (Arab- Israeli Conflict) 58 - The Iranian Revolution (Overthrow of the Shah and the rule of Ayatollahs) Social Scientists Review (Archaeologists, Economists, Political Scientists, Geographers) Geography Review Economics Review

2 10 The Middle Ages and the Crusades The Roman Empire grew approximately 2000 years ago as a result of a strong central government and the empires control of regional trade around the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans also built a road system which connected their empire and increased their wealth and allowed for cultural diffusion (the spread of ideas). Travelers felt safe travelling along the Roman roads because the Roman military protected the roads and as a result, the empire thrived. Approximately 1600 years ago (in the 400 s CE), the Roman Empire in Western Europe began to decline as result of corruption in the government (political instability) and invasions from foreign groups. When the Roman Empire (in Western Europe) collapsed in 476 CE, there was no longer a strong government to protect travel and trade. The collapse of the Roman Empire marks the beginning of the Middle Ages or Medieval Western Europe which would last for hundreds of years. 1. How did the geography of the Italian peninsula influence the development of the Roman Empire? a. The unnavigable rivers in the northern part of the peninsula protected the Romans from their neighbors. b. The harsh climate prevented agricultural production on the Italian peninsula. c. The lengthy, rugged seacoast encouraged frequent invasions of the Italian peninsula. d. The location of the peninsula contributed to Roman control of the Mediterranean region. 2. What was one reason for the decline of both the Han dynasty and the western Roman Empire? a. outbreak of war between religious groups b. inability to force back foreign invaders c. efforts of the middle class to gain power d. lack of a common currency After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a time period of weak central (or decentralized) government. The lack of a strong central government meant that travelers no longer felt safe travelling or trading along the roads that the Romans had once protected. As a result, trade and cultural diffusion began to slow down in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Over the next several centuries (500 CE 1200 CE), the people of Western Europe lived in a time of constant invasions from groups such as the Vikings and in an era (time period) of overall decline during the Middle Ages. During this time, there was no strong central government to protect people s lands. Therefore, wealthy landowners needed to find a way to protect themselves since they could not rely on help from a king or strong government. This led to the rise of the feudal system. Feudalism is a system in which land is exchanged for military service and other obligations. The amount of land possessed determined a person s social status. In this system, Lords, or wealthy landowners, would allow knights (warriors) to live on their land in exchange for protection. Knights owed their loyalty and allegiance to the lords and followed an honor code known as chivalry. In addition to knights living on the lord s land, peasants called serfs were allowed to live on the land in exchange for working (farming) the land. The life of a serf was very difficult and they had very few rights living on the manor. The lord s land was known as a manor. Since there was very little trade because of the lack of protection during the Middle Ages, manors needed to be self sufficient. This meant that all the needs of the people living on the manor had to be provided by the manor. Their food, water, clothing, and basic needs were all provided for the manor. This economic system of self sufficiency provided by the manor during the Middle Ages was known as Manorialism. 3) Which condition characterized Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire and China after the fall of the Manchu dynasty? a. weak centralized authority and interference from outsiders b. renewed interest in artistic pursuits such as painting and sculpture c. democratic rule and a coordinated economic policy d. increased construction of roads, bridges, and other public works 4) Which political system is best described in the outline below? I. Decentralized government Based on loyalty and service Code of chivalry Military elite a. Oligarchy b. Feudalism c. Democracy 5) The term feudalism is best defined as a a. holy war between Christians and Muslims b. process in which goods are traded for other goods c. division of political power between three separate branches d. system in which land is exchanged for military service and loyalty 6) Which statement best characterizes Europe during the early Middle Ages? a. A centralized government provided law and order. b. Manorialism developed to meet the people's economic needs. c. People adopted humanism and questioned the Church. d. A standardized currency promoted international trade. 7) In western Europe, feudalism developed after the a. Roman Empire collapsed b. Renaissance began c. city of Constantinople fell d. Mongols invaded 8) During the feudal period in Europe, power and position in society were based on the a. amount of money earned b. level of education achieved c. number of slaves owned d. amount of land possessed

3 11 During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church became extremely important in Western Europe. While there was no strong central government in Europe, the Catholic Church provided the only sense of stability, order, and unity for the people of Europe. Many people s lives were miserable and the Church gave people hope and a sense of stability. As a result, the Church grew in power. The Church affected many cultural aspects of the Middle Ages. Much of the artwork focused on Catholic religious themes. This was different from Greek and Roman times in which much of the artwork focused more on the human body and individual accomplishments. In the later Middle Ages, towns and manors began to build huge cathedrals (large places of worship) in the center of the town. Gothic architecture involved building very high arched ceilings using flying buttresses which allowed light to shine in creating a heavenly feeling inside. The religious themes of the art and architecture during the Middle Ages reflect the cultural values of the people of Western Europe during that time. 9) Which statement best describes the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe during the Middle Ages? a. The Church encouraged individuals to question authority. b. Church leaders were involved only in spiritual activities. c. The Church gained influence as people became more interested in secular affairs. d. The Church provided a sense of stability, unity, and order 10) The Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages in Europe can best be described as a church that a. favored separation from governments b. avoided involvement in social and educational matters c. was a strong force that divided many people d. was a stabilizing influence during a period of weak central governments 11) Which style of architecture is characterized by stained- glass windows, tall spires, flying buttresses, and pointed arches? a. Corinthian b. neoclassical c. Gothic 12) The art, music, and philosophy of the medieval period in Europe generally dealt with a. human scientific achievements b. religious themes c. materialism d. classic Greek and Roman subjects 13) Buildings such as the Gothic cathedrals in western Europe and the Parthenon in ancient Greece reflect each society's a. imperialist attitudes b. cultural values c. belief in democracy d. rigid social structure The Crusades - The Middle Ages did not begin to come to an end until a series of Holy Wars called the Crusades. The Crusades began in the late 1000 s and early 1100 s after the Muslim invaders conquered the city of Jerusalem in the Middle East. Both Muslims and Christians consider Jerusalem to be a Holy Land and therefore looked to control it. When the Muslims invaded Jerusalem, the leader of the Catholic Church, the pope, called on European knights and serfs to travel to the Middle East and recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims. The pope promised that anyone who joined the Crusades would be forgiven for their sins. Finally, many knights and serfs were promised that if they fought in the Crusades, they would be freed from their feudal obligations on the manors in which they lived. Thousands left Europe to fight, many never to return. For the Europeans, the Crusades were considered a successful failure. The Christian Europeans ultimately failed to recapture the Holy Land; however, while they were in the Middle East, the Europeans learned many new ideas and became interested in many achievements of the Muslims from the Golden Age of Islam. As a result, the Crusades led to the exchange of ideas between Europe and the Middle East. This would help end the Middle Ages in Europe, weaken the feudal system forever, and lead to a rebirth of learning, trade, and culture in Europe which would be known as the Renaissance. 14) Which heading best completes the partial outline to the right? a. Goals of the Hanseatic League b. Reasons for Europeans to Fight the Crusades c. Results of the Reconquista d. Aims of Charlemagne 15) One long- term effect (result) of the Crusades was the a. fall of the Ming dynasty b. control of Jerusalem by Europeans c. growth of trade and towns in western Europe d. increased European isolation 16.) The Crusades have been called "history's most successful failures." Which statement best explains this expression? a. The Crusades did not achieve their original goals, but they brought about many desirable changes in Europe. b. Although the Crusaders captured the Holy Land, they were unable to bring about democratic reforms. c. The Crusades helped bring about the fall of the Roman Empire. d. The Crusaders prevented the Turks from capturing Constantinople for many centuries. 17) One major result of the Crusades was the a. permanent occupation of the Holy Land by the Europeans b. long- term decrease in European trade c. conversion of most Muslims to Christianity d. spread of Middle Eastern culture and technology to Europe

4 12 Objective: To explain how the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution changed Europe. The Middle Ages (Medieval Period) began in Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. Due to the lack of a strong central government (The Roman Empire), trade began to decline as did the exchange of knowledge and ideas. Most people in Western Europe lived on manors and had little contact with the outside world during the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church was the only uniting force and its power grew. During the Middle Ages, knowledge was based on religion and faith. The artwork and writings of the Middle Ages focused mainly on religious themes. 1. Circle all of the phrases below that best describe the Middle Ages. Cross out the ones that don t apply: Lots of trade Living on Manors Emphasis on education The Catholic Church was important A lack of a strong Central Government A decline in education and trade Answer the following questions: The Middle Ages began to end after the Crusades. As a result of the Crusades in the 1100 s and 1200 s, the Europeans failed to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims, but they did succeed in bringing back all the new ideas and technologies from the Muslims in the Middle East. Trade began to increase between Europe and the Middle East (and the rest of Asia) ending the feudal system and manor system that existed during the Middle Ages. Learning and knowledge became important again in Western Europe. This rebirth of knowledge in Western Europe is known as the Renaissance. It began in Italy in the 1300 s, shortly after the Crusades ended. Italy was an important trading center on the Mediterranean Sea, with ideas passing through constantly. 2. True or False: Trade began to increase between Europe and the Middle East (Southwest Asia) as a result of the Crusades. 3. Why was Italy s location on the Mediterranean Sea ideal (perfect) for allowing the Renaissance to begin in Italy? During the Renaissance, the Europeans began to once again study the writings and artwork of the Ancient Greek and Romans, which had been often forgotten during the Middle Ages. An important new invention, Gutenberg s printing press, led to the printing of more books and writings. This helped increase literacy rates and allowed ideas to spread throughout Europe. Wealthy Italian merchants (traders) such as the Medici family began to commission (pay) artists to make new works of art. Artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Rafael became very famous for their artwork.

5 13 Not only did artwork become better during the Renaissance, it also started focusing more on secular, or worldly/non- religious themes. This was a change from the Middle Ages in which nearly all art and culture focused on the Catholic Church (religion). The main theme of the Renaissance was the concept of humanism. This is a focus on human achievements and human potential. Similar to the Ancient Greeks and Romans, the artwork appeared more lifelike and emphasized the human body and human spirit. Humanism emphasized questioning the world, rather than relying on faith for answers. As people began to gain knowledge, they also began to question the traditional ideas they had learned about the world around them. People wanted to learn why the world worked the way it did. Instead of relying on faith, like in the Middle Ages, science began to play an important role in society during the Renaissance. This helped lead to the Scientific Revolution. This was a dramatic improvement in scientific ideas and methods in the 1500 s and 1600 s. Scientists, such as Copernicus, Galileo, Isaac Newton, and Kepler all began to question the teachings and traditions of the Church and use science to prove new ideas. These ideas included proving that the earth revolved around the sun. The church had taught that the earth was the center of the universe and that everything revolved around the earth. The power of the Catholic Church began to decline as a result of the questioning spirit of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Timeline Activity: Place the following events with the correct dates in the space below. The Crusades Scientific Revolution The Fall of the Roman Empire The Renaissance The Middle Ages 476 AD AD 1300 s AD AD 1300 s 1600 s AD 1500 s 1600 s AD

6 14 Objective: To explain how the Protestant Reformation transformed the Christian religion in Europe? During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church was the most important part of people s lives in Europe. By the time the Renaissance had begun in the 14 th Century (the 1300 s), the Church began experiencing problems as people began to question the world around them. During the Renaissance, people began using human reason to answer questions, rather than relying on faith and religion. As the Church grew in power during the Middle Ages, many clergy members (priests) and popes (the leader of the Catholic Church) became greedy and corrupt. Many priests abused their power by drinking, gambling, and participating in other unholy acts. Perhaps the biggest example of the Church abusing its power was the sale of indulgences, or pardons for sins. Faithful followers bought these indulgences hoping to be forgiven for their sins. Many people began to question the Church and hoped to reform, or change it. 1. Explain two ways in which the Church began to abuse its power. One man who hoped to reform the Church was a German monk named Martin Luther. In 1517, Luther wrote his famous 95 Theses, which were 95 arguments against the sale of indulgences. Luther s goal in writing this was to reform the Church. Luther did not believe the pope or priests could forgive people for their sins, only God could do that. He also believed Christians could reach heaven only through faith in God and by reading the Bible. As a result of Luther s radical views, the Church excommunicated (or excluded him) from the Roman Catholic Church. However, Luther s ideas began to spread thanks in part to the printing press. Followers of Luther s beliefs became known as Lutherans and Protestants, because they protested against the church and the pope. Luther s actions helped spark the Protestant Reformation, the period when Europeans broke away from the Catholic Church and formed new Christian Churches. Another reformer was John Calvin. Calvin promoted the idea of predestination, or the belief that God had determined before the beginning of time who would gain salvation.

7 As the Protestant Reformation began to spread throughout Europe, the Catholic Church began to make changes in order to prevent more followers from leaving the Church. This was known as the Counter- Reformation. The purpose was to strengthen the Catholic Church and keep Catholics from becoming Protestants. The Inquisition was a series of trials led by the Catholic Church which put people on trial for going against Church teachings. A famous scientist, Galileo, was actually forced to take back his findings that the earth revolved around the sun when faced with death under the Inquisition. Why was Galileo put on trial during the Inquisition? 15 Effects of the Protestant Reformation in Europe: 1. End of Religious Unity: The Reformation ended the religious unity that existed in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church was no longer the only Christian religion that existed. Some countries in Europe made Protestantism the official religion. 2. Religious Conflicts: Wars would take place throughout Europe in the 1500 s and 1600 s, often caused by religious differences. 3. Rise of Monarchs: As the power of the Church began to decline, kings (Royal power)began to gain more influence throughout Europe. Final Summary: In a paragraph, explain the actions taken by Martin Luther and how they impacted Western Europe:

8 16 Objective: To evaluate how the Columbian Exchange changed the world. As a result of the Crusades (1100 s s), Europeans began learning and exchanging ideas with the Middle East. These ideas helped end the Middle Ages (500 s s) and led to the growth of ideas during the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution (1300 s s). During the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution, people began to question the traditional ideas taught by the Church during the Middle Ages. People also began to look back on the writings and the ideas of the Ancient Greeks and Romans during the Renaissance. Artwork and writings began focusing on individual achievements (humanism) and secular (non- religious) ideas. This questioning attitude also helped spark the Protestant Reformation which led to a decline in the power of the Catholic Church and the end of religious unity in Western Europe. The Protestant Reformation began in 1517, with Martin Luther writing his 95 Theses in which he protested against church corruption and the sale of indulgences (forgiveness for sins). The exchange of ideas that resulted from the Crusades brought many new technologies to Europe. Some of these new technologies led to more exploration by the Europeans during the 1400 s and 1500 s. This became known as the Age of Exploration. Improvements in the compass, the astrolabe, and other navigation techniques allowed adventurers to travel further and faster. The demand for goods from the Middle East also led to Europeans seeking a faster trade route to Asia. One man, named Christopher Columbus decided to sail across the Atlantic Ocean in Columbus was searching for a faster trade route to Asia. Instead, Columbus discovered a New World in the Americas in the Western Hemisphere. Soon, more Europeans began to explore this New World. Place the following events in the correct chronological order: Crusades Age of Exploration Middle Ages

9 The voyages of Columbus eventually led to the Europeans establishing colonies (or overseas territories) in the Americas. The Columbian Exchange refers to the movement of people and goods from the "Old World" to the "New World". The "Old World" refers to the continents of Europe, Africa and Asia. The "New World" was North, South and Central America including the Caribbean Islands. Europeans brought new crops and animals to the Americas. The European settlers in the colonies, known as colonists, also introduced Christianity and new languages to the Natives in the Americas such as Spanish, Portuguese, English, and French. At first the European colonists used Native Americans as forced laborers, or slaves, on plantations (farms) and in mines. This was known as the encomienda system. Many Natives eventually died and the Europeans began importing Africans to the Americas to use as slaves on plantations and mines. Europe and the Old World also received many new plants and foods from the Americas. This included tobacco, tomatoes, corn, potatoes and cocoa beans (used for chocolate). 17

10 18 Objective: To determine how the Commercial Revolution transformed Europe s economy. During the Middle Ages in Europe (500s- 1200s), most people lived on self- sufficient manors. Self- sufficient means that all the goods they needed were provided for them by the manor and the feudal system. The Crusades in the 1100 s and 1200 s led to more trade between Europe and the Middle East and helped end the Middle Ages. The Crusades led to the end of the feudal system forever and helped begin the Renaissance in Europe. The Crusades also led to the growth of trade and business in Europe. The feudal system, which was based on landownership, ended. Instead of being attached to the land and manor, people now began hoping to make a profit, or earn wealth through business or commerce. As trade increased, the population in towns and cities became larger in Europe. Instead of being peasant farmers, a middle class of people developed in these cities. Middle class Europeans included businessmen and merchants (traders). Near the end of the Middle Ages (1200s- 1300s), trade organizations called guilds began to standardize (regulate) the goods, the prices, and the members of a particular craft, or business. Skilled artisans, glassmakers, winemakers, and tailors all joined these guilds. As trade began to increase, the idea of capitalism and a free market economy began to grow in Europe. Capitalism is an economic system in which individuals privately trade, take risks, and attempt to make money on their own. In capitalism, people can invest their money and resources into a business in the hopes of making a profit (more money). In this system, making money depends on the people, or the market, that are willing to buy the product. If there is a high demand from the consumers (the people) for the product, businesses can make money. The price of products and the amount a business makes is also determined by the supply, or amount of that product. A limited supply of a product that is in high demand means the business can charge a higher price for that product. Therefore, a free market, or capitalist, system is based on the laws of supply and demand.

11 19 In the 1400 s and 1500 s, businessmen known as entrepreneurs took risks with their money and goods in order to make a profit (more money). These risk takers began to search for more goods and more places to trade around the world in the 1400 s. This led to the Age of Exploration. They also began searching for faster trade routes to Asia, which is how the Americas (The Western Hemisphere) were discovered by Christopher Columbus. During the 1500 s and 1600 s, the growth of business (commerce) in Europe and the growth of European trade influences around the world became known as the Commercial Revolution (a Business Revolution). In order for these businessmen to find the money to take expensive risks (like exploration) people began to combine their money together so that many people were involved in the business. This was known as a joint stock company. Which revolution in Europe is most closely associated with the rise of capitalism and the growth of banking systems? 1. Commercial 2. Scientific 3. Agrarian (Agricultural) 4. Glorious During this time of trade and wealth, European kings and queens became very wealthy and their nations (such as Spain, France, and Britain) became more powerful. As Europeans began expanding trade worldwide they also began establishing colonies, or overseas territories, in foreign lands. This led to a system known as mercantilism. Under mercantilism, the purpose of these colonies was to provide wealth and resources for the European mother country. The mother country was the European country that controlled the colony. The mother country could then sell the goods and resources they took from their colonies in order to earn more gold, silver, and wealth. For example, Spain (the mother country) established colonies throughout the area that is today Latin America in the 1500 s and 1600 s. These colonies existed for the main purpose of providing more goods and wealth for Spain. Spain exploited (took advantage of) the land in the Americas and the people who lived on this land (the Native Americans) in order to make money. The goal of mercantilism is to maintain a favorable balance of trade, in which you sell more goods than you buy in order to make money. Many European countries, like Britain (England), France, and Spain became very wealthy at this time due to this policy of mercantilism. Which was a result of the Commercial Revolution? 1. decline in population growth in Europe 2. shift of power from western Europe to eastern Europe 3. spread of feudalism throughout western Europe 4. expansion of European influence overseas

12 20 Objective: To explain how monarchs tried to use absolutism to strengthen their power over their countries? Absolute Monarchs Beginning in the 1400 s, Europe began experiencing changes that greatly increased the political power of the monarchs (kings and queens) in nations such as France, England, Spain, and Russia. First, monarchs gained more power because the power of the Catholic Church began to decline in Europe as a result of Martin Luther s 95 Theses and the Protestant Reformation. Also, the growth of capitalism and mercantilism, in which nations began seeking to gain a favorable balance of trade and become wealthy, brought great wealth and power to many monarchs (kings and queens) throughout Europe. As a result, Europe entered a time period known as the Age of Absolutism in which monarchs began to rule with absolute power. These absolute monarchs sought (wanted) to centralize the power of their nations. This means they hoped to increase their authority by making themselves the CENTER of the government. The Divine Right Theory was used by many of these monarchs to justify their power. This theory states that kings and queens receive their right to rule and power from God. Monarchs who did this included Louis XIV of France, Phillip II of Spain, and Henry VIII of England. The divine right theory was similar to the Mandate of Heaven, which was used by Chinese emperors to justify their power. Which economic systems/policies allowed monarchs to grow extremely wealthy during the 1500 s and 1600 s? Louis XIV of France Perhaps the most famous of Europe s absolute monarchs was France s Louis XIV ( ). Louis was nicknamed the Sun King because, like the sun, everything in France revolved around him. His word became the law in France. Perhaps the biggest example of Louis centralization of power was when he used the taxpayer s money to build the magnificent Palace of Versailles. Louis used the palace to entertain nobles and guests which gave him an opportunity to watch over them and make sure they did not rebel against him. Louis used secret police and executions to intimidate the citizens of France in order to keep control.

13 21 Under Louis reign, France became the wealthiest and strongest nation in Europe; however, his excessive spending on wars and luxuries and high taxes led to major economic problems in France by the time he died in Why did France have economic problems by the time Louis XIV died? Absolutism in Russia Russian monarchs began using the title czar in the 1500 s, beginning with Ivan the Terrible. In 1682, Peter I (nicknamed Peter the Great) became the czar of Russia. Peter began a policy of westernization in Russia in which he looked to modernize the country and model the cities and polices of Russia similarly to the nations of Western Europe, such as England and France. In order to westernize, he forced the nobles of Russia to cut off their beards and he built the city of St. Petersburg which was modeled after western cities. Similar to Louis in France, Peter ruled without permission from anyone. In 1762, Catherine II (Catherine the Great) became czarina of Russia. Catherine continued the policy of westernization in Russia and established state schools for boys and girls. She was also able to secure a warm water port for Russia so that Russia could trade on water during the colder winter months with the nations of Western Europe. Limited Monarchy in England England had made efforts in the 13 th century to limit the power of the monarch. In 1215, King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta, which limited the power of the king and gave more power to a body of lawmakers known as Parliament. Despite these efforts, the king began gaining more influence again by the 1500 s under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I. In the 1600 s, England once again took steps to form a limited monarchy (a king with limited powers) with the English Civil War, the Glorious Revolution, and the English Bill of Rights. As a result of these events, the monarch s power was limited and the power of Parliament (representing the people) increased. Today, England has a parliamentary democracy and the monarch serves as a figurehead with no real political power. 1. What happened in England as a result of the Magna Carta, the Glorious Revolution, and the English Bill of Rights

14 22 Objective: To explain how the Enlightenment changed people s views of government in Europe. The Renaissance (1300s- 1500s) and the Scientific Revolution (1500s- 1600s) produced major cultural changes in Europe. During this time, people began focusing less on religious themes and instead began investigating secular (worldly) issues, human nature (humanism), and the natural laws that help govern the universe. Scientists, such as Galileo and Newton, began questioning traditional beliefs which had been taught by the Catholic Church for hundreds of years. These scientists used observation, experimentation, logic, and reason to prove how the natural laws of the universe worked. In the 1700s, these same investigative ideas used by scientists began to be used by philosophers during a time period known as the Enlightenment. Enlightenment philosophers wanted to use this questioning spirit, or attitude, to help change people s relationship with their government and society. In the 1600s and 1700s, absolute monarchs who hoped to centralize their political power over their nations, ruled most of Europe. Enlightenment philosophers felt that by examining the natural laws of the universe, they could help change these governments to make them more responsive to the needs of the people and society. Enlightenment philosophers believed that new ideas could be proven by using reason and the scientific method. One of the earliest Enlightenment philosophers was an Englishman named John Locke. Locke saw how the power of the monarch in England had been limited over time by the Magna Carta, the Glorious Revolution, and the English Bill of Rights and he agreed with this trend. Locke believed that everyone was born with certain rights that he called natural rights. These natural rights included the right to life, liberty, and property. Locke felt that the role of the government was to protect these natural rights and that if the government failed to protect people s rights, the people had the right to change their government. Locke also felt that the government should be based on the consent of the governed. This means the government should be based on the permission of the people.

15 23 Other Enlightenment philosophers in the 1700 s also used logic and reason to question the role of the government and society. Enlightenment philosophers supported democratic governments. A democracy is a government ruled by the people. The ideas of democracy were first used in Europe 2000 years before the Enlightenment by the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans. Some other Enlightenment philosophers included: Jean Jaques Rousseau He believed that governments should be based on the will of the people, or the citizens of the country. Voltaire He believed in freedoms of speech, press, and religion. He also believed that there should be a separation of church and state power. This means that governments should not rule based on the principles of a single religion. These ideas would later be included in the United States Bill of Rights. Baron de Montesquieu He believed the best government was one that could not become too powerful. To prevent a government from becoming too powerful, the powers must be separated, or divided through a system of checks and balances. This way, no one branch of government could become too powerful. The United States Constitution would use these ideas when creating three branches of government; the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of government. Impacts of the Enlightenment: The Enlightenment would help encourage people in Europe and the Americas to seek political changes in their countries. The United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution (1789) would use the ideas of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment would later help bring about political reforms in France as well during the French Revolution ( ). The French people used these Enlightenment ideas to help end the rule of an absolute monarch in France. Exit Slip: Explain two ways that our government today reflects the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire, or Montesquieu: