From the Root Grows the Way The Ethics of Confucius

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1 From the Root Grows the Way The Ethics of Confucius Daniel Bonevac December 16, 2013 Ancient China consisted of a variety of small states that frequently fought one another. The Warring States period, as it is now known, lasted for more than two hundred and fifty years, ending in 221 BCE with China s unification. But it witnessed the development of two of the world s most important philosophical systems Confucianism and Daoism as well as religious traditions that spring from them. 1 The Virtue Ethics of Confucius Kong Fuzi (K ung Fu-Tzu) Grand Master Kong, or, as he became known in the West, Confucius ( BCE) was a contemporary of Lao Tzu and the Buddha. Born into a poor family in Lu (now Shandong province in northeastern China), he was completely self-educated. His father died when he was three. At nineteen, he married, and had a son and two daughters. He got a government job, first managing a state granary and then managing herds of cattle and sheep. But at twenty-two he quit his job and opened up a school. He taught principles of proper living and good government, eventually earning the attention of the Duke of Lu. Living in a time of great political and intellectual upheaval, he was convinced that his teachings could restore order and prosperity. But the chance to put his ideas into practice eluded him. Nevertheless, he rose from poverty and obscurity to become the most influential and revered person in the history of China. For a millennium the Chinese civil service examinations were based on his teachings. Confucius says much about the superior person (junzi, literally, child of a ruler, but, in Confucius, not one of noble birth but rather one of noble character). The superior person tries to understand the world with an open mind. This understanding can be gained through reflection, though it also requires a thorough knowledge of things in general as well as respect for the traditional social rules that define proper behavior. The superior person seeks clarity, of perception, of thought, and of speech. This requires a focus on virtue on what we ought to be and do as well as remaining open to higher laws, principles, and values, the ordinances of heaven. But we must understand the force of words, and understand the world around us, to put virtue and general principles into practice. We must 1

2 attend to the root of things, seeking true understanding, not merely the accumulation of facts. Only when we understand the underlying principles of things can we understand how we ourselves should act. To do the right thing, we need to think things through, understanding the situation and understanding why we are to act that way. Confucius gives us sayings rather than dialogues or arguments. The theme of examining oneself runs throughout. We see few examples of the process of examination. Sometimes, however, we glimpse the flavor of what Confucius has in mind. Someone asks about a principle of repaying injury with kindness turning the other cheek, in effect. Confucius responds that this principle will erase the difference between the consequences of kindness and injury. Someone hurts you; you respond by being kind. Someone is kind to you; you respond by being kind. You draw no distinctions, and the one who injures suffers no consequences. This reflects a common pattern. Confucius considers a principle and draws out its consequences. Confucius presents an ethics of virtue almost two hundred years before Aristotle that has much in common with Aristotle s theory. Nevertheless, Confucius presents a different list of virtues, which has a different structure. Confucian doctrine is sometimes summarized as ethical humanism. Like Aristotle, Confucius begins with the question What kind of person should I try to become?, and centers his answer on the concept of virtue (ren). Confucius contrasts selfishness, a desire for personal gain, with righteousness (yi or yi), a desire to do what is right just because it is right. The superior person does the right thing for the right reason because it is the right thing to do not in order to get something else. In other words, the superior person treats the good as intrinsically valuable. In developing an ethics of character, Confucius elaborates a system of virtues around one thread (4:15, 15:2): to be true to the principles of our nature and to exercise them benevolently toward others. It may sound as if that one thread comprises two different strands. For Confucius, however, thought and action are intimately linked; being true to the principles of our nature and exercising them in helping others come to the same thing. Because ren, virtue, involves both being true to the principles of our nature and acting benevolently toward others, ren has often been translated as humanity or benevolence. Confucius holds that different virtues pertain to different relationships. There are virtues to be displayed toward other people in general, virtues to be displayed to friends and family, and virtues to exhibit to oneself. All are important, but all rest on the virtues of the self, which are central to virtue in general. The basic virtues toward others are faithfulness and the five key components of ren: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. The chief principle for dealing with other people is zhong, reciprocity (sometimes translated altruism or likening to oneself ): What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others (5:11, 12:2, 15:23). This so-called Silver Rule is a logically weaker cousin of the Golden Rule: What you would have others do unto you, do so unto them. The virtues we have discussed so far apply to dealings with family and friends. But there are also virtues special to those relationships that underlie and override more general 2

3 obligations. Confucius stresses two: filial piety obedience, reverence, and service to one s parents and elders and fraternal submission, service and trustworthiness to one s equals. These virtues are roots of ren. We learn how to treat others by learning how to interact with those closest to us. Most fundamental of all are the virtues of the self. In this respect Confucius and Socrates surely agree that the unexamined life is not worth living. Knowledge leads to virtuous thought, which leads to virtuous feelings, which leads in turn to virtuous action. 1. Knowledge: The superior person knows the Way (dao), the right way to act, but also loves learning; without the love of learning, virtues easily transform into their opposites. 2. The Virtues of Thought: Sincerity and humility are virtues we exhibit to ourselves. They underlie all other virtues. To us, it sounds odd to speak of being sincere or humble with oneself. But we are insincere with others if we do not mean what we say to them. We are likewise insincere with ourselves if we do not mean what we say to ourselves. Insincerity with oneself, in other words, amounts to self-deception. So, sincerity to oneself is a form of self-knowledge, of knowing what one thinks and wants and knows. 3. The Virtues of Feeling: For Confucius, it is not enough to know the Way; one must also love and delight in the Way. The virtuous person not only does the right thing but wants to do it. 4. The Virtues of Action: The five basic virtues are those of ren. The virtuous person is benevolent, kind, generous, and above all balanced, observing the Mean in all things. But Confucius adds other characteristics: he describes the superior person as careful, slow in speech, mild, at ease, composed, warm, satisfied, earnest, respectful, dignified, majestic, and open-minded. Confucius, like Aristotle, thinks of virtue as a mean between extremes; the properly generous person, for example, gives appropriately, neither too much nor too little, to the right person in the right circumstances. Confucian virtues are means between vices, just as in Aristotle. The disposition to virtue, without knowledge and without propriety, leads to vice. The five virtues of ren: Too little Right amount Too much frivolous serious somber stingy generous profligate insincere sincere reckless lazy diligent workaholic mean, indifferent kind indulgent 3

4 Other Confucian virtues: Too little Right amount Too much disrespectful respectful bustling careless cautious timid timid bold insubordinate devious straightforward rude weak strong extravagant As in Aristotle, the superior person is at ease with virtue. Proper conduct becomes habitual. It becomes second nature. The superior person not only has strength of will but also avoids inner conflict, for he or she desires to do what is right. To become virtuous, in Confucius s view, one must associate with the right people (1:8), examine oneself, and above all act with propriety, the observance of proper rites, ceremonies, and principles. Propriety is a crucial component of virtue, for it establishes character. We train ourselves, developing good habits, by obeying the rules of propriety. To become truly virtuous, propriety must become habitual; we must develop a natural ease with, and even love, the rules of propriety. The word he uses is li, which means ceremony, rite, ritual, decorum, propriety, principle, and custom. Most often, Confucius uses it to refer to traditional social rules and practices. The rules of propriety are traditional: they are customary and connect us with the past, embodying the wisdom of generations of people who have faced situations similar to those we face. The rules of propriety are social: they concern relations between people in society and constitute a significant part of the social order. Finally, the rules of propriety are rules or practices: they govern how people should behave in certain circumstances. Many features of propriety arise from particular social relations of parent to child, for example, or friend to friend but some, such as the rule of reciprocity, are universal. 1.1 Confucius, from The Analects Source: From Confucius, The Analects. Translated by James Legge. The translation has been revised for readability and similarity of style to the Chinese. 1:1. The Master said, Isn t it pleasant to learn and to apply what you ve learned? Isn t it delightful to have friends coming from far away? Isn t he a person of complete virtue who doesn t get angry that others don t appreciate him? 1:2. Yu said, Few filial and fraternal people like to offend their superiors, and nobody who doesn t like to offend superiors likes to stir up rebellion. The superior person attends to the root of things. From the root grows the Way [dao]. Filial piety and fraternal submission are the root of benevolence [ren]. 4

5 1:4. Zeng said, Every day I examine myself on three points: whether, with others, I may have been unfaithful; whether, with friends, I may have been untrustworthy; whether I may have failed to master and practice the instructions of my teacher. 1:6. The Master said, A youth at home should be filial; abroad, respectful to elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow with love to all and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity after doing these things, he should study. 1:7. Zi Xia said, If someone turns from the love of beauty to a sincere love of virtue; if he can serve his parents with all his strength; if he can serve his prince with his life; if his words to his friends are sincere; although people say he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has. 1:8. The Master said, A scholar who is not serious will not be venerated, and his learning will not be solid. Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles. Have no friends not equal to yourself. When you have faults, do not be afraid to abandon them. 1:12. Yu said, In practicing propriety, a natural ease is best. This is the excellence of the ancient kings, and in things small and great we follow them. Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. Anyone who knows and manifests such ease must regulate it by propriety. 1:14. The Master said, A superior person doesn t seek gratification or comfort. He s earnest in what he does; he s careful in speech. He associates with people of principle to set himself right. Such a person truly loves to learn. 2:3. The Master said, If the people are led by laws and restrained by punishments, they will try to avoid them without any sense of shame. If they are led by virtue and restrained by propriety, they will have a sense of shame and become good. 2:4. At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear obeyed truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without transgressing what was right. 2:5. Meng I asked what filial piety was. The Master said, Not being disobedient. As Fan Qi was driving him, the Master said, Mang-sun asked me what filial piety was, and I answered, Not being disobedient. Fan Qi said, What did you mean? The Master replied, Parents, when alive, should be served according to propriety. When dead, they should be buried according to propriety and sacrificed to according to propriety. 2:10. The Master said, See what a person does. Mark his motives. Examine his habits. How can anyone conceal his character? How can anyone conceal his character? 2:13. Zi Kong asked what constituted the superior person. The Master said, He acts before he speaks, and then speaks as he acts. 2:14. The Master said, The superior person is open-minded and not partisan. The mean person is partisan and not open-minded. 2:17. The Master said, Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know something, to maintain that you know it; when you don t know something, to admit that you don t know it this is knowledge. 2:24. The Master said,... To see what is right and not do it is cowardice. 5

6 4:2. The Master said, Those without virtue can t abide long in a condition of poverty and hardship or in a condition of enjoyment. The virtuous are at ease with virtue [ren]; the wise desire virtue. 4:3. The Master said, Only the truly virtuous [ren] know what to love or hate in others. 4:7. The Master said, People s faults often reveal their character. By observing someone s character, you may know him to be virtuous. 4:10. The Master said, The superior person in the world is not for anything or against anything; he follows what is right. 4:11. The Master said, The superior person thinks of virtue; the small person thinks of comfort. The superior person thinks of the law; the small person thinks of favors. 4:15. The Master said, Shen, my doctrine is one thread. Zeng replied, Yes. The Master went out, and the other disciples asked, What do his words mean? Zeng said, Our Master s doctrine is to be true to the principles of our nature and to exercise them benevolently toward others this and nothing more. 4:16. The Master said, The superior person s mind is conversant with righteousness [yi]; the inferior person s mind is conversant with gain. 4:17. The Master said, When we see people of worth, we should think of equaling them; when we see people of a contrary character, we should turn inward and examine ourselves. 5:11. Zi Kong said, What I don t want others to do to me, I also want not to do to others. 6:18. The Master said, Those who know the Way aren t equal to those who love it, and those who love it aren t equal to those who delight in it. 6:24. Zai Wu asked, A benevolent person, told Someone is in the well, will go in after him, I suppose. Confucius said, Why should he? A superior person may be made to go into the well, but not to go down into it. One may impose upon him, but not make a fool of him. 6:25. The Master said, The superior person studies all learning extensively and restrains himself by propriety. So, he doesn t swerve from the Way. 6:27. The Master said, Perfect is the virtue that accords with the Constant Mean! For a long time, its practice has been rare among the people. 6:28. Zi Kong said, What would you say about someone who benefits people extensively and helps everyone? May he be called perfectly virtuous [ren]? The Master said, Why only virtuous? Must he not have the qualities of a sage? Even Yao and Shun [legendary rulers who lived as much as two millennia earlier] weren t like this. Someone of perfect virtue [ren], wishing to establish himself, establishes others; wishing to enlarge himself, enlarges others. To be able to judge others by what is right in ourselves is the art of virtue [ren]. 7:27. The Master said, Maybe some act without knowing why. I don t. Hearing much, selecting what is good, and following it, seeing much and remembering it, are the second 6

7 style of knowledge. 8:2. The Master said, Respectfulness without propriety becomes laborious bustle. Caution without propriety becomes timidity. Boldness without propriety becomes insubordination; straightforwardness without propriety becomes rudeness. 12:1. Yan Yuan asked about perfect virtue [ren]. The Master said, To subdue oneself and return to propriety is virtue. If a man can subdue himself and return to propriety for one day, all under heaven will ascribe virtue to him. Is the practice of virtue from oneself alone, or does it depend on others? Yan Yuan said, I want to ask about these steps. The Master replied, Don t look at what is contrary to propriety; don t listen to what is contrary to propriety; don t speak what is contrary to propriety; don t make a move that is contrary to propriety. 12:2. Zhong Kong asked about perfect virtue [ren]. The Master said, When you travel, act as if you were receiving a great guest. Employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice. Don t do to others what you wouldn t want done to yourself. Then no one in the country or in your family will complain about you. 12:9. Duke Ai asked Yu Zo, Suppose the year is one of scarcity and the government faces a deficit. What is to be done? Yu Zo replied, Why not demand from the people a tenth of their income? With two tenths there isn t enough, said the Duke. How could I get by on one tenth? Yu Zo answered, If the people have plenty, their ruler will not be needy alone. If the people are needy, their ruler can t enjoy plenty alone. 12:17. Qi Kang asked Confucius about government. He replied, To govern [cheng] is to rectify [cheng]. If you lead correctly, who will dare to be incorrect? 13:3. Zi Lu said, The ruler of Wei is waiting for you to help him govern. What should be done first? The Master replied, Rectify names. Really? said Zi Lu. You re wide of the mark. Why rectify names? The Master said, How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man shows a cautious reserve about what he doesn t know. 13:6. The Master said, If a ruler acts correctly, he can govern without issuing orders. If he acts incorrectly, his orders won t be followed. 13:13. The Master said, If a minister makes his own conduct correct, what difficulty will he have in governing? If he can t rectify himself, how can he rectify others? 13:18. The Duke of She told Confucius, Some of us are upright. If our father had stolen a sheep, we d bear witness to it. Confucius said, In my country the upright are different. The father conceals the misconduct of the son, and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness is to be found in this. 14:30. The Master said, The way of the superior person is threefold, but I am not equal to it. Virtuous [ren], he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear. Zi Kong said, Master, that s you. 14:36. Someone said, What do you say about the principle of repaying injury with kindness? The Master said, How then will you repay kindness? Repay kindness with kindness and injury with justice. 15:17. The Master said, The superior person takes righteousness [yi] to be essential. 7

8 He practices it according to propriety. He brings it forth in humility. He completes it with sincerity. This is indeed a superior person. 15:20. The Master said, What the superior person seeks is in himself. What the inferior person seeks is in others. 15:23. Zi Kong asked, Is there one word to serve as a rule for practice throughout life? Confucius said, It is reciprocity. What you don t want done to yourself, don t do to others. 16:10. Confucius said, The superior person thoughtfully considers nine things: With his eyes, he wants to see clearly. With his ears, he wants to hear distinctly. In countenance, he wants to be warm. In demeanor, he wants to be respectful. In speech, he wants to be sincere. In business, he wants to be careful. When in doubt, he wants to ask others. When angry, he thinks of difficulties that might result. When he sees opportunity for gain, he thinks of righteousness. 17:6. Zi Qang asked Confucius about perfect virtue [ren]. Confucius said: To be able to practice five things everywhere under Heaven constitutes perfect virtue. He begged to know what they were, and was told, Seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness. If you re serious, you won t be treated with disrespect. If you re generous, you ll win all hearts. If you re sincere, you ll be trusted. If you re diligent, you ll accomplish much. If you re kind, you ll enjoy the service of others. 17:8. The Master said, Yu, have you heard the six things followed by the six confusions? Yu replied, I haven t. Sit down and I ll tell you. The love of benevolence without the love of learning leads to an ignorant simplicity. The love of knowledge without the love of learning leads to dissipation of mind. The love of sincerity without the love of learning leads to recklessness. The love of straightforwardness without the love of learning leads to rudeness. The love of boldness without the love of learning leads to insubordination. The love of strength of character without the love of learning leads to extravagance. 20:3. The Master said, Without recognizing the ordinances of heaven, it s impossible to be a superior person. Without acquaintance with propriety, it s impossible to establish one s character. Without knowing the force of words, it s impossible to know people. 1.2 The Great Learning 1. What the great learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. 2. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. 3. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great 8

9 Learning. 4. The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. 5. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy. 6. From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides. 7. It cannot be, when the root is neglected, that what should spring from it will be well ordered. It never has been the case that what was of great importance has been slightly cared for, and, at the same time, that what was of slight importance has been greatly cared for. 9