Credit Recovery. Core: Standard, Objective: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2. Suggested Text: Glencoe World History, 2008

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1 Credit Recovery Quarter 2 Module Core: Standard, Objective: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2 Suggested Text: Glencoe World History, 2008 Reading Read all appropriate maps, graphs and charts, related to the topics of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages in your textbook (Section 5 only of chapter 5, chapters 6, 9-16) you may skim chapters 7-8 if you need more information. Exercise #1-2 Study Guide #1 Exercises #3-7 Study Guide #2 Exercises #8-12 Study Guide #3 Exercises #13-18 Study Guide #4 Exercises #19-22 Study Guide #5 Exercises #23-25 Study Guide #6 Exercises #26-28 Study Guide #7 Exercises #29-33 Study Guide #8 Checklist of Assignments to Submit to Instructor Assignment and Grading Requirements All assignments and study guides must be 100 % complete and accurate in order to be prepared to pass the final assessment. 1

2 Exercise #1 Decline and Fall After reading all material in your textbook; complete the following reading exercises. Although two strong emperors temporarily revived the Roman Empire, invaders from Asia and Germany finally brought it to an end. As you read, create a chart like the one below to help you study. Decline Fall The Decline Drawing Conclusions How did Diocletian's and Constantine's policies rob the Roman Empire of vitality? The last of the five good emperors, Marcus Aurelius, died in A.D Conflict and civil war followed. For about 50 years, there were 22 emperors, most of whom died violently. At the same time, there were invasions by Persians and Germanic tribes. This, coupled with an outbreak of plague, almost caused economic collapse. There was a shortage of labor and a decline in trade, small industry, and farm production. Around the beginning of the fourth century, two emperors Diocletian and Constantine temporarily revived the empire. Diocletian divided the empire into four units, each with its own ruler, though he held ultimate authority. Constantine expanded Diocletian's policies. He also built the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Both emperors enlarged the army and the civil service, despite the contraction of public funds resulting from the lack of growth in the tax base. Diocletian tried to control inflation, a rapid increase in prices, with wage and price controls. His efforts failed. Both emperors issued edicts forcing workers to stay in the same job, so many jobs became hereditary. The economic and social policies of both emperors were based on control and coercion, and in the long run, stifled the empire when it most needed vitality. The Fall Formulating The empire continued to be divided into two parts. The Western Roman Empire had problems with invaders. The 2

3 Questions What is one question that is not answered in the section? Visigoths, a Germanic people, crossed the Danube and settled in Roman territory after being pushed out of eastern Europe by the Huns. In 410 the Visigoths sacked Rome. Another group, the Vandals, crossed into Italy from Northern Africa. In 455 they too sacked Rome. In 476 the Germanic head of the army overthrew the western emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This is usually considered the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. A series of German kingdoms replaced it. The Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to thrive. Theories to explain the decline and fall of the Roman Empire include: 1) Christianity's emphasis on a spiritual kingdom weakened Roman military virtues; 2) traditional Roman values declined as non-italians gained prominence; 3) lead poisoning from leaden water pipes and cups caused a mental decline in the population; 4) plague wiped out one-tenth of the population; 5) Rome failed to advance technologically because of slavery; 6) Rome was unable to put together a workable political system. However, no single explanation can sufficiently explain so complex an event. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What were some of the economic problems in the Roman Empire in the third century? 2. What event is normally used to mark the fall of the Western Roman Empire? 3

4 Persuasive Writing What theories about the decline and fall of the Roman Empire do you think best explain what happened? Choose three of the theories and write an argument supporting those three as the best explanation. Exercise #2 Directions: based on your readings and completion of the exercises; make a list of the factors that caused the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in order from the most powerful reason to the least. Design a visual presentation showing the causes of the fall of Rome. This can be in Poster form, power point or cartoon strip. Power point: 10 slides, including a title on the first slide and credits on the last slide. Correct content with evidence. Graphics included that fit the content. OR Poster Balanced Pictures and labels that show evidence of your point of view. Border that connects the poster. OR Cartoon Strip 3-5 frames Use of drawings with dialogue Content tells the story of why Rome fell. 4

5 Study Guide #1 DIRECTIONS: Matching Match each item in Column A with an item in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks. Column A 1. an epidemic disease 2. Constantine's capital 3. deposed western emperor 4. rapid increase in prices 5. sacked Rome in 455 Column B A. inflation B. Romulus Augustulus C. plague D. the Vandals E. Constantinople DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice In the blank, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 6. Diocletian and Constantine did all of the following EXCEPT A. enlarge the army. B. enlarge the civil service. C. force people to stay in jobs. D. allow wages and prices to rise. 7. The Western Roman Empire was besieged by all of the following EXCEPT A. Carthaginians. C. Visigoths. B. Huns. D. Germanic tribes. 8. Theories about why the Roman Empire declined include all of the following EXCEPT A. a decline of old values. C. the plague. B. Christianity. D. a tidal wave. 9. After the last "good emperor," Marcus Aurelius, died in A.D. 180, A. Christianity started to decline. C. the empire grew. B. conflict and confusion followed. D. leaden water pipes were replaced. 10. Diocletian divided the empire A. into four units. B. into north and south. C. into provinces. D. among his sons. 5

6 Exercise #3 Europe in the Middle Ages New farming practices supported population growth, and the revival of trade led to a moneybased economy and the rise of cities. As your read, use a chart like the one below to show the effects of the growth of towns on medieval European society. The New Agriculture Analyzing Information How was iron used during the Middle Ages? The Manorial System Europe's population doubled between 100 and This came partly because conditions were more settled and peaceful. Also, there was a large increase in food production, which grew partly because the climate changed and growing conditions improved. Changes in technology aided the development of farming. People of the Middle Ages harnessed the power of water and wind to do jobs once done by human or animal power. Iron was used to make scythes, axes, hoes, hammers, and nails. Iron was crucial to making the carruca, a heavy wheeled plow with an iron plowshare. This plow easily turned over heavy clay soils. The invention of a new horse collar and the horseshoe made it possible for horses to pull the carruca, which was faster. Use of the carruca led to the growth of farming villages, because it took an entire community to buy one. Shifting from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field one increased food production. Formerly, peasants had divided their land in half, leaving one-half idle at a time so it could regain its fertility. Now, they divided their land into thirds, leaving only one-third idle while they rotated crops on the other two-thirds. This kept the soil fertile and allowed people to grow more crops. Under feudalism, land was divided into agricultural estates 6

7 Drawing Conclusions Did the peasants of the Middle Ages work hard? called manors. A lord owned and ran the estate, and peasants worked it. By 800 probably about 60 percent of the peasants of western Europe were serfs. Serfs were legally bound to the land. Serfs usually worked about three days a week for the lords, tending crops, building barns, or digging ditches. The rest of the time they could work their own plots to grow food for themselves. Serfs could not leave the manor or marry someone from outside it without the lord's permission. Serfs had to pay for certain services, such as having their grain ground into flour. The land assigned to serfs to support themselves usually could not be taken away, and their duties were fairly fixed. It was also the lord's duty to protect his serfs. Peasant activities were determined by the seasons of the year. Harvest time was especially hectic. The daily diet of peasants was adequate when food was available. Bread was the staple. They also ate vegetables, cheese, nuts, and fruit. They usually ate meat only on the great feast days, such as Christmas and Easter. The Revival of Trade; The Growth of Cities Determining Cause and Effect Why were medieval cities crowded? During the chaos of the early Middle Ages, Europe was mostly an agricultural society. Later, trade gradually revived. Italian cities led this trade revival by developing a fleet of trading ships. As trade increased, demand for gold and silver coins arose. Slowly, a money economy an economic system based on money rather than on barter emerged. New trading companies and banking firms were set up. This was part of the rise of commercial capitalism, in which people invested in trade and goods to make profits. The revival of trade led to a revival of the old Roman cities. The city dwellers were called burghers, or bourgeoisie. Because they were surrounded by walls, medieval cities were very crowded. More men than women lived in the cities, but women had important tasks and sometimes helped their husbands in their trades. Some women developed their own trades and sometimes even led independent lives. In the eleventh century, craftspeople began to organize into guilds. Guilds directed the production process of goods and fixed prices. Guilds decided how many people could enter a trade. To learn a trade, a person first served as an apprentice to a master for five to seven years. Then the apprentice became a journeyman and could earn wages. When he was able to produce a masterpiece, the journeyman was judged by the guild to be a master. Constructed Response 7

8 Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What areas of Europe were major trading centers during the Middle Ages? 2. What rights were townspeople willing to buy from lords and kings? Descriptive Writing Using information from the text and your imagination, describe daily life for a serf in the Middle Ages. 8

9 Exercise #4 Culture of the High Middle Ages Technological innovation made Gothic cathedrals possible, while an intellectual revival led to the formation of universities. As you read, use a chart to contrast the Romanesque style of architecture with the Gothic style of architecture. How did the churches built in these two styles differ? Romanesque Gothic Architecture Analyzing Information How did the Gothic cathedral bear witness to the beliefs of the people? There was an explosion of building in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, especially of churches. At first, churches were built in the Romanesque style. Romanesque churches were either rectangles or two intersecting rectangles that created a cross shape. Roofs had stone arched vaults called barrel vaults. Because stone roofs are very heavy, Romanesque churches required massive pillars and wall to hold them up. This left little space for windows, so the churches were dark inside. The Gothic style appeared in the twelfth century and was perfected in the thirteenth. Gothic cathedrals are one of the greatest artistic triumphs of the High Middle Ages. Two basic innovations made Gothic cathedrals possible. One was the replacement of the barrel vault with a combination of ribbed vaults and pointed arches. This enabled builders to make Gothic churches higher than Romanesque churches. Another innovation was the flying buttress a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of the walls. This distributed the weight of the ceiling out and down. Since Gothic cathedrals could be built with relatively thin walls, stained-glass windows were added to show religious scenes and scenes from daily life, and let in natural light. The Gothic cathedral thus bore witness that most people believed in a spiritual world. Universities Making Inferences 9

10 How were scholasticism and Saint Thomas Aquinas linked? The first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy. Students men only came from all over Europe to learn law from the great teacher Irnerius. It was followed by the University of Paris and the University of Oxford in England. By 1500 there were about 80 universities. Students studied the liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Teachers lectured by reading and then explaining. Students took oral examinations after studying four to six years. A student could earn a bachelor of arts and later a master of arts. With 10 more years of study, students could earn a doctor's degree in law, medicine, or theology. Theology, the study of religion and God, was the most highly regarded subject. Its study was strongly influenced by scholasticism, which tried to reconcile faith and reason. It tried to harmonize Christian teachings with the works of the Greek philosophers. The philosopher Aristotle reached his conclusions by rational thought, not by faith, and his ideas sometimes contradicted Church teachings. Saint Thomas Aquinas made the most famous attempt to reconcile Aristotle with Christianity, especially in his Summa Theologica. Vernacular Literature Analyzing Information What were two popular types of vernacular literature in the twelfth century? Latin was the universal language of medieval civilization. However, much new literature came to be written in the vernacular the language of everyday speech in a particular region, such as Spanish or French. In the twelfth century, educated laypeople wanted new sources of entertainment, and they turned to vernacular literature. The most popular form was troubadour poetry. This poetry told of the love of a knight for a lady who inspires him to become a braver knight. Another form was the chanson de geste, or heroic epic. The chief events in these were battles and political contests. Women play only a small role or no role at all. The earliest and finest example is the Song of Roland. Constructive Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What was the most highly regarded subject at medieval universities? 10

11 2. What were some examples of vernacular language? Descriptive Writing Using information from the text, imagine that you are walking through a Gothic cathedral. Describe what you see and how it makes you feel. 11

12 Exercise #5 The Late Middle Ages Disastrous forces overwhelmed Europe in the fourteenth century with lasting consequences. As you read, use a diagram like the one below to identify three reasons for the decline of the papacy. The Black Death Making Inferences Why did a shortage of workers lead to a rise in the price of labor? The Black Death, the most devastating natural disaster in European history, struck in the fourteenth century. It was spread by rats carrying a deadly bacterium and followed trade routes. In 1348 and 1349, it spread through France, the Low Countries (modern Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands), and Germany. It ravaged England and then expanded to northern Europe and Scandinavia. By 1351 it had affected eastern Europe and Russia. Out of a total European population of 75 million, as many as 38 million people died. In Italy's crowded cities, 50 to 60 percent of the people died. People did not know what caused the plague. Some believed that God had sent it as punishment for sins. Some reacted with anti-semitism hostility toward Jews. Many Jews fled to Poland, where the king protected them. The death of so many people had economic consequences. Trade declined, and a shortage of workers led to a rise in the price of labor. Fewer people meant lower demand for food, which resulted in falling prices. Incomes from rents declined at the same time that landlords had to pay more for labor. Some peasants bargained with their lords to pay rent instead of owing services. This change freed them from serfdom, which 12

13 had already been declining. Decline of Church Power; The Hundred Years' War Analyzing Information What weapons were important during the Hundred Years' War? Political Recovery Synthesizing Information Which states were successful at forming European kings had begun to reject papal claims of supremacy by the end of the thirteenth century. In 1305 King Philip IV of France engineered the election of a French pope, who went to live in Avignon, in southern France. Many people thought the pope should live in Rome, and they objected to the splendor in which the pope lived in Avignon. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377 but soon died. The citizens of Rome threatened the lives of the cardinals if they did not replace Gregory with an Italian pope, they elected Pope Urban VI, an Italian. Months later, French cardinals declared the election invalid and chose a Frenchman as pope. This pope returned to Avignon, so now there were two popes. This began the Great Schism of the Church. It divided Europe and damaged the Church. At one time, there were actually three popes. They each denounced the other as the Antichrist, which undermined people's faith. The schism was not ended until There were cries for reform, but reformers such as John Hus were accused of heresy and burned at the stake. The Hundred Years' War between England and France was fought from 1337 to It started because England possessed the duchy of Gascony in France, and France wanted it. Though both armies used heavily armed knights in cavalry, English peasants armed with longbows won the Battle of Crécy. The English under Henry V also won the Battle of Agincourt in The French cause seemed hopeless, but a young peasant girl, Joan of Arc, convinced the French leader to allow her to accompany the army. Joan was deeply religious and had visions that saints were commanding her to free France. Inspired by Joan, the French armies found new confidence and seized Orléans. The English captured Joan and turned her over to the Inquisition, which condemned her to death for heresy. Nevertheless, she had turned the tide of the war. After 20 more years of fighting, the French eventually won, helped by the use of the cannon, a new weapon. In the fourteenth century, European rulers faced serious problems. Many monarchies were unable to produce male heirs. Rulers also had financial troubles. In the fifteenth century, a number of new rulers attempted to reestablish the 13

14 strong monarchies? centralized power of their monarchies, often referred to as the new monarchies. France was exhausted by the Hundred Years War, but the war had also inspired a national feeling as France united against a common enemy. King Louis XI greatly advanced the strength of the French state. He instituted the taille, an annual direct tax on land and property, which provided the monarchy with a regular source of income. He added territory to the kingdom and promoted industry and commerce. The English economy was strained by the Hundred Years War, and soon after it ended, the War of the Roses erupted in England. Noble factions fought to control the monarchy until 1485, when Henry VII (Henry Tudor) created a new dynasty. Henry abolished the nobles' private armies, and won favor by being thrifty and not taxing very much. Although Muslims had conquered much of Spain by about 725, in the Middle Ages, Christian rulers had fought to regain their lands. Several Christian kingdoms emerged, including Aragon and Castile. When Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married in 1469, Spain was on its way to unity. Ferdinand and Isabella believed in religious unity. They expelled all the professed Jews from Spain. They defeated the Muslims in 1492 and forced Muslims to convert or be exiled. The Holy Roman Empire did not develop a strong monarchy. Germany was a land of hundreds of states. After 1438 the Hapsburg dynasty held the position of Holy Roman emperor. These rulers were extremely wealthy and began to play an important role in European affairs. In eastern Europe, rulers found it difficult to centralize states. Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Mongols, and Muslims all confronted one another. Russia was dominated by the Mongols. However, by using their close relationship to the Mongols, the princes of Moscow rose to prominence. Prince Ivan III established a new Russian state and annexed other Russian territories. By 1480 he had broken the control of the Mongols. Constructive Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. How did the Hundred Years' War affect France and England? 14

15 2. How many people were lost to the Black Death? Persuasive Writing Using information from the text, trace the development and progress of the Great Schism. What effects did it have? 15

16 Exercise #6 Draw a three way Venn diagram and compare the three time periods that you read about in exercises 1, 2 and 3. Use the model below. Middle Ages in Europe (early) High Middle Ages Late Middle Ages 16

17 Exercise #7 Christianity and Medieval Civilization With its strong leadership, the Catholic Church became a dominant and forceful presence in medieval society. As you read, use a chart like the one below to list characteristics of the Cistercian and Dominican religious orders. Cistercians Dominicans The Papal Monarchy Determining Cause and Effect Why did the lords have influence on the Church? New Religious Orders The popes of the Catholic Church had claimed supremacy over the affairs of the Church since the fifth century. Further, chief officials of the Church, such as bishops and abbots (heads of monasteries), came to hold their offices as grants from nobles. As vassals, they had to carry out feudal services, including military duties. Lords often chose their vassals for political reasons, so the bishops and abbots they chose were often worldly men who cared little about their spiritual duties. Further, it was the lords who gave the church officials their symbols of office, a practice known as lay investiture. Pope Gregory VII decided to fight this practice. Gregory claimed that he was God's "vicar on earth," and that the pope's authority extended over all the Christian world, including its rulers. Henry IV, king of Germany, disagreed with this. The Concordat of Worms resolved this by saying that a bishop was first elected by Church officials. Then he paid homage to the king. The Catholic Church reached the height of its political power under Pope Innocent III who used the interdict, which forbids priests from giving the sacraments (Christian rites) to an entire group of people. 17

18 Drawing Conclusions Why were convents attractive to women? In the second half of the eleventh century and the first half of the twelfth century, a wave of religious enthusiasm seized Europe. New monastic orders emerged. The Cistercian monks helped develop a new, activist spiritual model. While Benedictine monks spent hours inside the monastery in personal prayer, the Cistercians took their religion to the people outside. Women were also active in the spiritual movements. The numbers of women joining religious orders grew dramatically. Convents often provided a place for women who were unable or unwilling to marry, who were widows, or who were intellectuals. Most learned women of the Middle Ages were nuns. In the thirteenth century, the Franciscans and the Dominicans were founded. The Franciscans took vows of absolute poverty, rejecting all property and begging for their food. The Dominicans were founded by Spanish priest Dominic de Guzman. He wanted to defend the Church from heresy the denial of basic Church doctrines. Religion in the High Middle Ages Analyzing Information Who was the most highly regarded saint? How was this shown? The Church was an important part of ordinary people's lives from birth to death. The sacraments, such as baptism, marriage, and the Eucharist (Communion) were seen as means for receiving God's grace, and were necessary for salvation. Since only the clergy could administer these rites, people depended on them to achieve salvation. Of all the saints, the Virgin Mary was the most highly regarded, and many churches were dedicated to her. People worshipped relics of saints, such as their bones, because they provided a link between the earthly world and God. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What was one weapon used by the popes against rulers? 18

19 2. Why was the clergy so important to ordinary people in the Middle Ages? Study Guide #2 DIRECTIONS: Matching Match each item in Column A with an item in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks. Column A Column B 1. a plague that was the worst natural disaster in European history 2. an annual direct tax on land or property imposed by royal authority 3. a division in Europe resulting from the election of two popes by different groups of cardinals 4. claimed that the popes were the final authority over both the Church and the state 5. leader of Czech reformers who sought to reform the Catholic Church A. Pope Boniface VIII B. John Hus C. Black Death D. Great Schism E. taille DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice In the blank, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 6. Which of the following was NOT a consequence of the plague? A. anti-semitism B. decline in trade C. increase in the number of workers D. increase in the price of labor 7. The king who engineered the election of a Frenchman, Clement V, as pope was A. Gregory IX. B. Philip IV. C. Henry V. D. Louis XI. 8. How did the nature of warfare change in the Hundred Years' War? A. The peasant foot soldiers won the main battles. B. The knights were finally able to show their fighting abilities. C. The cavalry was used for the first time. D. The French crossbow became the weapon of choice. 9. The conflict between nobles in England who sought to control the monarchy is known as the A. War of the Magnolias. B. Hundred Years' War. C. War of England. D. War of the Roses. 10. In the late Middle Ages, which country pursued a policy of religious conformity? A. England C. the Holy Roman Empire 19

20 B. France D. Spain Exercise #8 Byzantine Empire and the Crusades The Byzantine Empire created a unique civilization that was eventually weakened by the Crusades. As you read, use a diagram like the one below to help you study why a powerful Byzantine Empire developed. Eastern Roman Empire to Byzantine Empire Analyzing Information What were two things that the people of Constantinople did for entertainment? Justinian became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire in 527. Justinian's most important contribution was his codification of Roman law. It became the basis for much of the legal system of Europe. By the beginning of the eighth century, the Eastern Roman Empire consisted only of the eastern Balkans and Asia Minor. This was called the Byzantine Empire, and it lasted until The church of the Byzantine Empire became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. Constantinople, the capital, was dominated by an immense palace complex, hundreds of churches, including the Hagia Sophia, and a huge arena called the Hippodrome, where gladiator fights and chariot races were held. Until the twelfth century, Constantinople was the chief center for the exchange of products between West and East. New Heights and New Problems Determining Cause The Macedonian emperors expanded the Byzantine Empire to 20

21 and Effect Why did Emperor Alexius I turn to Europe for military aid? include Bulgaria, Crete, Cyprus, and Syria. Tension with the Roman Catholic Church grew because the Eastern Orthodox Church did not accept the pope as the sole head of Christianity. In 1054 the pope and the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, known as the patriarch, formally excommunicated each other. This means they each took away the other's rights of church membership. This began a schism, or separation, between the two great branches of Christianity. The Byzantine Empire's greatest external threat came from the Seljuk Turks. In 1071 a Turkish army defeated Byzantine forces at Manzikert. As a result, Emperor Alexius I turned to Europe for military aid to fight the Turks. The Crusades Drawing Conclusions Why did the crusader states have a hard time surviving? From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, European Christians carried out a series of military expeditions to regain the Holy Land from the infidels or unbelievers the Muslims. These expeditions are known as the Crusades. Pope Urban II responded to Emperor Alexius' request for help, calling on Christians to join in a holy war. Warriors responded for religious reasons, but also to seek adventure and possible wealth. The First Crusade resulted in the capture of Jerusalem in The crusaders went on to organize four Latin crusader states in the East. Surrounded by Muslims, these crusader kingdoms depended on Italian cities for supplies. The fall of one of the Latin kingdoms led to calls for another crusade. Monastic leader Saint Bernard of Clairvaux enlisted King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad II of Germany in a Second Crusade which failed. In 1187 Jerusalem fell to Muslim forces under Saladin. A Third Crusade faced many problems, and in the end, Richard negotiated a settlement with Saladin that permitted Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 and its recapture in 1261, but the Byzantine Empire was no longer a great power. There were other crusades, but they all failed. Historians disagree about the effect of the Crusades. An unfortunate effect was the persecution of Jews in Europe that began with the Crusades. The Crusades helped break down feudalism. This paved the way for the development of true nation-states. 21

22 Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What was Justinian's most important contribution? 2. What event started the schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church? Expository Writing Using information from the text, discuss the reasons why Europeans took part in the Crusades. 22

23 Exercise #9 Emerging Europe and the Byzantine Empire DIRECTIONS: Look at the events listed on the time line below. Then answer the questions in the space provided. 1. How many years passed between the beginning of the Crusades and the loss of Constantinople to the Turks? 2. Who began to rule the Holy Roman Empire in the 900s? 23

24 3. Who began to rule England in the 1000s? 4. In the early 1200s, who was forced to sign an agreement with his nobles? 5. How long did the Byzantine empire continue after Constantinople was recaptured? 6. When did the pope lose control over the Eastern Church? 7. How long did it take Justinian to build Hagia Sophia after he became emperor? 8. Which Germanic people moved into the Western Roman Empire? Exercise #10 Justinian's Conquests After the Western Roman Empire fell following several waves of invasions, Constantinople became the new power center for the empire. Byzantine emperor Justinian wanted to recover the lands lost to the invaders and reconstitute the Roman Empire. In the end, Justinian was able to take back much, 24

25 but not all, of the territory that had once belonged to Rome. DIRECTIONS: The map below shows Justinian's empire. Use the map to answer the questions and complete the activity that follows. 1. Constantinople is about how many miles from Rome? 2. Constantinople sits at the crossroads of which two bodies of water? 3. Read the following historical description of Justinian's campaigns to take back the lost territories. Using the information provided, draw arrows on the map to show the routes that were taken. In A.D. 533, the first expedition left Constantinople and was directed toward Africa. The Byzantine forces led by Belisarius landed in what is today the country of Tunisia. There they defeated the Vandals in a battle at Ad Decimum and at the nearby city of Tricamarum. From there, the Byzantines sailed to Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica and took back those islands. In A.D. 535, the second expedition was launched. This time, the plan was to recapture the Italian Peninsula. Belisarius, who occupied the island of Sicily, landed at Naples, fought his way to Rome, and pushed north to Ravenna. At the same time, Mundus, operating on the Balkan Peninsula, launched an invasion from Durres to Split. A third expedition was led by Liberius in A.D He landed at Cartagena and 25

26 fought the Visigoths to take back Spain. Despite these successes, Justinian's expanded empire failed to include the interior of Gaul (now called France) or Spain. Exercise #11 The Growth of European Kingdoms During the Middle Ages, monarchs began to extend their power and build strong states. Use a chart like the one below to show the main reasons why eastern Slavs developed from Western Europe. England in the Middle Ages Making Inferences Why did the French and Anglo-Saxon languages merge? King Alfred the Great had united various kingdoms in England into one in the late ninth century, and thereafter, England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kings. In 1066 William of Normandy defeated King Harold and his army and was crowned king of England. The Norman ruling class spoke French but intermarried with the Anglo-Saxon nobility. This merged the two languages into a new English language. The Normans also used some Anglo-Saxon institutions. Henry II increased the number of cases tried in the king's court, thus expanding the king's power. Since royal courts came to be found throughout England, a body of common 26

27 law law common to the whole kingdom was developed. Many English nobles resented the growth of the king's power. In 1215, John was forced to put his seal on the Magna Carta, or Great Charter. This was a document of rights that gave written recognition to the idea that the relationship between king and vassals was based on mutual rights and obligations. The English Parliament an important institution in the development of representative government emerged in the thirteenth century during the reign of Edward I. France in the Middle Ages Drawing Conclusions Why did the early Capetian kings have so little real power? In 843 the Carolingian Empire was divided into three major sections. The west Frankish lands, formed the eventual kingdom of France. After the death of the last Carolingian king, the west Frankish nobles chose Hugh Capet as the new king. The early Capetians had little real power. They only controlled the land around Paris, known as the Île-de-France. The reign of Philip II Augustus, from 1180 to 1223, was a turning point. Philip waged war against the rulers of England, who also ruled the French territories of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Aquitaine. Philip won control of most of these territories, expanding both the income and the power of the French monarchy. Later, Capetian rulers continued the expansion. By 1300 France was the largest and best-governed kingdom in Europe. Philip IV started the French parliament by meeting with representatives of the three estates, or classes. These were the first estate, made up of the clergy, the second estate, made up of nobles, and the third estate, the peasants and townspeople. The first meeting in 1302 began the Estates-General. The Holy Roman Empire; Central and Eastern Europe Determining Cause and Effect How did the actions of Frederick I and Frederick II keep Germany from forming a unified state? In the tenth century, the dukes of the Saxons became kings of the eastern Frankish kingdom, which came to be known as Germany. The pope crowned Otto I emperor of the Romans in 962. This was the creation of the new Roman Empire, in the hands of the Germans. Frederick I and Frederick II tried to conquer Italy. They were defeated by the pope and an alliance of northern Italian cities. The struggle left the German monarchy weak, and the German Holy Roman Empire had no real power in either Germany or Italy. Neither Germany nor 27

28 Italy created a unified state until the nineteenth century. Gradually, the Slavic people divided into three major groups. The western Slavs formed the Polish and Bohemian kingdoms. The Czechs lived in Bohemia. The eastern Slavic people lived in Moravia. Vikings moved into the eastern Slavic lands of Ukraine and Russia. The native peoples, called the Viking rulers the Rus, from which the name Russia is derived. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols conquered Russia. One Russian prince, Alexander Nevsky, defeated a German invading army. Nevsky was rewarded with the title of grand-prince. His descendants became princes of Moscow and eventually leaders of all Russia. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What were the three estates in France? 2. What two religions did the Slavic peoples accept? Informative Writing Using information from the text, trace the development of the state of Russia. 28

29 Exercise #12 World Religions Directions: Find the information in your textbook (pages ) and read about the six major world religions and complete the chart below. And then answer the questions that follow. Aspects Buddhism Christianity Confucianism Hinduism Islam Judaism Followers World Wide (look for 2001 estimates) Name Of Deity Founder/ Founding Origin and 29

30 date Sacred Text Leadership Structure Basic Beliefs And Ceremonies Impact on today s society 30

31 World Religions Continued 1. What basic principles do all religions have in common? 2. What role does religion play in people s lives? 3. Why do you think religion was such an important part of the Middle Ages in Europe? 31

32 4. Do you think religious differences cause conflict in the world? Give historic and present day examples to support your answer. 5. Do you think it is possible to eliminate religious conflict? How? Study Guide #3 DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice Using your textbook answer the following questions by choosing the item that best completes each sentence or answers each question. Write the letter of the item in the blank to the left of the sentence. 1. Muhammad began to meditate in the hills because A. the town of Makkah was too crowded with sinners. B. the hills were a holy site that were supposed to give visions to those worthy of them. C. he was trying to resolve an argument with his wife, Khadijah. D. he became troubled by the gap between the honesty of most Makkans and the greediness of trading elites in the city. 2. After Muhammad's death, Muslim scholars drew up the shari'ah, which is A. a law code that provides believers with a set of practical laws to regulate their daily lives. B. an elaborate burial ritual still performed at Muslim funerals today. C. a collection of Muhammad's wisdom and teachings that was added to the Quran. D. also known as the Six Pillars of Islam. 32

33 3. The revolt led by Hussein in the early Umayyad period led to A. a bloody war that lasted just seven hours. B. the split of Islam into two groups, the Shias and the Sunnis. C. the strengthening of the Umayyad dynasty. D. a total disregard of the burial place of Muhammad. 4. It was through the Muslim world that Europeans A. were able to obtain products from Spain and Egypt. B. recovered the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers. C. developed an appreciation for painting and sculpture. D. discovered tobacco. 5. Which of the following five pillars involves the month of Ramadan? A. Belief C. Pilgrimage B. Salaah D. Siyaam 6. Under Germanic law, if an accused person was unharmed after a physical trial, or, he or she was presumed innocent. A. brainwashing C. quartering B. gauntlet D. ordeal 7. The Vikings were made part of European civilization by A. their widespread invasions of Asian kingdoms. B. the conquest of Scandinavia in 911 by Charlemagne. C. the Frankish policy of settling them and converting them to Christianity. D. their desire to sail to America. 33

34 8. The most important gift a lord could give to a vassal was A. a piece of land. B. his daughter in marriage. C. a boat. D. a gold ring. 9. Which of the following was a code of ethics knights were to uphold? A. Chivalry C. The fief B. The Book of the Dead D. Vassalage 10. In 1066, William of Normandy A. tried to invade England, but was soundly defeated by King Harold's forces. B. was forced to sign the Magna Carta. C. called for the death of Thomas à Becket. D. invaded England, soundly defeating King Harold's forces at the Battle of Hastings. Exercise #13 African Society and Culture African society was centered on village and family life, with distinct religious beliefs and a rich culture. As you read this section, use the chart below to compare and contrast the duties and rights of women and men in African society. Duties Rights Women Men Aspects of African Society Drawing Conclusions Why was the lineage group important? In Africa the king had a closer relationship to his people than Asian kings did. Frequently, rulers held audiences to let people voice their complaints. Most people lived in small villages in the countryside. Their sense of identity came from their community of extended family units, or lineage group. Lineage groups were the basic building blocks of African society. All members of a lineage group could claim descent from a real or legendary common ancestor. Many African societies were matrilineal, where family lineage, or descent, is traced through the mother, rather than patrilineal, in which descent is traced through the father. The elders of the group had much power over others, and the group provided support 34

35 for members. Women were usually subordinate to men. In some cases, they were valued for the work they could do or for their role in having children. Women often worked in the fields while the men tended the cattle or hunted. In typical African villages, children were educated by their mothers until the age of six. Then the boys' education was taken over by their fathers. Boys learned how to hunt and fish, how to grow plants, and how to clear the fields. Girls learned how to care for the home and work in the fields, and how to be good wives and mothers. Both were taught how to take part in the community. Slavery was practiced in Africa from ancient times. Slaves included people captured in war, debtors, and some criminals. Some were respected and trusted, but life for most slaves was difficult. Religious Beliefs Synthesizing Information What religious belief did many African slaves bring to the Americas? The Yoruba peoples in Nigeria believed that their chief god was sent down from heaven to create the first humans. The Yoruban religion was practiced by many of the slaves transported to the Americas. Sometimes the creator god was joined by a whole group of lesser gods. The Ashanti people of Ghana believed in a supreme being whose sons were lesser gods. One way to communicate with the Ashanti gods was through rituals. These were usually carried out by a special class of diviners, people who believe that they have the power to foretell events. African religion also emphasized the importance of ancestors. Each lineage group could trace itself back to a founding ancestor or group of ancestors. Ritual ceremonies were dedicated to ancestors, who were believed to be closer to the gods. African religious beliefs were challenged by the arrival of Islam. By the end of the fifteenth century, much of the population south of the Sahara had accepted Islam. The process was even more gradual in East Africa, and Ethiopia remained Christian. Islam rejected spirit worship, which ran counter to the beliefs of many Africans. Islam also insisted on distinct roles for men and women, while African relationships were more informal. Imported ideas were combined with native beliefs to create a unique Africanized Islam. African Culture Formulating In early Africa, the arts were a means of serving religion. 35

36 Questions What question might be asked about the influence of African dance on modern Western music? Throughout Africa, wood-carvers made carvings that often represented gods, spirits, or ancestral figures. Terra-cotta and metal figurines were also created. African music and dance also served a religious purpose. African dancing was a way to communicate with the spirits. African dance had a strong rhythmic beat and influenced modern Western music. African music also was used to pass on history, folk legends, and religious traditions. The same was true of storytelling, which was practiced by a special class of storytellers called griots. Constructive Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What were the basic building blocks of African society? 2. Who carried out religious rituals in African culture? Descriptive Writing Using information from the summaries, describe African religions. 36

37 Exercise #14 The Mongols and China Shifts in religious belief caused major changes in the organization of Chinese society, which were intensified when the Mongol Empire conquered China. As you read, use a chart like the one below to help you study how the Mongols acquired the world's largest land empire. The Mongols Determining Cause and Effect Why did the Mongol dynasty weaken? The Mongols were a pastoral people from the region of present-day Mongolia. They were gradually unified under the man who became Genghis Khan. When he died, his large empire was divided into separate territories called khanates, each ruled by one of his sons. In 1231 the Mongols attacked Persia. They defeated the Abbasids at Baghdad in Mongol forces attacked the Song dynasty in China in the 1260s. Here they encountered gunpowder and the fire-lance. 37

38 By the end of the thirteenth century, the Chinese fire-lance had evolved into the gun and the cannon. In 1279 one of Genghis Khan's grandsons, Kublai Khan, completed the conquest of the Song and established a new dynasty, the Yuan. Kublai Khan ruled China until his death in He established his capital at Khanbalik, which later was known as Beijing. Under Kublai Khan, the Mongols brought stability and economic prosperity. The Mongols usually took the highest positions in the bureaucracy and became a separate class. The Mongol dynasty, however, had the common problems of over spending on foreign conquests, corruption at court, and growing internal instability. In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang ended the Mongol dynasty and set up a new dynasty the Ming. Religion and Government Comparing and Contrasting How was neo- Confucianism different from Buddhism? Confucian principles became the basis for Chinese government during the Han dynasty (202 B.C.-A.D. 220). By the time of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism and Daoism rivaled the influence of Confucianism. During the Song dynasty, Confucian ideas reemerged in a new form. Buddhism was brought to China in the first century A.D. by merchants and missionaries from India. As a result of the insecurity that existed after the collapse of the Han dynasty, both Buddhism and Daoism became more attractive to many people. Buddhism's growing popularity continued into the early years of the Tang dynasty. From the Song dynasty to the end of the dynastic system in the twentieth century, official support went to a revived Confucianism. This new doctrine, called neo-confucianism, was a response to Buddhism and Daoism. It teaches that the world is real, not an illusion and that fulfillment comes from participation in the world. Neo-Confucianists divide the world into a material world and a spiritual world. To reach beyond the material world and unite with the Supreme Ultimate, humans must make a careful examination of the moral principles that rule the universe. Golden Age in Literature and Art Drawing Conclusions How did the invention of printing help make the period from the Tang The period from the Tang dynasty to the Ming dynasty was a great age in Chinese literature. The invention of printing during the Tang dynasty made literature more available and popular. The Tang dynasty is viewed as the great age of poetry in China. At least 48,000 poems were written by 2,200 38

39 dynasty to the Ming dynasty a great age in Chinese literature? authors. During the Song and Mongol dynasties, landscape painting reached its high point. Daoism influenced Chinese artists. They went into the mountains to paint and find the Dao, or Way, in nature. Rather than depicting a realistic mountain, for example, they tried to portray the idea of "mountain." Daoism also influenced how people were portrayed. Chinese artists painted people as tiny figures, because people were viewed as insignificant in the midst of nature. Ceramics were also an important Chinese art form. Tang artisans perfected the making of porcelain. Porcelain is a ceramic made of fine clay baked at very high temperatures. Porcelain-making techniques did not reach Europe until the eighteenth century. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What inventions did the Mongols learn about from the Chinese? 2. How was Buddhism introduced to China? Descriptive Writing Using information from the text and your imagination, describe your vision of a Chinese painting done by a Daoist artist. 39

40 Exercise #15 India after the Guptas When Islamic peoples conquered much of India, tension arose between the Muslim rulers and the majority Hindu population. As you read, use a chart like the one below to help you study the main differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. The Impact of Religion Drawing Conclusions Why were the Rajputs unsuccessful at resisting Buddhism was widely accepted in India for hundreds of years. The school of Theravada Buddhism taught that Buddhism was a way of life, not a religion aimed at individual salvation. Mahayana Buddhism taught that Buddhism was a religion, and that the Buddha was a divine figure. In the early 700s, Islam became popular in the northwestern corner of the Indian 40

41 Mahmud of Ghazna? subcontinent. Islam's impact is still evident today in the division of the subcontinent into mostly Hindu India and two Islamic states Pakistan and Bangladesh. In the early 700s, Arab armies moved into the frontier regions. Then at the end of the 900s, rebellious Turkish slaves founded a new Islamic state, Ghazna, in present-day Afghanistan. The son of the founder, Mahmūd of Ghazna, attacked neighboring Hindu kingdoms, extending his rule as far south as the Indian Ocean. Hindu warriors called Rajputs resisted these advances, but their military tactics, based on the use of elephants, failed. By 1200, Muslims had created the sultanate of Delhi. When the sultanate of Delhi declined, Timur Lenk, the Muslim ruler of a state based in Samarqand, attacked. During the 1380s, Timur Lenk took over Mesopotamia and the region east of the Caspian Sea. Indian Society and Culture Determining Cause and Effect Why did internal trade decline at this time? The Muslim rulers in India maintained a strict separation between themselves as the ruling class and the mass of the Hindu population. There was tension, suspicion, and dislike, but daily life went on. Between 500 and 1500, most Indians lived on the land and farmed their own tiny plots. In theory, the king owned all land in his state, and the peasants paid taxes through the landlord. Many people also lived in cities. Some rulers were fabulously wealthy. Internal trade declined at this time because of fighting between the states. Foreign trade remained high, especially on the coasts. Indian artists and writers made innovations in all fields of creative endeavor. Religious architecture developed from caves to new, magnificent structures. Monumental Hindu temples were built. They consisted of a central shrine surrounded by a tower, a hall for worshipers, an entryway, and a porch, all set in a rectangular courtyard. Temples grew more ornate and complex, and towers grew higher. At Khajuraho, examples of temple art are still found today. The use of prose in fiction was established in India by the sixth century, far earlier than in Japan or Europe. A great master of Sanskrit prose was Dandin, who wrote in the seventh century. In The Adventures of the Ten Princes, he tells the story of 10 princes as they search for love and power. He combined a realistic portrayal of human behavior with supernatural occurrences. His writing was full of observation, details of everyday life, and humor. Constructed Response 41

42 Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. How is the impact of Islam still visible today? 2. Describe Dandin's style of Sanskrit prose. Descriptive Writing Using information from the summary and your imagination, describe the relationship between the Muslims and the Hindus in India from about 500 to

43 Exercise #16 Troubadours Sometime during the mid-1000s, poet-musicians called troubadours began to appear in southern France. Most were male members of the nobility. Some wrote songs, some sang, and some both wrote and sang. Occasionally, troubadours accompanied themselves on stringed instruments. Their songs, which were sung in the everyday language of the people, were at first taught orally and memorized. It was not until much later that these songs were written down. What this meant was that a troubadour could easily change the words of a song to suit his circumstances. Amazingly, more than 2,500 songs survive. DIRECTIONS: Read the passage below about these traveling musicians. Then answer the questions in the space provided. 43

44 Troubadour music was composed by and for the upper classes. Knights possessed vast wealth and leisure time, both of which they liked to display. In addition to giving lavish banquets, they pursued the arts to gain a reputation for being cultured. Around this time, upper-class women began to be revered and referred to as "ladies." The words in a troubadour's song were of foremost importance. The music was simple so that it would not interfere with the poetry. The poems tended to be about courtly and chivalrous love, in which a lady was worshipped from afar with great respect and dignity. The object of the troubadour's affection was depicted as so perfect that she was unobtainable. These were not despondent poems, however. The troubadour was content never to possess his beloved. Often the troubadour would imply that he would be disappointed or disillusioned if she accepted his offers. In addition to the worshipful ballads, there were "rescue" ballads called pastourelles. All pastourelles told one of two stories. In one version, a knight wooed a shepherdess who, after initial resistance, responded. In another version, she called for help, and her brother or lover came to her rescue, driving the knight away. The pastourelle began as a dialogue 10 between the knight and the shepherdess. Soon it began to be acted as well as sung. Later other characters were added, along with other songs and dances, to create a musical play. Troubadour music was very popular. Before long, it spread to England and throughout Europe, as far away as Hungary. Will you love me, O sweetheart, to whom I have given my love? Night and day I think of you. Will you love me, O sweetheart? 44

45 I cannot endure without you, so much does your great beauty please me. Will you love me, O sweetheart, to whom I have given my love? These two songs represent two different forms popular among troubadours. "Will you love me" is called a rondeau, referring to the specific rhyme scheme of its original French lyrics. "King Theobald" is a jeu-parti, or a dialogue between two characters, often with differing viewpoints. The authors are unknown, but "King Theobald" is based on the real King Thibault of Navarre in France. King Theobold, Sire, advise me: For a long time I have dearly loved a lady With a loyal heart in good faith, But I dare not tell her my secret, Because I am so afraid that she will reject The love which so often ravages me. Tell me, Sire, what do true lovers do in such cases? Do they really suffer a pain as intense as they say, On account of the anguish which comes from love? Young man, I sincerely beg you to be calm; Do not ask why she hates you, But be her servant and make sure She knows what you need in your heart. For much love is given you to help you serve. You must proceed by allusion And knowing looks and signs, So that she is aware of the suffering and pain That a true lover feels night and day on her account. Reviewing the Selection 1. Who were the troubadours, and what did they do? 45

46 2. What were troubadours' songs usually about? Critical Thinking 3. Recognizing Ideologies What set of beliefs about women influenced the songs' "plots"? 4. Determining Relevance Do the lyrics above help you understand the information in the passage? Do they illustrate the points made about the troubadours' love poems? Explain. Exercise #17 Old and New Solutions to the Problem of Poverty Directions: Read the comparison below and then answer the questions that follow. THEN In the late Middle Ages, when towns and cities began to develop around local market centers, a variety of charitable institutions began to spring up. Hospitals and almshouses were the most prevalent of these institutions. Originally, hospitals served any person who was in need of either health care or shelter. Almshouses provided food, clothing, and shelter. Laypeople, as well as religious leaders, founded, supported, and served in these institutions. Some laypeople joined the clergy in charitable organizations called confraternities. Guilds established almshouses for impoverished members and made loans to those temporarily out of work. Guilds also set aside funds to support the widows and orphans of deceased members. City governments ran offices that were dedicated to the relief of poverty. Cities also contributed money to the charitable organizations run by individuals and trade organizations. Wealthy people often willed small annual donations to the poor in their parish. As urban populations increased, an evergrowing number of poor people further strained the resources of the different support groups. To make the distribution of relief to the poor more efficient and effective, city governments began to take on a greater role in distributing aid than did private organizations. Some civic leaders began to view paupers as potential revolutionaries or criminals. To reduce the threat of social unrest, civic leaders designed work programs for beggars and banished them from the city if they refused to work. NOW Providing for the poor in contemporary society has become a highly centralized function. Although private and religious organizations still play a significant role in fighting poverty, the governments of nations have taken over most of the job. In the United States, individual states make the welfare laws; the federal government provides the funds necessary to enact the different welfare programs. 46

47 Most of the Western democracies help their citizens through illness, unemployment, old age, and other periods of financial insecurity. In some countries, the government provides its citizens with medical care. All democratic governments offer free education through at least secondary school. Citizens pay taxes to support the benefits they enjoy. Lately, an influx of immigrants to developed nations has placed a heavy burden on these nations' welfare systems. Since many immigrants are unable to secure employment that pays a living wage, they depend upon public assistance. Some people consider this to be unfair, arguing that newcomers to a country should not automatically be supported by that country. Yet others believe that public assistance should be available to all people who live in a country. Most immigrants however, regardless of their income level, still pay their share of taxes. Lately, government officials have begun to reconsider many welfare policies. Political leaders in the United States have pointed out that issuing welfare checks has created a culture of dependent people. Consequently, they have enacted work programs designed to take people off welfare. In countries with moderate socialist governments, such as Sweden, some citizens have become willing to give up their benefits in exchange for lower taxes. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Making comparisons: Compare the sources of money for relief for the poor in the Middle Ages with those in modern times. 2. Making inferences: Why do you think helping the poor is important to the wellbeing of a community or state? 3. Synthesizing information: Why did the leaders of medieval towns take steps against paupers? Do research in the library and on the Internet to discover which legal measures besides banishment were taken against petty criminals and vagrants. Write a brief report of your findings and explain how harsh punishment might have contributed to a rise in the crime rate. 47

48 Exercise #18 The Beginnings of the Middle Class In the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, towns began to expand and so did the middle class. The middle class gained its income from buying and selling goods. Today in many countries, the middle class makes up most of the population. Read this twelfth-century description of medieval Londoners and an early take-out restaurant. Those engaged in the several kinds of business, sellers of several things, contractors for several kinds of work, are distributed every morning into their several localities and shops. Besides, there is in London on the river bank, among the wines in ships and cellars sold by the vintners, a public cook shop; there eatables are to be found every day, according to the season, dishes of meat, roast, fried and boiled, great and small fish, coarser meats for the poor, more delicate for the rich, of game, fowls, and small birds. If there should come suddenly to any of the citizens friends, weary from a journey and too hungry to like waiting till fresh food is bought and cooked... there is all that can be wanted. However great the multitude of soldiers or travellers entering the city, or preparing to go out of it, at any hour of the day or night, that these may not fast too long and those may not go supperless, they turn hither, if they please, where every man can refresh himself in his own way.... -From The Medieval Reader edited by Norman F. Cantor DIRECTIONS: After reading the primary source document above Fill in the chart to compare and contrast the description of medieval take-out to take-out today. Restaurant Take-out: Then and Now Ages Middle Today 48

49 Location Foods Customers Reasons for Purchasing Study Guide #4 DIRECTIONS: Matching Using your textbook match each item in Column A with an item in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks. Part I Column A Column B 49

50 1. meeting with the king A. lineage 2. descent traced through mother 3. extended family group 4. community storyteller 5. ritual foretellers B. audience C. griot D. diviners E. matrilineal Europe in the Middle Ages, DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice Choose the item that best completes each sentence or answers each question. Write the letter of the item in the blank to the left of the sentence. 1. In order to encourage trade between Flanders and Italy, the counts of Champagne A. built a canal between the two, upon which their town was a major stopping point. B. offered free wine to traders traveling through their fiefdom. C. initiated a series of trade fairs in the chief towns of the territory. D. agreed not to marry the merchants of these two countries. 2. Which of the following was a heavy, wheeled plow with an iron plowshare? A. dozer C. shovel B. carruca D. cabochon 3. Serfs were different from peasants in that serfs A. owned the land they worked on. B. could live anywhere they chose except land that was part of a lord s estate. C. were legally bound to the land upon which they worked and lived. D. lived in the cities and were not farmers like the peasants. 4. The struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII was known as A. the Investiture Controversy. B. the Seven Years War. C. the Magna Argument. D. the Concordat of Worms. 5. Born to a wealthy merchant family, Francis of Assisi A. used his status in society to improve the life of women. B. eventually abandoned all worldly goods and material pursuits to live and preach in poverty. C. was both a successful, wealthy merchant and a very popular novelist. D. gave up his claim to the family fortunes to join the Benedictine monastic order and compose music. 6. Dominic de Guzmán believed the best way to attack heresy was A. to lead a new crusade against the Muslims in the Holy Land. 50

51 B. by purging the cities of all old people who did not strictly follow the Church doctrines. C. to declare interdictions against kingdoms in which heresy was tolerated. D. the formation of a new religious order of men who lived lives of poverty and preached effectively. 7. The chief task of was to harmonize Christian teachings with the works of the Greek philosophers. A. Saint Francis of Assisi B. the chanson de geste C. scholasticism D. algebra 8. Which of the following was written in the language of everyday speech in a particular region? A. vernacular literature B. biblical literature C. philosophical literature D. complex literature 9. Joan of Arc brought the Hundred Years War to a decisive turning point by A. spying on the English armies. B. inspiring the French with her faith. C. fleeing to the English. D. seducing Charles. 10. Spain s two strongest kingdoms Castile and Aragon were united when A. the Mongols invaded Spain. C. the Jews were expelled. B. Prince Aragon died. D. Isabella married Ferdinand. Exercise #19 The Renaissance Between 1350 and 1550, Italian intellectuals believed they had entered a new age of human achievement. As you read, use a web diagram like the one below to identify the major principles of Machiavelli's work The Prince. The Italian Renaissance 51

52 Analyzing Information What was reborn during the Renaissance? Machiavelli on Power The Italian Renaissance lasted from about 1350 to Renaissance means "rebirth." It had three main characteristics. First, Italy was largely an urban society. In this urban society, a secular, or worldly, viewpoint grew. Second, the Renaissance was an age of recovery from the disasters of the plague, political instability, and the decline of Church power. There was a rebirth of interest in ancient Roman culture that affected both politics and art. Third, people in the Renaissance emphasized individual ability. The Renaissance affected the wealthy more than ordinary people, but even they could see the art that decorated the churches and public buildings. Italy had not developed a centralized monarchical state. Instead, independent city-states played important roles in politics. Milan, Florence, and Venice had all prospered from trade. The Visconti family and then Francesco Sforza ruled Milan. Sforza conquered the city with mercenaries soldiers who sold their services. Venice was a republic, but in name only. The Medici family ruled Florence except for a time when a Dominican preacher named Girolamo Savonarola took power. Both the French and the Spanish tried to conquer Italy, fighting each other in Italy for 30 years. The Spanish under Charles I sacked Rome and left the Spanish a dominant force in Italy. Comparing and Contrasting How were Machiavelli's principles different from those stressed in the Middle Ages? One of the most influential works on political power in the Western world was The Prince, written by Niccolò Machiavelli. Machiavelli's work concerned how to get and keep political power. During the Middle Ages, many writers had stressed how a ruler should behave based on Christian principles. Machiavelli, in contrast, believed that morality had little to do with politics. He believed that human nature was basically self-centered and that since a prince acted on behalf of the state, he should not be restricted to moral principles. Renaissance Society 52

53 Comparing and Contrasting What were the differences in the Renaissance classes? Renaissance society was still divided into classes, or estates. Nobles dominated society even though they made up only 2 to 3 percent of the population. The ideal noble was described in The Book of the Courtier, written by Baldassare Castiglione. The book said that nobles had to be born, not made. They were to have a classical education and serve their prince effectively and honestly. Castiglione's principles guided European social and political life for hundreds of years. Peasants still made up 85 to 90 percent of the total European population. Most peasants were no longer serfs. Townspeople during the Renaissance included patricians, who had wealth. Beneath them were the burghers the shopkeepers, artisans, and guild members. Below the burghers were the workers, who earned pitiful wages, and the unemployed. Both groups lived miserable lives. Family bonds were a source of security. Parents arranged marriages for children, paying a dowry to the husbands of daughters. The father-husband was the center of the family and had absolute authority over his children until he died or formally freed them. Children became adults when their fathers went before a judge to free them. This could happen when the children were in their early teens to their late twenties. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What does the word renaissance mean? 2. Which two European countries tried to conquer and dominate Italy? 53

54 Exercise #20 Johannes Gutenberg (C ) Directions: Read the following passage and study the picture, then answer the questions that follow. He who first shortened the labour of copyists by device of Movable Types was disbanding hired armies, and cashiering most Kings and Senates, and creating a whole new democratic world: he had invented the art of printing. From Sartor Resartus (1834) by Thomas Carlyle The Gutenberg Bible, set and printed in 1455, is perhaps the most famous book in history. It is the product of the first successful attempt to use movable type and the printing press in an efficient way. These developments made it possible to print books and other materials quickly. During the centuries since then, the spread of books around the world and the ideas they carry has altered human life in profound ways. In developing this method of printing, Johannes Gutenberg secured his place in history. Johannes Gutenberg was born to an aristocratic family in Mainz, Germany, in about Mainz was a center for goldsmiths, and Gutenberg may have been trained in goldsmithing as a young man. When he was about 40, Gutenberg began his experiments with printing. He combined movable type, type molds, oil-based inks, and a special printing press to create a workable printing system. Many of these ideas existed, but Gutenberg improved, refined, and, most important, combined them. The basic method of printing he developed remained in use well into the 1900s. In 1446 Gutenberg entered a partnership with a man named Johannes Fust. Fust, a goldsmith, lent money to Gutenberg to help him pursue his printing work. When the partnership failed after five years Gutenberg was apparently unable to repay the loan when Fust demanded it Gutenberg was forced to surrender his printing equipment and supplies to Fust. Fust and his son-in-law continued printing. Gutenberg found patronage under a wealthy man in Mainz, thus enabling him to continue to print. Apparently, he gave up printing in 1465, perhaps due to failing eyesight. When he died in 1468, at nearly 70 years old, he was not a wealthy man. He probably never knew, though he may have dreamed, how his work would affect the world in the centuries to come. Today, Mainz honors its most famous son through the Gutenberg Museum and Johannes Gutenberg University. His original workshop has been restored and preserved. Fittingly, printing is an important industry in the hometown of Johannes Gutenberg. 54

55 REVIEWING THE PROFILE 1. In what trade was Gutenberg trained? 2. Critical Thinking Making Inferences. How might Gutenberg's early training have helped him develop his method of printing? 3. Critical Thinking Drawing Conclusions. Write a paragraph in which you assess the impact and influence of Gutenberg's work. Exercise #21 Ideas and Art of the Renaissance Humanism was an important intellectual movement of the Renaissance and was reflected in the works of Renaissance artists. As you read, use a chart like the one below to describe the three pieces of literature written by Dante, Chaucer, and de Pizan. What was the primary importance of each of their works? Divine Comedy The Canterbury Tales The Book of the City of Ladies 55

56 Italian Renaissance Humanism Comparing and Contrasting How did the humanists in Florence differ from Petrarch? Humanism was based on the study of the ancient Greek and Roman classics. Humanists studied grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history. Petrarch looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts and started searches in monastic libraries throughout Europe. In Florence, humanists took an interest in civic life. They believed that intellectuals had a duty to live lives of service to their state. Humanists emphasized the use of classical Latin, though some writers wrote in the vernacular the language spoken in their own regions. In the Italian vernacular, the poet Dante wrote the Divine Comedy. It was a long poem about an imaginary journey to Paradise, or Heaven. The English writer Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales about a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury. Each pilgrim represented part of English society. A Frenchwoman, Christine de Pizan, wrote to defend women. The Book of the City of Ladies denounced men who said that women were unable to learn. Renaissance Education Making Inferences What subjects do you study that were not part of the liberal arts schools of the humanists? Renaissance humanists believed that education could change human beings. They wrote books on education and started schools. Liberal studies (liberal arts) were at the core of the schools. To enable individuals to reach their full potential for virtue and wisdom, humanists had students study history, moral philosophy, poetry, mathematics, and other subjects. The humanists wanted to create complete citizens, not necessarily great scholars. They also wanted to prepare the sons of aristocrats for leadership roles. A few female students studied history, poetry, and how to ride and dance. They were told not to learn mathematics or rhetoric. Humanist schools were the model for education of Europe's ruling classes until the twentieth century. Italian Renaissance Art Identifying the Main Idea How did artists' paintings change during the Renaissance artists sought to imitate nature. A fresco is a painting done on fresh, wet plaster with water-based paints. Masaccio, in Florence, made great strides in using perspective in his frescoes. Painters explored perspective, the organization of outdoor space, movement, and human 56

57 Renaissance? anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo worked during the High Renaissance, a period between 1490 and Leonardo mastered realistic painting. Raphael created great beauty in his madonnas. Michelangelo created such masterpieces as the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. The Northern Artistic Renaissance Drawing Conclusions Why was the use of detail important to the artists of northern Europe? Like the artists of Italy, the artists of northern Europe wanted to portray their world realistically. Because their churches were smaller, they emphasized the use of detail. The most important northern school of art was in Flanders, in the Low Countries. The Flemish painter Jan van Eyck was among the first to use and perfect the technique of realistic oil painting. By 1500 northern artists had begun to study in Italy. A German artist, Albrecht Dürer, was greatly influenced by them. Dürer tried to achieve a standard of ideal beauty that was based on a careful examination of the human form. Constructive Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What Renaissance work served as the ancestor of the modern English language? 2. Who are the three artists most associated with the High Renaissance? Exercise #22 Michelangelo 57

58 Michelangelo is considered one of the greatest and most important artists of the Renaissance. He lived for 89 years, and for 70 of those years, he created sculptures, paintings, and architecture that continue to influence and inspire people all over the world. DIRECTIONS: Read the passage below about this Italian artist. Then answer the questions in the space provided. Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in 1475 in Caprese, near Florence, Italy. He studied under the master fresco painter Domenico Ghirlandaio, then became a student of a sculptor working for the Medicis. When he was only 24, he completed his Pietà, which was immediately hailed as a masterpiece. Michelangelo loved the three-dimensional quality of sculpture. In a sense, he thought the figure was already within the marble and that the sculptor "released" it. Michelangelo's best-known sculpture is his 13-foot-high marble statue of David, which he created while still in his twenties. The perfectly proportioned David, who has just slain Goliath, stands strong yet relaxed, muscular yet graceful. The statue was given a place of honor outside Florence's Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of the Medici government. In both the Pietà and David, Michelangelo placed emphasis on the figures' faces. Sadness and humility can be seen in Mary's face as she gazes at her dead son. David looks calm but tense, as if ready for whatever may occur. Other Florentine sculptors of the time were envious of Michelangelo's talent and success. The large Sistine Chapel in the Vatican needed artwork for its ceiling. Michelangelo's fellow sculptors persuaded Pope Julius II to commission him to paint the ceiling, thus eliminating their competition in the world of sculpture. Everyone even Michelangelo himself expected him to fail. For more than four years ( ), Michelangelo toiled on the 40-foot by 133-foot ceiling from scaffolding 68 feet above the floor. When he was finished, he had painted 145 pictures with more than 300 figures. This great fresco tells a great story: the creation of the world, Adam and Eve's expulsion from Eden, and humanity's ultimate reconciliation with God. God appears in the sky and with a gesture creates Adam. Later we see an anguished Adam and Eve being forced to leave Eden. The story continues with Noah Until you have seen the Sistine Chapel, you can have no adequate conception of what man is capable of accomplishing. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 58

59 and the flood. Heroic figures act out their epic roles in broad brushstrokes and an astonishing range of colors. Michelangelo returned to the Sistine Chapel more than 20 years later, in This time he painted The Last Judgment, a vast fresco that covers the entire altar wall. Hundreds of figures (including a self-portrait of Michelangelo), the blessed and damned alike, all beg for God's mercy. Each figure is different, with a unique facial expression. It is an intense work, less optimistic than the ceiling. During the last 30 years of his life, Michelangelo shifted his focus to architecture. In his paintings and sculpture, he learned from his predecessors and improved on their techniques. His architecture was similarly innovative. This is apparent in his Laurentian Library in Florence, which Michelangelo designed to house all of the Medici family's books and manuscripts. Michelangelo's design for the building uses basic classical elements columns, pilasters, and entablatures yet they are arranged in a way that defies the ideals of classical perspective. Michelangelo went on to redesign the Campidoglio, the top of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, into a monumental square. After walking up a flight of steps, the visitor is suddenly in an "outdoor room," surrounded on the other three sides by long two-story buildings. It remains the most imposing civic center ever built and a model for countless others. Michelangelo's last achievement was St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The building's elegant dome draws the eye upward from the body of the church. Everything reinforces this journey to the heavens. Unfortunately, Michelangelo died in 1564, without seeing the dome completed. Constructive Response 1. What are Michelangelo's major works? 59

60 2. What are the characteristics of his art? 3. What effect does the Pietà sculpture have on you? Explain. Critical Thinking 4. Identifying Central Issues What is the main idea in this reading? What are the supporting details? 5. Drawing Conclusions Michelangelo loved sculpting, yet his fame rests more on his Sistine Chapel frescoes. Which do you think gave him more pleasure? Explain your answer. Study Guide #5 DIRECTIONS: Matching Match each item in Column A with an item in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks. Column A 1. study of ancient classics 2. form of Latin used by the ancient Romans 3. Dante's masterpiece 4. a painting done on fresh, wet plaster 5. painter of the Sistine Chapel ceiling Column B A. classical B. humanism C. fresco D. Michelangelo E. the Divine Comedy 60

61 DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice In the blank, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 6. The Renaissance artists of northern Europe painted which of the following? A. frescoes B. detailed books of illustrations C. church ceilings and walls D. ships 7. All of the following are associated with painting during the High Renaissance EXCEPT A. Machiavelli. B. Raphael. C. Leonardo da Vinci. D. Michelangelo. 8. Paintings and sculptures of the Renaissance were more A. abstract. B. realistic. C. Chinese-like. D. simple. 9. Humanist educators of the Renaissance stressed all of the following EXCEPT A. liberal arts. C. rhetoric. B. physical education. D. practical tool skills. 10. Renaissance women were educated in which of the following? A. mathematics C. religion and morals B. rhetoric D. hunting Exercise #23 The Protestant Reformation In northern Europe, Christian humanists sought to reform Christendom, and Protestantism emerged. As you read, use a diagram like the one below to identify steps that led to the Reformation. Prelude to Reformation Analyzing Information During the second half of the fifteenth century, the new classical learning of the Italian Renaissance spread to 61

62 What did the Christian humanists think that people should do in order to become more pious? northern Europe. From that came a movement called Christian humanism. Its major goal was reform of the Catholic Church. The Christian humanists believed in the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves. They thought that by reading the basic works of Christianity and the classics, people could become more pious, or inwardly religious. The best-known Christian humanist, Desiderius Erasmus, thought that Christianity should show people how to live good lives. He thought that external forms of medieval religion, such as relics and fasts, were not all that important. Erasmus and others were calling for reform of the Church for several reasons. One was corruption. Many popes acted as political and military leaders rather than as spiritual leaders. Many church officials used their church offices to gain wealth. Also, many parish priests were ignorant of their spiritual duties. Ordinary people wanted salvation, or acceptance into Heaven. The Church made this process mechanical. People could collect relics to gain salvation. Or, they could buy an indulgence, a certificate of release from all or part of their punishment for sin. A popular movement called Modern Devotion also contributed to an environment where people would be receptive to ideas that went against the Church. Martin Luther Determining Cause and Effect What led to Luther's writing of the Ninety-five Theses? Martin Luther was a monk and a professor at the University of Wittenberg, in Germany. Through his study of the Bible, he came to believe that human beings could never do enough good works to earn salvation. Instead, they could be saved if they had faith in God, because God was merciful. This idea, called justification (being made right before God) by faith alone, became the chief teaching of the Protestant Reformation. In 1517 Luther sent an attack on the selling of indulgences, called the Ninety-five Theses, to his church superiors. Thousands of copies were printed and spread to all parts of Germany. By 1520 Luther was calling on German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany and establish a reformed German church. He also attacked the Church's system of sacraments and called for clergy to marry. The Church excommunicated Luther in He was also required to appear before the emperor, Charles V. Charles thought he could convince Luther to change his ideas, but Luther refused. Luther was 62

63 made an outlaw within the empire. A revolution occurred, with German rulers taking power over the Catholic churches. Luther set up a new service to replace the mass, which became known as Lutheranism. Politics in the German Reformation Drawing Conclusions After the Peace of Augsburg, were the German people able to choose whether to be Catholic or Lutheran? The fate of Luther's movement was closely tied to political affairs. The Holy Roman emperor was Charles V, who was also Charles I of Spain. Charles wanted to keep his large empire under the control of his dynasty, the Hapsburgs. He also wanted to keep the empire united by keeping it Catholic. However, conflict with France over territory led to more than 20 years of wars. The pope was on the side of the French king, which made things harder for Charles. Further, Germany was a land of several hundred territorial states. They all owed loyalty to the emperor, but many had freed themselves from his authority. By the time Charles V was able to bring military forces to Germany, the German princes were well organized, and Charles was unable to defeat them. In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg ended religious warfare in Germany. Under it, the German states were free to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Subjects did not have the right to choose their own religion; instead, their ruler chose it for them. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What was the major goal of Christian humanism? 2. What was the political structure of Germany during the Protestant Reformation? 63

64 Exercise #24 Renaissance and Reformation DIRECTIONS: The years A.D were a time of development and diffusion of cultural and political activity and a time of dissension and reform within religious institutions. New styles of art, learning, and commerce helped to generate important criticisms of the Catholic Church and, ultimately, the formation of Protestant religions. Read the time line below. Then answer the questions that follow. 1. Which event on the time line was most important for spreading the ideas of the Renaissance and Reformation? 2. What was the earliest critique of the practices of the Catholic Church? 3. Which critique of the practices of the Catholic Church led to the establishment of the first main Protestant religion? 4. What happened in 1533 that led to the Church of England's separating from Rome? 5. Which events on the time line helped curtail the spread of Protestantism? 64

65 6. Which book was written before Gutenberg's movable type was developed for printing? 7. Who wrote a book in 1536 that influenced religious reformers for years to come? Exercise #25 The Spread of Protestantism Different forms of Protestantism emerged in Europe as the Reformation spread, and the Catholic Church underwent a religious rebirth. As you read, use a diagram like the one below to list some of the reforms proposed by the Council of Trent. Beside each, give the Protestant viewpoint to which it responded. Divisions in Protestantism Determining Cause and Effect What made John Calvin influential? Divisions quickly appeared among Protestants. Relics and images were abolished. All paintings and decorations were removed from the churches. Ulrich Zwingli sought an alliance with Luther and the German reformers, but they were unable to agree on the meaning of the sacrament of Communion. In 1531 there was a war between the Protestant and Catholic states in Switzerland. Zwingli was killed and leadership passed to John Calvin. His doctrine was very close to Luther's, but he put more emphasis on the power of God, which led him to believe in predestination. Predestination meant that God had already decided who would be saved and who would be damned. This belief gave Calvinists great conviction and made them determined to spread their faith. Among other reforms, Calvin created a special court for enforcing moral discipline. Citizens of Geneva were punished 65

66 for "crimes" such as dancing, drunkenness, or playing cards. Calvinism became established in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and central and eastern Europe. Calvinism was now the most important and dynamic form of Protestantism. Reformation in England Drawing Conclusions How did the need for a male heir contribute to the English Reformation? The English Reformation was rooted in politics, not religion. King Henry VIII needed a male heir and wanted to marry a woman who might give him one. The pope was unwilling to annul (declare invalid) his first marriage. Henry got England's own church courts to do so. Henry married again, but the child was a girl, who later became Elizabeth I. In 1534, at Henry's request, Parliament finalized the break between the Catholic Church in England and the pope. The Act of Supremacy made the king the head of the Church of England. Henry dissolved the monasteries and sold their land and possessions to wealthy landowners and merchants for money and support. He kept the doctrine of the church close to Catholic teachings. During Edward VI reign, church officials moved the Church of England in a Protestant direction. When Edward died his older sister, Mary, a Catholic, tried to restore Roman Catholicism. She had some Protestants burned as heretics. England became even more Protestant, however. Anabaptists Identifying the Main Idea What did Anabaptists believe? Radicals known as Anabaptists thought that the state should have no power over the church. They believed in complete separation of church and state. Anabaptists believed in adult baptism, not the baptism of children. They considered all believers to be equal, and any member of the community was eligible to be a minister. Anabaptists refused to hold political office or bear arms. Other Protestants and Catholics regarded them as dangerous radicals who should be persecuted. Reformation and Society Drawing Conclusions Why did Protestantism not help women or Jews? The Protestants developed a new view of the family. Both monasticism and the requirement for celibacy for the clergy had been abolished. The love between man and wife was praised. However, women were supposed to obey and bear children. Jews fared little better. Luther expected Jews to 66

67 convert to Lutheranism. When they did not, he wrote that their synagogues and homes should be destroyed. In papal states, Jews who would not convert to Christianity were segregated into ghettos. Catholic Reformation Making Inferences How did the Catholic Reformation affect Catholics? The Catholic Church also underwent a reformation. The Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits were very successful in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and eastern Europe. Pope Paul III appointed a Reform Commission in 1537, which blamed the Church's problems on the corrupt policies of the popes. Paul III also started the Council of Trent. This group of church officials met on and off for 18 years. They reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings that both faith and good works were needed for salvation. They upheld the seven sacraments and celibacy of the clergy. They forbade the selling of indulgences. The Roman Catholic Church was again unified and strong. Constructed Response Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. What religious doctrine is associated with John Calvin? 2. How did the Protestant view of marriage and family affect the clergy? 67

68 Study Guide #6 DIRECTIONS: Matching Using your textbook,match each item in Column A with an item in Column B. Write the correct letters in the blanks. Column A Column B 1. belief in the ability of humans to reason and improve themselves 2. acceptance into heaven 3. release from punishment for sin 4. Luther's attack on abuses of the Church 5. title held by Charles V A. salvation B. the Ninety-five Theses C. Holy Roman emperor D. indulgence E. Christian humanism DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice In the blank, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 6. Charles V ruled all of the following lands EXCEPT A. France. C. the Austrian lands. B. Spain. D. the Low Countries. 7. The division of Christianity in Germany into Catholic and Lutheran states was recognized by which of the following? A. the Treaty of Rome C. the Peace of Augsburg B. the Peace of Luther D. the Edict of Worms 8. Luther taught that A. the clergy should remain celibate. B. good works, not faith alone, bring salvation. C. the sacraments promoted the gospel. D. the selling of indulgences was wrong. 9. Luther taught that justification by faith (being made right before God) was A. an abuse used by Catholicism. C. acceptable for selling by churches. B. not sufficient to be saved. D. the central idea of Protestantism. 10. Erasmus taught that Christianity should A. provide a more complex system of beliefs. B. show people how to lead good lives. C. sell more relics and indulgences. D. encourage more pilgrimages and fasting. 68

69 Exercise #26 Exploration and Expansion Europeans began exploring the world in the fifteenth century, and several nations experienced economic heights through worldwide trade. As you read, use a chart like the one below to list the explorers and lands explored by each European nation. Explorers Lands Explored Portugal Spain England France Netherlands Motives and Means Making Inferences Knowing what Christopher Columbus went on to do, how do you think he felt about the writings of Marco Polo? Between 1500 and 1800, Portugal, Spain, the Dutch Republic (the Netherlands), England, and France expanded into the rest of the world. Europeans had long been attracted to Asia. Marco Polo had visited the Chinese court of Kublai Khan, and many, including Christopher Columbus, read his written accounts of the journey. In the fourteenth century, conquests by the Ottoman Turks made it difficult to travel by land to the East. People then began to think about going to Asia by sea. People wanted to expand trade, especially for spices, which were needed to preserve and flavor food. They were quite expensive when they came over land through Arab middlemen. Europeans also wanted to find precious metals. Further, many Europeans wanted to spread their religion to native peoples. They also wanted adventure. By the second half of the fifteenth century, European monarchs had the power and resources to expand, while technology had developed that would enable long sea voyages. A Race for Riches Beginning in 1520, Portuguese fleets began probing 69

70 Drawing Conclusions Why did more voyages follow da Gama's route? southward along the western coast of Africa. They discovered a new source of gold. Vasco da Gama went around the Cape of Good Hope (the southern tip of Africa) and cut across the Indian Ocean to India. He took on a cargo of spices, took it home, and made a profit of several thousand percent. Of course, many more voyages followed this route. Portuguese fleets took control of the spice trade from the Muslims. They defeated a combined fleet of Turkish and Indian ships off the coast of India. Admiral Alfonso d'albuquerque set up a port at Goa. Then he sailed into Melaka, on the Malay Peninsula. From Melaka, the Portuguese launched expeditions to China and the Spice Islands. Although they got control of the spice trade, the Portuguese had neither the people nor the desire to colonize Asian regions. Europeans knew the world was round, so Christopher Columbus persuaded Queen Isabella of Spain to finance an expedition west to find Asia. In 1492 Columbus reached the Americas, believing he had reached Asia. In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sailed around South America into the Pacific Ocean and on to the Philippines. Magellan was killed, but is still remembered as the first person to circumnavigate the world. Both Spain and Portugal feared that the other might claim territories. They signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in It gave Portugal the unexplored territories east of a line through the Atlantic Ocean and gave Spain the territories to the west of the line. This gave Spain rights to almost all of the Americas. John Cabot explored the New England coastline for England. Portuguese sea captain Pedro Cabral landed in South America in Amerigo Vespucci described voyages to the Americas, whose name came from Vespucci's first name. The new territories already had flourishing civilizations of millions of people, but Europeans saw them as opportunities for conquest and exploitation. The Spanish empire Determining Cause and Effect How did the advanced technology of the Spanish affect their conquests of the Aztec and the Inca? The Spanish conquerors of the Americas were called conquistadors. They had advanced firearms, skills, and determination. In central Mexico, the Aztec had ruled for a century. In 1519 a Spanish force under Hernán Cortés marched to the magnificent Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán. The Aztec were astounded to see men on horseback with firearms, cannons, and steel swords. Eventually, the Spanish took the Aztec king, Montezuma, hostage and began to pillage the city. Although at first the citizens drove the Spanish out, they suffered a smallpox epidemic because they had no 70

71 immunity to European diseases. Other Aztec city-states helped the Spanish reconquer the city. The Spanish then destroyed it. The Inca Empire was flourishing in 1530, when Francisco Pizarro landed on the Pacific coast. He had only a few men, but like the Aztec, the Inca were awed by his weapons and horses. The Inca also experienced a smallpox epidemic, and their emperor died. Pizarro captured the emperor's son, Atahuallpa, and executed him. He then captured the Inca capital at Cuzco. Pizarro established a new capital at Lima for a new colony of the Spanish empire. By 1550 much territory in Mexico, Central America, and South America had been brought under Spanish control. Queen Isabella declared Native Americans to be her subjects. She granted to Spanish settlers in the Americas the encomienda, the right of landowners to use Native Americans as laborers. Spanish settlers used Native Americans for forced labor. This, combined with European diseases, took a fearful toll on Native American lives. In Mexico, for example, the population dropped from 25 million in 1500 to 1 million in Spaniards and Native Americans intermarried and created a new people. Traces of the original culture remain today. Colonists raised sugar, cotton, vanilla, and livestock to send to Europe. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and wheat to the Americas. Potatoes, cocoa, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco were shipped to Europe. The exchange of plants and animals between the Old and New Worlds, known as the Columbian Exchange, transformed economic activity in both worlds. European Rivals Comparing and Contrasting How did the Spanish empire in Latin America differ from the English economy in North American colonies? New European rivals began to challenge the Portuguese and the Spaniards by the beginning of the seventeenth century. The English established trade relations with India, as did the Dutch. The Dutch also traded in the Caribbean and settled on the North American continent in the Hudson River valley. After 1660, however, the English seized this colony of New Netherlands and renamed it New York. Canada became a French colony in 1663, but by the early eighteenth century, France had ceded some of its American possessions to the English. By this time, the English had control over most of the eastern seaboard of North America. Compared to the enormous empire of the Spanish in Latin America, the North American colonies still remained of little importance to the English economy. Constructive Response 71

72 Answer these questions to check your understanding of the entire section. 1. Why were Europeans willing to make dangerous voyages of exploration? 2. Describe the details of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Persuasive Writing Using information from the text, explain how Spanish colonization affected the Native American peoples. 72

73 Exercise #27 Directions: After reading about the Age of Discovery in your textbook. Read the passages below and complete the graphic organizer that follows. The Rise of National Economies Mercantilism and Colonization In the 1500s and 1600s, most European nations subscribed to the theory of mercantilism. This economic theory links a country's wealth to its supply of gold and silver. The mercantilist nations of Europe had two goals: to increase their supply of gold and silver by finding (and controlling) new gold and silver mines and to create a positive trade balance. A trade balance is the balance between a nation's imports and exports. A positive trade balance means that the value of a country's exports exceeds the value of its imports. The process of colonization helped the nations of Europe achieve both their goals: The Latin American colonies were rich in gold and silver, and the colonies helped with the balance of trade. The colonies were a great source of cheap raw materials unfinished products that are used to make something else. For example, cotton is a raw material used in producing yarn; coffee beans are a raw material used in producing coffee; and sugar cane is a raw material used in producing refined sugar. In the 1500s and 1600s, raw materials were brought back to the "mother country" in Europe, where they were used in the manufacturing process. Then the finished products were shipped back to and sold in the colonies. To ensure a positive trade balance, the mother countries imposed high taxes on any finished products that were exported from the colonies and imported into the mother country. The Four Resources One reason that European nations sought colonies as a source of gold and raw materials is that such items are limited resources. There are four categories of limited resources or factors of production: land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurial ability. Land can be valuable for many reasons. It might hold many valuable resources within it, such as gold or oil; it might be near a specific location, such as the coast or a capital city; or it might provide a location necessary for a business to function. Like land, labor also has different types of value. For example, the work that doctors do has a value in part due to its specialization only certain people can perform the work. Yet the skills provided by a doctor have another value: the perceived importance to the client. In the thirteen American colonies, labor was far scarcer than it was in the mother country. As a result, free workers prospered in the Northern Colonies, and a system of slave labor developed in the Southern Colonies. Until the turn of the twentieth century in the United States, much of the technology developed was used to offset the need for labor in our country's vast agricultural spaces and in its manufacturing plants. Capital is the term used to describe all the equipment and tools used to produce goods and services. Some examples of capital are stores, office buildings, computers, trucks, and railroads. The finances that are invested in businesses are also considered capital. In mercantile theory, the mother country controlled capital and often outlawed manufacturing in the colonies. One of the differences between the British and Spanish colonial experiences was that the Spanish strictly controlled colonial manufacturing, whereas the British let the New England colonists develop shipbuilding, iron foundries, and other forms of capital investment. Entrepreneurial ability is the human know-how or knowledge that is necessary to create new businesses. A person must have more than just know-how to start a business; land, labor, or 73

74 capital is also necessary. In much the same way, land, labor, and capital would have far less impact on an economy without the entrepreneurial spirit. Each of the four types of resources is considered to be a limited resource because its supply is limited. There is only so much land in any given country. There are only so many people who can provide labor. There is only so much capital. There are also only so many people with entrepreneurial abilities. Although the resources are limited, there are many ways for each resource to be used. For example, an acre of land can be used for a park, a factory, a school, or wildlife reserve. The Three Questions of Economics Limited resources are used to produce goods and services. But what will be produced, who will produce it, and for whom will it be produced? These are the three basic questions of economics. The first question "What goods will be produced?" refers to more than just what one company or one economic sector will make. It relates to the national economy. In other words, "What type of products will the nation expend the greatest portion of its resources producing?" The second question "How will these goods be produced?" relates to the actual producer of goods. There are really only two possible answers: the private sector (small businesses and corporations) or the public sector (government). In most countries, both the private and public sectors contribute to the production of goods. However, one of the groups usually acts as the dominating force in an economy. In the United States, while the public sector is quite large, it is the private sector that is the dominant force in the production of goods. In the People's Republic of China, the public sector is dominant. Yet, while the Chinese government actually decides what will be produced, it allows the private sector to produce many of these goods and services. The third question "For whom will the goods be produced?" refers to the ability to obtain the goods produced. In other words, will anyone who is able and willing to pay the price for the goods be able to obtain them? In some economic systems, the government decides who will have the goods, not the consumers. In the United States, it is the middle class, the largest consumer group, that dictates much of what is produced. Determining who actually answers, or is responsible for, the three economic questions can identify the type of economy of a nation. In command economies, such as mercantilism, socialism, and other forms of government in which government officials make all or most of the decisions, the government whether it is a king, ruling group, or parliament determines the answer to the three questions of economics. You will read more about socialism in Unit 5 of your textbook. In the mercantile system discussed previously, the government of the mother country answered the three questions of economics for its colonies. Historically, most economies have been principally command economies, with the monarch or ruling group making the final economic decisions. Free-Enterprise System In a free-enterprise system, it is the business owners and ultimately the consumers who answer the three questions of economics. Adam Smith, an eighteenthcentury economist, wrote The Wealth of Nations, which formed the basis for the American economic system. In his book, Smith described a laissez-faire system in which businesses were free from government controls. In Smith's opinion, government had three main responsibilities: to provide an army, to provide police, and to provide public services such as roads and canals. Smith did not want governments to answer any of the three economic questions. In capitalism, or the free-enterprise system, the market determines what will be produced. A company cannot successfully sell a product or service if people do not want or need it. Therefore, it is the consumer who is actually the decision-maker. In this way, the free-enterprise 74

75 system is directly opposed to the system of mercantilism that was dominant at the height of colonialism. Applying Economics to History Directions: Use the information you have read to answer the following questions below. Recalling Information 1. What is mercantilism? 75

76 2. Explain the difference between raw materials and finished products. 3. Who was Adam Smith? Critical Thinking 4. Making Comparisons Compare mercantilism to capitalism in terms of the three economic questions. 5. Synthesizing Information Explain how a positive trade balance would help a country increase its supply of gold and silver. 6. Making Inferences Identify three types of value that labor might have. Give an example of the type of worker or job that holds the value you have identified. Making Connections 7. Think about your local community. Give a specific example of each of the four limited resources from your community. For example, you might cite the woman who owns a local bakery as an example of entrepreneurial ability. 8. When you finish writing, compare your perceptions. How are they similar and how are they different? 76

77 Exercise #28 Looking at the Land Directions: Locate one or more maps in your textbook that deal with the Age of Exploration/Discovery. Using the information from the text and maps from your book label the outline map below with the following information. Label the major 7 continents Title your map Label the countries involved in exploration of the East and the Americas. Label the areas that were explored Choose your own color scheme to color the water and continents In different colors, mark the routes of the major explorers and create a key showing the color that matches each expedition. EX. Da Gama: Orange 77

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