Asia Oceania. portuguese around the world. architecture and urbanism

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1 Asia Oceania portuguese heritage around the world architecture and urbanism

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3 scientific coordination José Mattoso deputy scientific coordination Mafalda Soares da Cunha project coordination Maria Fernanda Matias Asia Oceania portuguese heritage around the world architecture and urbanism editorial coordination Walter Rossa authors Alice Santiago Faria Ana Marques Guedes Ana Tostões André Teixeira António Nunes Pereira Helder Carita Edmundo Alves Fernando Bagulho Manuel Lobato Nuno Grancho Paulo Varela Gomes Pedro Dias Rita Carvalho Sidh Mendiratta Sofia Diniz Vítor Rodrigues Victor Mestre Walter Rossa Zoltán Biedermann

4 Edition Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian Production and organisation International department João Pedro Garcia Maria Fernanda Matias Secretariat Carlos Luís Henrique Fernandes Isabel Gouveia translation John Bradford Cherry Reginald Brown PROOF READING Jonathan Weightman Design TVM designers Cartography Walter Rossa (coordinator) Sidh Losa Mendiratta Vera Mónica Gaspar Domingues satellite images Digital Globe printing Textype print run 1000 copies ISBN legal Deposit /11 Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Lisbon, 2011 photographers Alice Santiago Faria António Cunha António Nunes Pereira Arquivo GERTiL-UTL/FA Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (AHU ) Arquivo Manuel Vicente Arquivo BBB Bombaim Before the British UC/DARQ Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal DAGA David Kowal Diogo Burnay D Sousa & Paul Emile Marini Fabrizio Croce Filipe Jorge Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian (fcg) Helder Carita João Ochôa Pires Joaquim Santos Luís Filipe Thomaz Manuel Lobato Manuel Rodrigues Paiva Maria Manuel Bandeira Michael Teague Miguel de Noronha de Paiva Couceiro Mónica Reis Nuno Grancho Paulo Varela Gomes Pedro Cabral Gonçalves Rita Carvalho Rui Ochôa Sidh Mendiratta Victor Mestre Walter Rossa Zoltán Biedermann Cover: Sea Bastion or Panikotha, Diu, India photo by Joaquim Santos Plan de la Ville de Macao et de Ses Environs Aux Portugais, 1781, Lafite de Brassier, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.

5 index Foreword 6 Emílio Rui Vilar Introduction 10 José Mattoso General Overview: what s what in this book 20 walter rossa Província do Norte North India 63 Goa 171 Southern India Sri Lanka 335 Bengal Southeast Asia Moluccas 405 Macao Nagasaki 465 General Bibliography 526 Abbreviations 538 Glossary 540 General Index 546

6 Foreword

7 PRESERVING THE HISTORICAL HERITAGE of Portuguese origin around the world has long been one of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation s most constant concerns. In fact, in 1958, two years after its creation, the Foundation asked Charles Boxer and Carlos de Azevedo to travel to present-day Kenya (at the time still a British protectorate) in order to join with local experts in analysing the state of preservation of Fort Jesus, in Mombasa. Following their visit, the Foundation completely financed the work for the restoration of that ancient Portuguese fort, whose construction dates back to At the time, the project was further complemented by the creation of a museum inside the walls of the fort, designed to exhibit the objects found during the archaeological excavations Portuguese and Chinese pieces, as well as pieces originating from other countries, all bearing witness to the trading relationships that have always encouraged circulation and contact between cultures. Since that first intervention, and over the course of several decades, the Foundation has participated directly or indirectly in the preservation of the historical, architectural, artistic and documentary heritage of Portuguese origin, scattered across four continents. The Netherlands and Malta, in Europe; Morocco, Benin and Kenya, in Africa; Brazil and Uruguay, in South America; Iran, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Malaysia, in Asia, are examples of countries where, in one way or another, the results of the Foundation s activity in this area are clearly visible. After several decades spent gaining experience in the restoration of heritage (for a long time it was the only Portuguese institution to promote and finance this kind of activity abroad), the Foundation has now taken responsibility for the project entitled Portuguese Heritage around the World: Architecture and Urbanism, in which it will play a pioneering role in drawing up a systematic inventory of this vast architectural legacy outside Europe. Almost six centuries were to elapse from the very beginning of the Portuguese overseas expansion, at the start of the fifteenth century, when Portugal first made its presence felt in Africa, to the end of the twentieth century, when the administration of Macau was officially passed on to the Chinese authorities. During that long period, the Portuguese spread their language and culture worldwide, influencing others and themselves being influenced in a variety of different ways. This interaction resulted in the creation of a built heritage of quite different types, in Africa, South America and Asia. It is particularly significant to note that a considerable portion of this legacy, amounting to over twenty sites and monuments in fifteen countries in three continents, has been included by UNESCO in its World Heritage list. The Foundation invited a prominent scholar and an internationally recognised authority on Portuguese history, Professor José Mattoso, to head the project Portuguese Heritage foreword 7

8 around the World: Architecture and Urbanism. I wish to express my gratitude for his most valuable contribution to this initiative, in which he has displayed all of his well-known qualities and scholarly rigour. A special word of thanks is also due to Professor Mafalda Soares da Cunha, Professor José Mattoso s assistant in this initiative, as well as to the team of coordinators Professor Renata Malcher Araujo, Professor Filipe Themudo Barata, Professor José Manuel Fernandes and Professor Walter Rossa for the work that they have done and for the way in which they have supervised the cooperation provided by the dozens of researchers invited to participate in the three volumes of this project. The Foundation hopes that this work can be a useful and valuable reference tool for people and institutions seeking to contribute, through both research and action, to the preservation of a common heritage. Lisbon, 2010 Emílio Rui Vilar President of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation 8 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

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10 Introduction

11 The Convention for the Protection of World Cultural Heritage, signed in 1972 by a large number of countries, was an initiative promoted by UNESCO and had a decisive influence on the conceptions of the material values that such heritage symbolises and preserves, as well as of the responsibilities underlying its ownership, use and fruition. After that date, UNESCO began to draw up a list of the cultural monuments and sites considered to form part of the world heritage and whose protection it has sought to promote in a variety of ways. The list has gradually grown larger and is still growing. In view of its practical effects, UNESCO decided to broaden the concept of World Heritage to include the most unusual natural landscapes, which therefore required special attention. Later on, its concern with the protection of heritage spread even further to include immaterial cultural expressions, promoting the drafting of a recommendation for the safeguarding of traditional culture and folklore (1999) and then obtaining the signature of several countries to a Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003). Meanwhile, in 2001, it had succeeded in obtaining the signature of 185 of the 193 Member States to a Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, which established the principle that Humanity must protect all existing cultures, including minority cultures or cultures under threat of extinction. The agreement of such a large number of countries means that there is a universal consensus about the loss that society will suffer, not only as a result of the disappearance of any culture, but also as a result of cultural uniformity, and therefore about the need to do everything possible to guard against either of these eventualities. The doctrine underlying all of these actions taken by UNESCO, which is specifically enshrined in this Declaration, is the principle that as a source of exchange, innovation and creativity cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. It must therefore be protected as common world heritage. The obvious fact of cultural diversity must be matched by the promotion of cultural pluralism, conducive to cultural exchange and to the flourishing of creative capacities that sustain public life. Thus, it considers the meeting of cultures to be a positive phenomenon. In fact, the undeniable and always effective interaction among the cultures that have been developed by the different peoples of the world has been one of the main factors affecting their evolution over the centuries. Such contacts have taken place in many different ways. While they may have led, historically speaking, to the disappearance of many cultures, they have also helped to consolidate others and encouraged their adaptation to the new conditions of modern-day life. The meeting of cultures conditioned in the past by the compartmentalisation of territories, the isolation of civilisations and the difficulties of communication has made it easier to highlight the phenomena of cultural identity and internal cohesion, and to reject the cultures of others, but it has rarely been able to prevent their evolution. The contacts with Africa and the Orient, initiated by the Portuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries, led to a change in the previously predominant system of territorial compartmentaliintroduction 11

12 sation, not only because they resulted in new meetings of cultures, but also because they gave rise to a gradual increase in the West s dominance over the rest of the globe. This, in turn, led to a constant transfer of material goods that was to the benefit of Europe and, from the mid-19th century onwards, to the consequent development and concentration of capitalism in this same region and in North America, along with the West s technological domination of the whole world. The inequalities and injustices that may have arisen from this must not, however, be allowed to afford a negative interpretation to the ambivalent concept of the meeting of cultures, or to be seen as a reason for introducing protective measures that are based on an artificial isolation. In fact, the cultural isolation that prevailed until the 16th century did not prevent the exchange of influences. In some cases, such exchanges took place at the level of whole continents such as the spread of Buddhism, for example. The West also witnessed similar phenomena. For instance, the acceptance of the Greek intellectual and artistic culture by the Roman world, or of the Slavic culture by the Byzantine world, or of Aristotelian philosophy by mediaeval European universities through the influence of the Arabs. Other less comprehensive examples of such processes are constantly being studied by specialists, such as the possible influence of the songs of troubadours as a source of inspiration for Mozarab carjas (poetic compositions) or the immense contribution that the scientific knowledge of the Arab world made to the development of science in mediaeval Europe. Yet we might also recall contacts that have had negative effects, such as the violence that has been generated by religious intolerance, the genocides caused by ethnic rivalries, the inferior status afforded to defeated peoples and their submission to situations of unbearable slavery. It is impossible to deny either the benefits or the harm caused by these facts, which are typical of the meeting of cultures. The conflicts that have arisen from this meeting of cultures means that its study has become a sensitive matter; it is a question that must be approached directly and non-judgementally, in an impartial manner and not attributing the responsibilities for past actions to the world s currently existing peoples. This chapter of history, which is so important for our knowledge of humankind, must be studied in such a way that it can help us to avoid similar mistakes to those that were made previously in the name of destructive intolerance. In fact, one of the main principles to be taken into account is that of avoiding value judgements about past facts, which is also a rule for historical research in general. The failure to do this has been prejudicial to the studies made of the meeting of cultures initiated by the Portuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries. The fact that this is considered as the starting point for European colonial imperialism which, in the 19th century, involved the economic, political and cultural subjugation of the peoples of Asia, America and Africa has caused it to be shrouded in the same negative judgment that became widespread in the middle of the last century in support of anti- -colonial movements, and which motivated, for instance, several negative international reactions during the celebrations of the Five Hundredth Anniversary of the Portuguese Discoveries in 1998, at a time when nothing remained from the so-called Portuguese Colonial Empire. In fact, the Asian and African pro-independence movements of the mid-20th century generally adopted anti- -Western political ideologies. The recent conflicts that have taken place in the Middle East have exacerbated the prejudice that results from a lack of knowledge about other cultures. But the evidence of their devastating consequences has also led to the first hopeful steps towards 12 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

13 dialogue. It is increasingly clear that the objective knowledge of other cultures is of the utmost importance for ensuring peaceful coexistence between peoples. Following a period when public opinion was dominated by the idea of anti-colonialism, even in the former colonising countries themselves, the attitude of those responsible for cultural institutions gradually began to undergo a subtle change, becoming influenced by their common interest in the traces that had been left by Western imperialism of its presence in various countries outside Europe. It was found that the contacts that had taken place between peoples had often given rise to original experiences, new architectural forms, new decorative patterns, new literary themes, more expressive linguistic changes and more effective technical inventions. All of this was to be explained sometimes by the cultural creativity of the colonising countries and sometimes by the cultural enrichment of the countries under their domination, through the formation there of educated elites. It even gave rise to more fertile contacts between them and the development of multilateral exchanges. There was a gradual emergence of research institutes and study centres that welcomed research into these themes, and later of others that chose it as the specific aim of their activities. The post-colonial tension that had existed between these countries gradually gave way to a less exclusive understanding of the meeting of cultures, with greater care being taken in preserving the signs of the sharing of values that had taken place in the course of this vast encounter and in studying the phenomena that this had given rise to from the late Middle Ages onwards. One of the examples of such a change of attitude was the creation in 1998 of the network of the International Scientific Committee of ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) and, within this, of the Committee on Shared Colonial Heritage. Since its creation, this Committee has highlighted the risks to which the products of colonial heritage are exposed (many of which are highly significant), as well as the interest that should be shown in them both by the governments of the countries that became independent and by their former colonisers. It has also drawn attention to the need to join forces in order to preserve, study and give due value to the traces of a vast legacy, which illustrate some of the most innovative aspects of world culture. It is therefore necessary to avoid any confusion of epochs and situations and to make sure that we do not project onto the past phenomena that belong to the present. The study of the meeting of cultures must not allow itself to be influenced by particular forms of interaction or ethnic conflicts that derive from the present, the effects of which go beyond the mere confrontation of ideas and social practices. This is what happens, for example, with the formation of ethnic communities in developed countries, living in the midst of the large masses of non-european immigrants to be found there. The conflicts that are exacerbated by the fact that communities of rival cultures live side by side with one another have given rise to studies and projects inspired by the idea of multiculturalism some supporting it, others condemning it. And, in the opposite sense, they have also led to a fresh outbreak of racist practices and ideologies. Nonetheless, the meeting of cultures must not depend on the consideration of situations of conflict, whose solution is in fact largely dependent on political reasons. On the other hand, respect for minority cultures and the strategies required for their protection must similarly not be confused with the utopian creation of a museum filled with archaic phenomena. The memory that can and must be created of extinct cultures, or ones that are under threat of extinction, should be as objective as possible. We must not promote forms that introduction 13

14 result in their being artificially frozen, but instead we must stimulate the development of contacts that are beneficial, constructive and innovative. Just like living organisms, cultures can only survive through a constant process of renewal and through their consequent adaptation to the new conditions of life. In order for this to happen, it is necessary to preserve cultural diversity, which is precisely the principle that UNESCO sought to defend through its Declaration of This is the context within which we should understand the contribution that the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation has attempted to make towards the study of the meeting of cultures and, consequently, of cultural diversity, by promoting this inventory of the architectural and urbanistic vestiges of the Portuguese heritage in the non-european world. This project, whose results are presented here, is part of a much larger series of activities for the material recovery of buildings and monuments all around the world, including the fort of Príncipe da Beira in Rondónia (Brazil), the house of Nacarelo in Colónia de Sacramento (Uruguay), the fortress of Arzila (Morocco), the Portuguese cathedral of Safi (Morocco), the fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (Benin), Fort Jesus in Mombasa (Kenya), the fort of Kilwa (Tanzania), the fortresses of Ormuz and Qeshm (Iran), the church of the Rosary in Dacca (Bangladesh), the Portuguese factory of Ayutthaya (Thailand) or the church of Saint Paul in Malacca (Malaysia), in addition to other interventions, designed to preserve other kinds of cultural heritage and involving the building of museums, such as those in Velha Goa and Cochin, or the promotion of the inventorying and classification of archive documents (also in Cochin). However, because of their repercussions, these actions, which were decided on a case by case basis, have suggested the need for a future assessment of the relative importance of the buildings in question, in order to justify the priority that is to be given in the case of possible new interventions, bearing in mind the group of monuments to which they belong. It is important to know the full extent and range of these traces of the Portuguese presence, and to identify the most important ones among them, in order to better protect them from degradation or possible disfigurement. Although we are only studying one particular area that of tangible heritage resulting from the meeting between the Portuguese culture and those of Asia, America and Africa, the conclusions of its study can be linked to the research being undertaken into analogous phenomena in other areas (for example, language, religion, food and clothing), making it possible for us to compare results and have a fuller and better understanding of the dynamics of cultural creation and its social functions. The choice of a national criterion for the definition of an area of analysis (i.e., in this case, the monuments and sites of Portuguese origin) is not therefore the result of any particular claim to be investigating hypothetical national past glories, as would probably have been the case if this project had been undertaken prior to In fact, the authors of this inventory are convinced that, in global terms, the traces of this meeting of cultures no longer belong to just one country: they belong to the whole of Humanity because they bear witness to cultural diversity and human creativity. The peoples that reacted to that same meeting of cultures attributed both a meaning and a function to the signs that were invented at that time, whether they were inspired by the desire to imitate or assimilate foreign forms or just simply expressed the rejection of these. The criterion that the sites and monuments must be of Portuguese origin helps to define and explain the process that led to the development of other non-european cultural forms. In order to achieve that goal, a complete survey needed to be made, not only of the instances of pure impor- 14 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

15 tation, but also of hybrid cases. This aspect is particularly important in the case of Brazil, which witnessed the development of a style of architecture and sculpture that did not simply copy Portuguese models. The buildings that they produced gradually gained greater and greater autonomy, until they reached the point where they obtained an identity of their own. If there is a Brazilian art nowadays, we must remember how it emerged. The appreciation of its values requires us to understand and reconstitute the process of transformation that gave rise to it. The same applies to religious architecture, Indo-Portuguese decorative arts, or the military architecture developed by the Portuguese in what are now Islamic territories, or even, to a certain extent, to the attempts at modernism that were produced in Angola or Mozambique and the town planning solutions presented by the architects of the Estado Novo in their experiments to establish a white regime on African soil. In all of these examples some in a more obvious way, others in a more rigid manner there were exchanges, attempts, experiments and adaptations. Sometimes the Portuguese (or European) model was faithfully reproduced, whether stylised or not, whereas on other occasions bold experiments were made, some of which unfortunately have not survived into the present. The definition of an area of study based on the national criterion must also not be allowed to afford special privilege simply to famous monuments or official initiatives. Without forgetting the particular ideology that inspired many of them, and which implied a direct statement of superiority, we must also remember the contribution made by the anonymous mass of immigrants who sought, in their exile, a means of subsistence or a possible improvement in their living conditions. Nor must we attempt to conceal the various practices involved in man s exploitation of his fellow man (such as slavery, for example) and their influence on the creation of signs of survival under such adverse conditions. The meeting of cultures, in which the Portuguese played a major role, is a history of light and darkness, which should not seek to make apologies for certain buildings, whether on religious, ethnic, or political grounds. A clear example of the application of this criterion in our work is the inclusion in the inventory of a monument such as the fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá, which was one of the main trading posts for slave labour established on the African continent. Its symbolic meaning far outweighs its aesthetic value. The same can be said of the prison of Tarrafal in Cape Verde. The survey of the tangible remains of the meeting of cultures therefore represents an important contribution not only for reconstructing the process that depended on it, but also for assessing its consequences for the present time. In other words, it is of great importance both for our understanding of the history of those encounters or non-encounters and for our understanding of the national cultures that were brought into being as a result of them. This survey must be as systematic as possible, i.e. it must be complete and capable of categorisation. Complete in the sense that it provides a list of all those cases in which there is evidence of an effective or probable Portuguese influence, whether this be a dominant or even a secondary one. Capable of categorisation in the sense that it records all those cases in which this influence can be noted, in such a way as to allow us to identify or organise coherent groups of buildings and monuments, and thereby place them into specific categories, which are indispensable conditions for their correct and proper assessment. Consequently, this collection is not intended to amount to simply drawing up lists for the classification of sites and monuments as world heritage items, or, at a national level, to prepaintroduction 15

16 ring a similar record of national monuments to be entrusted to the safekeeping of the Portuguese Institute for the Protection of Archaeological and Architectural Heritage (IGESPAR), or any such similar organisation, under the various pre-defined categories. The aim of this inventory is to create an object of study, a corpus, composed of a significant group of sites and monuments for the context in which its various elements were created. It will show the different signs that characterise them, either in their uniqueness or according to the categorisation of the alter- -ations that they have undergone. In short, it will detail the different aspects that justify their greater or lesser heritage value. The systematisation that this work seeks to afford to this group of sites and monuments is also essential for the study of the phenomena identified in the architectural and urbanistic fields, together with other kinds of phenomena relating to areas such as language, sociology, science or religion. The underlying purpose is to understand the full complexity of the results deriving from the meeting of cultures promoted by the dispersal of the Portuguese across the non-european world. Although the intention is therefore to conduct a systematic survey of buildings, monuments and sites of architectural and urbanistic interest, exhaustive lists are avoided, since their compilation would be a nigh on impossible task if this same criterion were applied to the last of the Portuguese colonies. In fact, the aim is not to record all the remains of architectural and urbanistic items of total or partial Portuguese origin, but only to make a complete and thorough survey of sites and monuments already identified as such, and which, moreover, are sufficiently relevant to be considered as traces or remains of the Portuguese presence with their own identity. By sites and monuments with their own identity, we mean those that, because of their own particular form, artistic value, functional value, symbolic meaning, dimensions, or technical characteristics, can be considered as places or buildings that enjoy a certain autonomy, and about which there are known to exist (or might one day be discovered to exist) historical references in a variety of narrative or documentary sources. Therefore, excluded from this book are the remains of buildings, sites and monuments whose origin cannot be identified, as well as uncharacteristic buildings that are considered to have no cultural value whatsoever. An attempt was made to gather together as much information as possible, especially that of a historical and technical nature, about the sites and monuments of some relevance. Priority was therefore given to concrete data (names, dates, events) that made it possible to associate the selected sites and buildings with broader sets of information about the Portuguese presence in the world and to reconstruct what might be called the production conditions under which those same sites and buildings were constructed. Nonetheless, the aim was merely to compile the available information, mainly that included in specialised publications (in other words, to present what is usually referred to as the state of the art ), without attempting to conduct any new research. The bibliography presented at the end of each article serves to justify the description provided in the summaries, to attribute the already published information and interpretive opinions to their corresponding authors, and to provide guidance for any possible future research into these themes. The final result of the work is presented as a dictionary of sites and monuments, listed in alphabetical order according to the names of the places where they are located. This dictionary is preceded by a general introduction to each of the four regions considered in this book, helping 16 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

17 readers to understand the relevant historical and cultural background to each case (general history, history of art, history of architecture, history of urbanism, etc.) and to place them within their geographical, diachronic and cultural context. The entries are classified according to their present-day place names, in keeping with the current official spelling of the respective countries, but the old names are also shown, namely those used in Portuguese documentation and the historiography of the overseas territories from the 16th to the 19th centuries. In the case of sites with several buildings or monuments, some general information is provided first of all, which is then followed by information regarding each building or monument to be found at the same site, according to the four functional categories (religious architecture, military architecture, equipment and infrastructure, and houses), also given in alphabetical order. It was decided to maintain the writing style of each author. Lastly, a brief reference should be made to the possible problems and difficulties that may be found in the four geographical areas defined in the three volumes of this inventory. The division into three continents Asia, America and Africa and an area located in two of them (Islam) arises as a result of practical considerations. It is based on the fact that each of these areas has predominant features that are different, although not exclusive, which, in turn, explains the choice of the specialised coordinators invited to supervise the works and their distribution. There is a certain logic behind this division. The Islamic area includes the first buildings of Portuguese origin to be constructed outside the European continent. Considering that these first contacts were mainly of a military nature, there is a predominance of fortresses and fortifications from the 15th and 16th centuries, including those built in Morocco and in the rest of the Mediterranean world and the Persian Gulf. The volume devoted to Asia brings together the heritage built under the auspices of the Portuguese State of India and that which depended, from a religious point of view, on the Padroado Português do Oriente (the Portuguese Ecclesiastical Patronage of the East), not only within the peninsula of Hindustan (the Indian subcontinent) itself, but also at the Portuguese settlements and trading posts that were created within its sphere of influence. Also associated with this is the heritage that would later on have its own distinct features, arising from a profound change in the historical conditions under which Portuguese administration continued to be applied in that region, as was the case with Macao and Timor. The predominant historical period is the 16th and 17th centuries, but various circumstances (such as the continuation of the Padroado, for example) led to significant changes in increasingly smaller areas, leaving evidence of buildings in many areas that may have either erased or concealed an earlier Portuguese influence there. In Brazil and the Colónia de Sacramento (in present-day Uruguay), which ended up representing the only examples of the Portuguese presence in America, the greater intensity of building in the 17th and 18th centuries with almost entirely faithful reproductions of Portuguese models the region s initial sugar production, subsequently followed by the mining of gold and diamonds, became the background for the creation of entire Portuguese communities and the adoption of administrative systems similar to those found in Portugal, with variants arising from the large-scale exploitation of slave labour, the war against the Dutch and the French, and the continued presence of the royal court there until the very eve of independence. introduction 17

18 Finally, in sub-saharan Africa there are more or less isolated remains of coastal trading posts and fortresses, mainly built to provide support for ships sailing to and from India, and later used for the capture of slaves. But it is not these constructions that define the global sense of the Portuguese colonial heritage in the region. The penetration deeper inland was a belated phenomenon. The territory was to become marked by the Portuguese presence only from the 19th century onwards, firstly with the military occupation of the river valley, and then with the establishment of colonial structures designed to guarantee the exploitation of the region s natural resources, especially in the form of raw materials, as also happened in the other European colonies of the African continent. Although, in the final decades of the Portuguese occupation of Africa, some attempts were made to create the structures necessary for the implantation of an eventual white regime, the colonial war completely frustrated such plans. But there are still all kinds of significant traces of the Portuguese presence to be found there. Without ever producing works with an architectural value that could be considered equivalent to that of so many of the Portuguese monuments in the Orient or in Brazil, and displaying all the hallmarks of the sometimes excessive control exercised by the Portuguese government, there were still a number of interesting buildings constructed there, inspired by the architectural movements of Modernism, Art Deco, Art Nouveau, or Modern Architecture. For ideological reasons, the independent governments of Angola and Mozambique did not always afford these buildings the level of appreciation that they deserved. The disturbances brought by the colonial war and by the difficulties that the present-day governments subsequently had in establishing themselves led to the creation of certain obstacles that now make it impossible for us to have full and complete access to information about the conditions under which some buildings and monuments of Portuguese origin were created, as well as about their current state of repair. For this reason, there may be a need to update some of the information included in the volume about Africa. But the same situation is also to be noted, for different reasons, in the case of the volume that is dedicated to Asia. In fact, conducting a complete survey would also require the direct examination of many places where one can find traces of the Portuguese presence that have not yet been identified. Such an undertaking is, however, beyond the scope and stated aims of this present work, because it would require us to carry out entirely new research into this area. As explained above, this inventory is merely intended to provide a synthesis of the research that has already been undertaken. Moreover, in a work of this kind, the gathering together of information is always a provisional matter. The fact that the aim is to draw up a complete inventory inevitably leads to the appearance of new data, a broadening of the research field and even the alteration of the selection criteria. New documents are discovered, archaeological excavations are carried out and reveal new data, while some traces and remains of buildings and monuments might even disappear as a result of armed conflicts, natural disasters or a certain negligence in their preservation. The sole wish of the organisers of this inventory is that it may prove useful for those interested in the world s cultural heritage, contributing to a greater and more improved knowledge of the culture of the various peoples that inhabit the world and stimulate their mutual enrichment. Although I was called upon to act as the organiser of this inventory, I must firstly stress that, for the production of this work, we are fundamentally indebted to the four coordinators 18 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

19 who performed the tasks of establishing which sites and monuments should be described, bringing together the necessary team of collaborators and providing, for each area, an overall view of the whole into which these same sites and buildings could be fitted, and indicating the networks of relationships existing between them in terms of their positions in space and time and within the broader context of civilisation. They were chosen because of their recognised personal competences, which each of them had demonstrated earlier in their respective geographical areas: Professor Renata Malcher de Araújo for South America; Professor Filipe Themudo Barata for the Islamic countries of North Africa and the Persian Gulf; Professor José Manuel Fernandes for Sub-Saharan Africa; and Professor Walter Rossa for the Orient. I wish to express my heartfelt thanks for the way in which they devoted themselves to such a painstaking and sometimes thankless task, as well as the generosity with which they shared their knowledge of their respective fields of expertise. Not having any competence of my own in either the History of Art or Late Mediaeval, Modern and Contemporary History, I merely limited myself to choosing this group of experts, standardising the criteria to be followed in the selection of the information that they would then compile into texts, coordinating the various practical proposals made for the formal presentation of this information, and checking that everything was done in accordance with these pre-established principles. For this work, I sought the help and advice of Professor Mafalda Soares da Cunha, from the University of Évora, who had already gained particular experience in similar areas as a member of the National Committee for the Commemorations of the Portuguese Discoveries (CNCDP) in 1998 and I owe her a very special word of appreciation. Without her, I would not have been able to successfully complete my task. This work was commissioned from me personally by the President of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Emílio Rui Vilar, and forms part of the programme of the Foundation s International Department. It cannot be forgotten that this work is also a complement to the much vaster programme for the recovery and restoration of monuments and buildings of Portuguese origin in the world, which the Gulbenkian Foundation has already been engaged in for several years, and which has significantly contributed to the development of the meeting of cultures. Our work was closely accompanied by Maria Fernanda Matias, as the representative of the Foundation s International Department, with a diligence and cordiality that we should particularly like to acknowledge here. We are firmly convinced that this work represents an important contribution to the knowledge and preservation of the Portuguese heritage outside Europe. We hope that it is worthy of the trust and confidence that the Foundation and its President have placed in our work. José Mattoso introduction 19

20 General Overview: what s what in this book

21 What Orient The aim of this book cannot be better expressed than in the symbolic and polysemic dimension that is implicit in its designation: Orient. It does not, however, equal the ambition that the Portuguese took and spread across the oceans at the beginning of the Modern Era. This ambition it will obviously be reflected in this text, in which my task is not only to present and place in context but also to coordinate it, making it a coherent nexus and keeping it within the expectations that a title, an editor and a promoter/publisher, such as those involved in the collection, can aspire to. This general overview is completed by five other parts, each one focusing on one of the geographic regions, the respective subjects of each being presented in alphabetical order on two levels: first the places and, within this, the entries. As the need to make a balanced volume should be taken into account, the geographic division may not always seem logical, especially in the fourth part. The book deals with an Orient with a built and urbanistic heritage of Portuguese origin or influence, standing along the coastal strip between the meridian of Diu, the parallel of Dili and, well to the north, Nagasaki. Due to overriding editorial criteria, it is an Asia shorn of its westernly quarter, corresponding to the western part of the Arabian Sea and its gulfs, the melting pot of Islam. However, the book touches on the extraordinarily vast, diversified area that, as when the Portuguese began thinking about reaching there in the 15th century and when they unveiled it in the 16th, comes to us as an unknown, immense and, for other reasons, mysterious. If in fact the Portuguese searched for and genuinely desired something in the world it was the Orient, the Asia whose significant architectural and urban remains of Portuguese origin this book aims to deal with. The he ancientness of oriental civilizations and the part which, in an unequal way, they played in the genesis and development of our own, constitute the central reasons for both the attraction and the fear which gave rise to the fascination with which the West has always perceived the Orient. Antiquity and civilisation have consistently and most emphatically found their maximum expression there, which at times doesn t allow us to realise that there are also regions where man s action is hardly felt and that nature is predominant in its most idyllic sense. For the Portuguese, as for all the other great colonial powers, the experience of the Orient was part of the learning process of empire. The Orient is incredibly dense, complex and varied in its many-faceted components. To view it from the limited vision of the Portuguese origins in a minute part of its built heritage is, so to say, epistemological audacity. But for the advance of knowledge it is justified, once these limits and the relativity are clearly faced and we are aware that, on the whole, Portuguese influence went, and still goes, far beyond this. To encompass everything it would be necessary General Overview: what s what in this book 21

22 to invoke excessively diverse and intricate aspects of at least each of the defining moments of the Portuguese presence, which, in the face of the progress in research in the last two or three decades would be an encyclopaedic undertaking. It must also be noted that the Portuguese were present in the Orient before other Europeans and stayed in Macau until December 1999, making it the longest-lasting European colony ever. I Reference must, however, be made to what I believe to be the most important keys to understanding, as a whole, the three hundred and twenty-six voices that follow. With the five regional overviews and the historical and geographical details that are part of them, it may be possible to provide a reading of the varying contexts and thus open up perspectives of interpretation that will obviously be widened by other readings which, in fact, it is my function to suggest. For reasons that I hope will become obvious I will place special emphasis on founding events. Other episodes will be mentioned in the parts that correspond to each region and in cases where a mention is justified, namely when the entries are not clear enough. In the second half of the text I have tried to trace a contextualised perspective of what has been the product of knowledge (and the chief instruments of this) of the subject: the Portuguese presence in the Orient through its architectural and urbanistic heritage. Finally, in order to establish a link between the five sectorial texts, which after all make up one single text, I will present some considerations on the specific criteria and options assumed for this book. Goa, India Arched and vault of the Church of Saint Anne of Talaulin Photo: Walter Rossa 22 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

23 The book, in a certain way, is a journey and if it manages to be a guide, despite the lack of itineraries, it will have indirectly achieved its main aims. It is not a journey in time, as the journey takes place today, linking many and culturally diverse places that have vestiges of the heritage in question. Heritage is not history, but something that is a testimony of it at present or, we may say, an active past. This heritage that, being of Portuguese origin, for long has not been or never was Portuguese, but was one of the novel ways of Portugal being in the world. Like all journeys, this one will demand the concentration, identification, contextualisation and interpretation of the reader and also challenge him to question things. Let s set out then. Goa, India Wood-framed windows Photo: Walter Rossa General Overview: what s what in this book 23

24 What, why and who It is usual to recognise two not always sequential but parallel cycles in the process of expansion and colonisation that led to the first Portuguese empire of the Modern Age: the somewhat adventurous sorties by sea and the setting up of a network in order to build a sea based empire and to claim territories, which was not always done with a view to colonisation. The former is associated with the settlement of the Atlantic islands and the Orient; the latter mainly with Brazil. Still less known is the relevance of the effectiveness of government by the Portuguese crown over considerable swathes of Indian territory, and, consequently, the relativity of its role given the initiatives of individuals and religious orders, in both cases often produced by people of differing nationalities and European origins. The spiritual sphere of action was immeasurably greater than the territorial, and its dominion not established by sovereignty. These questions are crucial if one is to understand how the Portuguese presence developed in the Orient, and to an understanding of its influence on the built heritage. But taking the empire as a whole, it is also crucial to take into account that, apart from the somewhat unsuccessful episodes in North Africa, it was only in the Far East that Portuguese colonialism came face to face with civilisations that had reached a level of progress that was equal to that of Europe. While some of the places that Portuguese navigators, merchants and priests reached were uninhabited and/or ruled by weak or overstretched sovereigns, most of them were settlements integrated in strong states and stable and well organised urban networks. More than occupying and colonising which were never the initial aim hard bargaining, conquest and, almost always, competing, was necessary. The first urban complex built in the Orient, Kochi, was constructed out of necessity rather than being a planned undertaking. The two main reasons that led the Portuguese to launch their overseas expansion are common knowledge: economic and social development and evangelisation. Behind these two reasons, of course, lay the challenge and the naked ambition of power, which was always as strenuously denied as it was natural. The desire for expansion into North Africa, begun in 1415, but implicit and even encouraged by the Vatican since the conclusion of the conquest of Portuguese territory in 1249, possessed all the condiments that had been recommended since the process that the central European Christian matrix designated as a crusade. A crusade that, in Portugal s case, ideologically brought the former Visigothic kingdom under Christian domination through a process known as the Reconquest. However, as this was done and pushed by non-iberian Europeans who were already Catholics and not merely Christians the Reconquest was the last invasion, but the most important one since the Romans they moulded Portugal, and this is crucial to an understanding of the mixed-race nature of Portugueseness and its destiny in the world. The crusade in North Africa, however, turned out badly, as did the colonial rough draft that encompassed it, and its impulse was diverted to the project for the Indian Ocean, thanks to everything that was known about the Orient and as a result of the successes of the first voyages of maritime exploration. As far as the Portuguese were concerned, a journey there only made sense if made by sea, even without knowing that this implied discovering for civilisation the ocean of Atlantis. Finding other Christian families in the middle of a vast trading empire was 24 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

25 Goa, India Street market in Margao Photo: Walter Rossa more than a hope, it was one of the reasons that drove the Portuguese fleets down the West African coast until what was to become the first great discovery of the Portuguese Discoveries: a passage from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean in It is not by chance that this is betterknown as the discovery of the sea route to India, which was only sailed for the first time in Arrival in India revealed to Europeans a myriad of unexpected realities which were balanced with the gradual recognition and knowledge of Asian geography. Little was seen of what was expected, except the riches, the vital hubs and, worst of all, the overwhelming presence of the Muslims who held an almost exclusive monopoly of long-haul trade and transport. The Portuguese quickly realised that to trade and evangelise they would have to establish stable bases that would not only make local contacts possible but also, as a network, guarantee control of maritime traffic, especially that which carried goods on the old routes to Europe via the gulfs of the Arabian Sea. This not only increased the income rate of taxes over the Indic maritime traffic through the cartazes, the safe conducts system created in 1506 to the level of the revenues from the Carreira da India [the Lisbon-India run], but also led to the establishment of an impressive network of fortified points of various types. In the end the Portuguese were propelled not so much by market laws as by the proselytism of their fleets. Two basic trading objectives, backed up by sea power, and the ways to implement them were established: local trade, in which private entrepreneurs participated and the crown taxed; a Portuguese monopoly on traffic to Europe by means of the annual Carreira da India, all specifically concentrated on the coasts of the Indian Ocean encompassed between Ceylon and the Persian Gulf and immediately in the first two decades of the 16th century. Kozhikode (which the Portuguese managed to take over replacing the occupied Kochi), the Gulf of Khambhat (which the Portuguese tried to control from Daman and Diu), Hormuz and Aden (which the Portuguese tried to conquer, only being successful with the former) are the nodal points of trade in that region. In the Orient, Malacca (which the Portuguese conquered) was the hub of several trade routes, the products of which were channelled to Kozhikode and Khambhat, chiefly by Mappilas and Banias (two ethnic groups or clans of merchants from Malabar and Gujarat respectively). General Overview: what s what in this book 25

26 To the east of Ceylon, however, with many variations and some exceptions, of which Malacca is an example, the Portuguese found ways to trade and evangelise with less back-up from the military and, consequently, the crown. Controlling the flow of trade to Europe in the Arabian Sea and on the Cape route was the chief priority for the latter, so strengthening the role of a centre where everything flowed to and from Lisbon was of the utmost importance. With the first fleets and before a detailed reading of the situation and consequent implementation of strategies, that centre was set up at Kochi, in the southern sector of the west coast of Hindustan, the Malabar Coast, in This was done only after fierce protests against the Portuguese presence on the part of the Muslim merchants to the Hindu ruler of Kozhikode, which was then the hub of that region. Besides being governed by a vassal of the Samorin of Kozhikode who saw the chance to free himself from this dependence, Kochi was a secondary port but had better access to the mountains in the hinterland where pepper was cultivated. It was also situated relatively near Ceylon, another centre of pepper production, besides standing on the route that led to the Far East and other centres that are the source of products rare in Europe and which gave it the potential to be the link for direct trade with Lisbon. The relative ease with which the Portuguese staked their claim on the seas and coasts of Hindustan was due to the fact that the potentates of the subcontinent of the Mughal, Bahmani (meanwhile subdivided into several sultanates, including that of Bijapur) and Vijayanagara empires had systems of continental logic. They had no fleets and the authority in the coastal strips and ports was weak and the Muslim merchants exercised a powerful influence on the system that supplied the caravans between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea and Europe. Most of the seaborne trade was in the hands of Muslim merchants, above all from the Ottoman empire, and when their hegemony was called into question by the new Portuguese presence they assembled armadas to fight the intruders, receiving technical and financial support from European potentates such as Venice that profited from the trade. In the early days the main focus of opposition to the Portuguese was, in fact, from the merchants rather than local sources. Kochi was chosen as the first centre of Portuguese operations in the Orient when the fifth armada was sent to India, commanded by Afonso de Albuquerque ( ), making his first voyage, and his cousin Francisco and António de Saldanha. We will not go into details here, but the procedures tried on the African coast were continued in this case and eventually became the norm for many of the situations in which bases were set up through negotiation and not force: permission to establish a trading post on the outskirts of the pre-existing urban nucleus obtained by Pedro Álvares Cabral ( ) in 1501 and confirmed by Vasco da Gama (1460/ ) on his second voyage in was quickly followed by the construction of a fortification, which gave the newcomers a certain foothold of sovereignty. As one can read in the Livro das Cidades e Fortalezas (The Book of Cities and Fortresses ) (1582) regarding Kannur, Kodungallur, Kochi and Kollam (the Portuguese entrepôts on the Malabar Coast): these fortresses known as trading posts in which merchandise and goods are guarded, together with people. The Portuguese made them much stronger and turned them into fortresses in the most convenient places, so that their artillery could dominate the people of the cities at the port entrance. 26 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

27 The Church and a potential Portuguese settlement ofpeople followed, in some cases giving rise to an urban nucleus of a clearly Portuguese profile, Kochi being a good example of this. The places chosen were always open to the sea and closed as much as possible to the land, preferably islands, capes or peninsulas. In short, the whole system was based on four foundations in the first years: cartazes [tax safe conducts], armadas, trading posts and fortresses. The appointment and the government of the first Viceroy of India, Francisco de Almeida ( , gov ), represent the defining of the first set of strategic plans to cement the Portuguese presence in the Orient, which was clearly centred on the Malabar Coast but also looked to the north, towards Karanataka, Konkan, Gujarat and beyond, up to the Gulf of Khambhat. As in the following years, these were troubled times in which multiple interests and intrigues, which the historiography of the expansion has mentioned and interpreted, were enmeshed in the implementation of the guidelines. What is of importance here is the perception of the struggle that was being waged in the Indian Ocean between the east coast of Africa and the west coast of Hindustan, with the actions of the first Viceroy giving the Portuguese the upper hand. In the meantime, the first contacts were made with the Malay Peninsula and steady progress was made northward from Kochi to Chaul and Diu, during which the strategic importance of Goa, the chief city of a small territory of the same name, located on an island called Tiswadi (or Tissuary) just off the coast, was recognised. When Afonso de Albuquerque (gov ) became governor in 1509, the Portuguese engagement in these two important axes increased, following the conquests and settlement that he himself had carried out on the northeast coast of Africa and the two Arabian gulfs in before taking over the reins from Francisco de Almeida in Kochi in The latter s last act, meanwhile, was the total destruction of his main opponents armada in the celebrated naval battle of Diu on 3 February 1509, a victory that gave the Portuguese access to the Indian Ocean. Albuquerque s main aim had been Hormuz, but after an initial attempt at building a trading post and fortress in the last months of 1507 the project was abandoned until In that year the (re)conquest of Hormuz was Albuquerque s last act and, despite failing to take Aden, completed his objective of making the Arabian Sea a fief of the Portuguese for decades. The conquest of Goa in 1510 and of Malacca in 1511 sealed the Portuguese presence on those two axes. Malacca would be the advanced post for the Portuguese administration in the Far East and both expeditions and embassies to the east, mainly to China, left from there. On almost thousand kilometres of the western coast of Hindustan, Goa was the only port that had easy access to the Gates mountain chain that in turn gave access to the interior tableland, Deccan or the Indian meseta. It was the port that received the intense and profitable trade in horses from Persia, chiefly Hormuz. The rise in the importance of Goa was not as swift as that of Malacca, but it was more long-lasting, as the transfer of the hub of Portuguese power in the Orient to the former, contained in the Estado da Índia formula, took place at the beginning of the 1530s. Without an assumed organic definition, concrete or even possible, the Estado da Índia encompassed all the activities, premises and territories under Portuguese administration from the Cape of Good Hope to the Pearl River Delta, which leads me to make some references to regions and General Overview: what s what in this book 27

28 Goa, India Cross of Saint Anne of Talaulim Photo: Walter Rossa places that appear in the book on Africa, namely those relative to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. It is not always clear if the religious component of the Portuguese presence in those places the Padroado, which I will speak about later can be considered as a part of this state. It may be more consensual to consider it as not, but both organisms always worked in close articulation and had the same head, the king. Goa was also their chief material testimony. The centralisation of the (incipient) Estado da Índia in Goa during its longest governorship that of Nuno da Cunha ( , gov ) was also the time of a general strategic rethink of expansion, if we wish to use that expression, within the logic of the essence of empire. It was in this decade that the first moves to colonise Brazil were made, through the creation and the granting of captaincies. Investment in the northwest coastal strip of Hindustan was made so as to obtain territory and, thus, a potential colony: the Northern Province with its seat at Vasai, a town taken at the end of The integration of Daman in 1559 increased the expansion. Goa also acquired a territorial dimension in 1543, when the mainland areas of Salcette and Bardez definitively joined the island of Tiswadi and formed the area that is still known today as the Old Conquests. 28 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

29 All this was possible because the Deccan was in upheaval with internecine struggles between Hindu kingdoms, the advance from the north of a Muslim power, the Mughal empire and all its ramifications. The territories of Goa had fallen into the hands of the Sultanate of Bahmani in 1469 and, after that had split into several smaller sultanates, became a part of the Sultanate of Bijapur, from which the Portuguese took it later. The movement northward, namely to the rich Gulf of Khambhat, constantly surged ahead against Islamic dominions, in an intricate succession of alliances and betrayals in keeping with local disagreements and wars. It had been like this since the beginning in India between Kozhikode and Kochi, with Kannur in the middle. This made a substantial difference regarding the way that territories are established and occupied according to the dominant faith, obviously underlining the role of the church. We have until now mentioned the (commercial-military) strategy of the crown, which necessarily led to an empire that, being initially seaborne, ended up by being markedly urban. It was in cities not necessarily Portuguese that change took place and was maintained, even after the loss of the control of the seas. The translation into Portuguese of Charles Boxer s ( ) seminal work The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (O Império Marítimo Português), published in 1969, is significantly equivocal. It is true that the First Portuguese Empire was created at sea and was essentially coastal, but it was not merely seaborne. And this was fundamentally due to the action of the church, which was more widespread and enduring than that of the state. Discussion on the ideological context of the reasons for the religious actions that, coming to a climax during the reign of King Manuel I (r ), also had a hand in Portuguese expansion does not fall within the scope of this work. I have already mentioned the importance that the news that there were Christian communities assumed at the beginning of the process, but it would be very little in the face of the messianic ideas exalted in that kingdom and immediately turned into further myths, even utopias, that never ceased to spread and attract followers. Extremely complex, but more concrete and crucial as far as we are concerned is the theme of the Padroado. The Portuguese Padroado consisted of a series of exclusive privileges, rights and duties that had been little by little granted by popes to Portuguese monarchs through a series of bulls and papal letters, the first of which was Inter Caetera (1456) and the last Praecelsae Devotiones (1514). Being extremely absorbed with simmering questions in Europe, the popes delegated to Portugal the patronage of the Roman Catholic missions in the vast regions that Portugal had brought to the world. Irrespective of their nationality, priests that worked in these territories were sustained by the crown and owed obedience to the king of Portugal. Paradigmatic of this is the statement by Francisco Xavier ( ) in a letter written in Malacca on 20 June 1549 when he was preparing his journey to Japan with two other Spanish Jesuits: we are three Portuguese. He probably did not mean it in this sense, but in many regions Portuguese became synonymous with Catholic. The Portuguese crown had thus for all practical purposes acquired the power to manage all the affairs of the church in its empire, a fact that not only strengthened the inspiration of the myths I mentioned in the two previous paragraphs but also led to the implementation of policies that had a clear regal inclination, to the point that it created General Overview: what s what in this book 29

30 threats of separation and an effective cut in relations between Portugal and the Holy See at the beginning of the 18th century. While the religious head, the Portuguese monarch had at one time potentially more direct subjects than the pope himself. The only limit was the identical privileges granted to the Spanish monarch at the same time ( ) and which ended up encompassing other regions of the world. Keeping abreast of the process of expansion, the Portuguese Padroado consolidated and enlarged the concept of the First Portuguese Empire, which, together with the Spanish, was the first on a worldwide scale. The two monarchs concentrated all the power then recognised and implemented in their hands. In the case of Portugal, the administration of the church or of the spiritual as it was then known had a special expression in the Orient as, contrary to Brazil, it faced other religions with which it inevitably entered into conflict while attempting to attract converts. Practically everything we said about the fascination, mystery and antiquity of the Orient was based precisely on the fact that the mixture and the deep-rooted factions of the most consistent religious beliefs and practices of the world were to be found there. Among them, the Christians descended from the mythical apostolate of Saint Thomas and the later Nestorian evangelisation did not always welcome their recentlyarrived Roman Catholic brothers. There, all the Christian families have remained separate right up to the present day. Curiously, the Catholic Church promoted its own split when the Vatican decided to question the existence of the Padroado and created another structure for the task of evangelisation in 1622, the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, or more appropriately, Propaganda Fide, which exists today under a new name given to it by Pope Paul II in 1988, the Congregation for the Evangelisation of Peoples. It had, however, a direct but irregular antecedent, the Cardinalate Commission of Propaganda Fide, which was created in 1572 and whose action was dependent on the dynamic of its respective cardinals. The dates speak for themselves. In the first of these periods, the size and form of the planet and the continents and thus the potential for evangelisation were globally clarified. In the second period, Portugal was a demoralised nation, with a weakened economy and state and enmeshed in the upheavals of the crowns of Austria. The Propaganda Fide set out on its mission, restricting the Padroado and occupying the vast interstitial spaces that were still vacant, which only made sense in the Orient as Brazil there was nowhere to go. A small country with a small population and few resources, Portugal was never able to carry out systematic missionary work in the large areas of its empire, especially in the Orient. But even so, the two institutions did not work in harmony, but were in constant conflict. Which was not what was expected and the situation dragged on until the 20th century. As mentioned above, the conflict reached its peak at the beginning of the 18th century, at least as far as its becoming common knowledge was concerned. Following the restoration of independence in 1640, the Holy See (1669), after Spain (1668), was the last state to recognise Portuguese sovereignty. And even then it resisted diplomatic pressure to restore the Portuguese Padroado of the Orient to the situation it enjoyed at the time the two Iberian crowns were unified in The inroads that the Propaganda Fide made into the Padroado s space were considerable and almost irreversible. 30 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

31 Colaba, Mumbai, India Tombstone in the Saint Francis Xavier Church Photo: Acervo BBB, UC/DARQ The Propaganda Fide worked in several ways and it put pressure on other colonial powers in order to increase its sway. Its struggle with the Padroado in the former Provincia do Norte, more precisely with its centre in Mumbai, is a good example of this. After the Portuguese had ceded the Island of Mumbai to the British crown in 1666, a bishopric outside the scope of the Padroado was created and the Apostolic Vicariate was settled in Mumbai in 1718 with British backing. Portuguese sovereignty came to an end in the region at the time of the campaign against the Marathas, the rising Hindu power that overthrew the Muslim Mughals in Hindustan, in , but spiritual jurisdiction continued the under aegis of the archbishopric of Goa. The posterior British expansion in Maratha territory, i.e. former Portuguese territory, encompassed part of the archdiocese of Goa, but fell under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Mumbai, backed up by Propaganda Fide. This thus created a situation of overlapping ecclesiastical jurisdictions. General Overview: what s what in this book 31

32 The concordat of 1886 attempted, among other things, to put an end to the conflicts that resulted from this situation, accepting the overlap but imposing rules. The diocese of Mumbai was elevated to archdiocese and the diocese of Daman was created as a suffragan of that of Mumbai. This strengthening of the statutes resolved nothing, but exacerbated the problem, as it created the paradoxical coexistence of two Catholic Churches, one of the Portuguese Padroado and one of the Propaganda Fide, in the same territory. So while the concordat was in force, between 1886 and 1928, two rival Catholic bishops, of Mumbai and Daman, coexisted in the same city, the latter as head of the diocese of the Portuguese city but, due to competition and reasons of apostolic operation, almost permanently resident in the large metropolis of the British Empire, more precisely in Colaba, where today the Church of Saint Francis Xavier is to be found. This complex, smouldering question is dealt with in Ernest R. Hull s book Mumbai Mission History, with a special study of the Padroado question, published in Mumbai in A new concordat in 1928 attempted to bring some sense to the question: the area of the diocese of Daman was divided, one part being reintegrated into that of Goa and the other into that of Mumbai and, thus, withdrawn from the Padroado: the bishops of Mumbai had to be alternately Portuguese and British. This concordat and an amendment the following year practically eliminated all of the Padroado s jurisdiction in territories that were not under Portuguese administration. It must be remembered that the period between the two concordats of 1886 and 1928 was one of the most tumultuous in the history of Portugal, along with the British ultimatum in 1890, the regicide in 1908, in short, a series of crises that would lead to the proclamation of the Republic in 1910, a republic that, among other things, was fiercely anti-clerical. The First Republic fell to a military coup d etat on 28 May 1926 that installed a dictatorship which reestablished a strong relation between state and church. All this has to be taken into account when dealing with the slow demise of the Padroado. Among several works by António da Silva Rego ( ) on the subject, O Padroado Português do Oriente, published in 1940, gives a good account of all these questions, as do several works by Eduardo Brasão on the relations between Portugal and the Holy See. A similar situation to that in Mumbai arose in Calcutta and Chennai/Mylapore two other important cities of the Raj although it did not reach the same dramatic level because the Portuguese presence there never took the shape of territorial sovereignty. Two other brief references demonstrate the extent to which the Padroado laid down roots much beyond what one is led to believe by what has been said above: the diocese of Macau was suffragan to that of Goa until 1975, when it passed to the direct dependence of the Vatican, while the parishes of Saint Joseph in Singapore and Saint Peter in Malacca were only separated from the same diocese in It must be mentioned that at its peak the structure of the Portuguese Padroado of the Orient was based on the archdiocese of Goa, the diocese of which was created in 1534 and elevated to a Metropolitan Archdiocese in 1558, which had Kochi, Malacca, Macau, Funay (Japan) and Mylapore as suffragan dioceses. Daman appeared fleetingly later. With everything I have mentioned about the Portuguese Padroado of the Orient, I like to make one thing clear: spiritual jurisdiction in the Orient was territorial and lasted much longer than the administrative jurisdiction. The case I cited as the chief example Mumbai, 32 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

33 which lay in the part of the Província do Norte that corresponded to the former Portuguese district of Vasai is maybe the most paradigmatic, but as we have seen it is by no means the only one. There were many regions where the Portuguese crown exercised no other form of jurisdiction except spiritual. And this happened because the Padroado was, in practice, the prerogative of the crown. This leads us to a subject that, although well known, I must mention: the role played by the religious orders as direct administrators, delegated by the Estado da India, of large areas of territory. This was the case (which we shall deal with in more detail in the text itself) of the territories of the Velhas Conquistas (old conquests) of Goa with the exception of the Island of Tiswadi, where the two capitals, Goa (Old Goa) and Panaji were established and parts of the Província do Norte. This role had obvious reflexes in the religious architecture and is also relevant when observing various types of urban and land management that are related to the religious order that established them. It was always under the tutelage of the religious congregations that the Portuguese presence made itself felt in rural areas, irrespective of whether they were under Portuguese sovereignty. The state arrived late even in Goa, i.e. when the religious orders were extinguished in This land management cannot conceal one other specific aspect of the Portuguese presence in the Orient in relation to other places in the empire: urban apartheid, not of ethnic groups, but of religious confessions, which in some situations occurred also between European Catholics and local Catholics. This situation cannot, of course, be confused with the then common social settlement of the urban space. However, this was a reality that could not be hidden and which, it must be said, was not new in Asia or in Europe. Only the expulsion or the forced conversion of Jews and Muslims in 1496 put an end to this situation in Portugal. The problem did not exist in other parts of the empire such as Brazil and Africa, as it was considered that other faiths did not even exist. An unequivocal example of this fact is the caption on the Planta da Fortaleza e cidade de Diu (Map of the Fortress and City of Diu) produced by João António Sarmento in 1783 [Porto Public and Municipal Library, C. M. & A., File 24 (35)], in relation to a yellow line that passes through the urban nucleus and divides the Christians from the gentiles. I should add that Diu was an exception, as freedom of religious worship and its respective regulations had been established in the process of cession. Another significant example was to be found in Vasai, where the non-catholics were forbidden to be inside the city walls after the gates were closed at the end of the day, which in practice led them not to own property within the urban nucleus. The same situation existed in Chaul, Kochi and Daman, cities that had a specific and well-defined Portuguese urban nucleus, and the separation could be seen in the street names. This phenomenon, of course could only be seen in places that had a large Portuguese population and was able to establish a community with its own urbanistic expression. Let s look at another example in a different region: according to the Livro das Cidades e Fortalezas (Book of Cities and Fortresses) of 1581, the Portuguese in Nagapatan live in a settlement separated from Gentiles and Moors. A relevant question and much easier to answer is that of the nationalities of the Padroado s agents. The overwhelming majority were regular priests, mainly Franciscans and General Overview: what s what in this book 33

34 Jesuits, although Augustinians, Dominicans, Carmelites and Saint John of God (the Order of Malta) also appeared in specific urban nuclei and geographic areas outside Goa, where most of the then active religious orders were established. For reasons that are well known, the Franciscans and the Jesuits were true missionary militias with an extraordinary capacity to act and adapt to the most diverse situations. The prime reason for this was the fact that they were not subject to a cloistered regime and their calling was to take their faith into the communities. But as religious congregations they owed obedience to hierarchies that were not under the wing of the Padroado, although they always needed its authorisation for the work they undertook and to bring new members into their vast geographic areas. But this did not prevent both groups bringing people of various nationalities into the areas of the Padroado s jurisdiction, which had important repercussions in several fields, especially in architecture, so we must be very careful in defining what is and what isn t heritage of Portuguese origin. We must remember Saint Francis Xavier s words cited a few paragraphs above. While the church was present alongside the Portuguese military, bureaucrats, merchants and adventurers from the time of the first armadas, it soon became the diplomatic bridgehead of the Portuguese presence, infiltrating into areas and regions where the Portuguese administration never arrived or, in some cases, arrived very late. This is the case, Mylapore, India Church of Our Lady of Light (stairway to bell tower) Photo: Walter Rossa 34 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

35 for instance, of the Catholic Church in Kerala, a vast area that today is the Indian state of the Malabar Coast, which was, and still is, overwhelmingly Hindu and where the missionaries worked under the aegis of the Padroado based in Kochi, but where Portuguese administration never made itself felt beyond the city walls. The same thing happened in the whole of the Bay of Bengal, which was almost exclusively the fiefdom of the Augustinians. Probably the most extreme examples were thoseof the ecclesiastics of the Padroado who reached the Mughal and Chinese courts, becoming intimate with emperors and leaving indelible cultural marks, some of which will be dealt with in this book. While in some regions the Portuguese presence was prolonged through its church, a presence which disappeared so slowly it is impossible to say when it came to an end, in others it existed only through this channel, which makes delimiting it even more difficult. It is significant that where dominant beliefs created a hostile environment the Padroado s priests were more warmly received by the rulers, but did not manage to make an impact on the communities. On the other hand, in the Hindu world, for example, the Church had an influence, sometimes lasting, on the masses. Distinguishing between what was and was not original becomes even more complex in two extreme situations: those in which Portuguese merchants and adventurers characters that sometimes appear in coeval texts under the suggestive designation of lançados and who as we shall see, played a special role in the Bay of Bengal and the Far East opening the way and establishing this presence; and cases like those of the territories or places such as Goa, Daman, Diu, Macau and Timor the remains of the Portuguese State of India between 1740 and 1961 which, after more than four centuries of effective Portuguese administration and the gradual loss of interest in exploiting them economically, have flourished in the mould of a mestizo culture that has its own characteristics and autonomy that (almost?) constitutes a nationality. If we can forget the fact that it was the beginning of the end of the Portuguese colonial empire, through the encouragement it gave guerrillas in the Portuguese possessions in Africa to take up arms, the invasion (official Portuguese version) or integration (official Indian version) of the Portuguese possessions in India by that country at the end of 1961 caused greater upheavals in the local society than in Portugal. Besides the administrative and military personnel, there was no real exodus of Portuguese citizens. There were no colonists in the true meaning of the word and, except for the elites, Portugal itself meant little or nothing to most of the inhabitants of the then Estado da Índia. Things were quite different when Angola and Mozambique became independent in So the Estado da Índia, or what was left of it after 1740, the year that saw the last great alteration in its geographic configuration, when the Província do Norte was lost, except for the cities of Daman and Diu and the insignificant contiguous territories of Dadra, Nagar-Haveli and Gogola, passed into history. In the meantime, the ambitious but inglorious and ignored Pombaline plan of restoration in 1774, aired in the context of British threats, never left the drawing board. It was a cycle of about two centuries ( ), in contrast to the two previous cycles, one of a century (c ) and another of a century and a half (1498-c. 1650). In compensation, Goa saw its territory increase threefold at the beginning of the last cycle through the Novas Conquistas (new conquests), territories that in civilizational terms (culture, General Overview: what s what in this book 35

36 religion, architecture, land ordinance, etc.) never really became Portuguese. The Goa-Malacca- Hormuz triangle, planned and established by Afonso de Albuquerque at the beginning of the 16 th century and which symbolised, consolidated and articulated the Portuguese monopoly of the eastern seas in the initial golden period, had been broken up more than a century before with the fall of Hormuz in 1622 and of Malacca in 1641, as well as the loss of almost all the Portuguese possessions to the south and east of Goa, the last of these being Jaffna in Ceylon in 1658, which defines the chronology that divides the two first cycles at around The first of these periods can be seen as one of expansion and consolidation, expansion being concluded in 1540 with the arrival in Japan, the second as stabilisation and the third as restructuring. Portugal s stunning entry into the Orient soon attracted other European nations, namely Holland, Britain and France. The last-named had little influence in the decline of Portuguese hegemony, as it only participated in one episode, in Mylapore in European travellers flocked to the ships of Carreira da Índia and obtained and published information that was as precious for those countries at the time as it is today for whoever wishes to know the realities of the time. As has already been mentioned, the union of the two Iberian crowns under Austria was a determining factor in the decline of the Estado da Índia. An ever-increasing number of Portuguese individuals, generically referred to above as the lançados, also took advantage of the situation to pursue their own nests, at times entering into conflict with the agents of the Estado da India and going beyond the ambit of both the State and the Padroado. Coming from many different places, an overwhelming majority embarked for the Orient in the service of the crown, but on completing their contracted three years went their own way. There were several thousand of these people by the end of the 16 th century, some completely immersed in local culture, some even converting to Islam, but they brought with them Portuguese cultural genes that infiltrated into local customs. The vastness of the Far East was their stamping ground. They were the seeds of an informal empire, the shadow empire in the words of Charles Boxer and George Winius or the sub-empire according to Sanjay Subrahamanyam. The centres of interest of the Portuguese empire were meanwhile shifting. In the face of the Dutch threat to Brazil, Goa and the Província do Norte of the Estado da India, priorities were set out, which consisted in maintaining these possessions in detriment to others, as they were the only ones with a true colonial expression, i.e. had territorial support. Abandoned either when they were threatened or through prolonged lassitude or negligence in maintaining their defensive systems, only Macau and Timor remained of the Portuguese batteries, forts, fortresses, strongholds, etc scattered over the Orient. The major, but prolonged and bloody attempt to control the whole of Ceylon, undertaken in the 1590s and which would have allowed the setting up of an isolated territorial base that many people would like to have seen as the head of the Estado da India, was abandoned. Paradoxically, or not, this geo-administrative reality was typically colonial. Without the spice trade of the Moluccas, Ceylon and Malabar, now in Dutch hands, long-haul trade ceased to be one of the reasons for the Estado da India s existence. The reason for the collapse of the Estado da India has been unendingly discussed and arguments such as the greater strength and more modern armament of the Dutch and the 36 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

37 Mumbai, India Madh Fort Photo: Collection BBB, UC/DARQ British, plus the flexibility of their organisation in venture capital companies, etc., have been aired. In my opinion, the explanation lies in the question of scale and good sense plus options and priorities. If history has shown that it has always been impossible for one nation to acquire worldwide dominion, why should we believe that Portugal or the Iberian Peninsula were exceptions. When necessary look at Brazil, for example Portugal continued to demonstrate the capability of its armadas and the continual renovation of its military engineering. Once the Provincia do Norte had been lost in the 18 th century, it was decided to secure and considerably expand the territory of Goa, which was carried out with success. And a superhuman effort to give Brazil the territorial immensity it has today was made at that time. It seems appropriate at this stage to make a brief reference to the relevance of military engineering in the whole of this process so as to help explain some historical facts. And brief because it is a complex subject and one in which research has made giant strides in the last few years. Items regarding fortifications occupy a lot of space in this book, not only because of the places where they were constructed but also because of their varying sizes and due to the fact that their material presence more easily conjures up a picture of their abandonment, their aging and their increasingly ruinous appearance rather than their present use and loss of character. In many cases, of course, they have been reused, modernised and even renovated as fortified posts of the new ruling power. Their presence is also relevant because unlike religious constructions fortifications were always the work of the state and thus incontestably Portuguese, irrespective of whomever built them. I can mention the defensive system of Passo de Rachol as an example, which was General Overview: what s what in this book 37

38 erected by a religious congregation the Society of Jesus in order to fulfil the administrative and defensive functions of the territory of Salcette (Goa) with which it had been entrusted by the crown. But when all is said and done everyone participated and their expertise gradually increased. In the chronicles of the first decades we see the crews of the armadas erecting precarious fortifications in wood and later, when it became possible, in mortar and stone. The last redoubts were forts or fortified houses, around which houses and amenities were built, which in turn were protected by stockades and palisades. These were made of any odds and ends or vegetal matter the men could lay their hands on. Only later were encircling walls constructed with the technique and the art of modern, specialised fortifications. The stockades have completely disappeared today and so we have no idea of their importance, their number or their meaning in the Portuguese expansion in the Orient. Following an experimental (or archaic) phase of poor results whenever armaments were updated, the crown ordered a change in 1541 and adopted the bulwark or bastion system that was being tried out in the south of Europe. To this end it contracted Benedetto da Ravenna, an Italian military engineer in the service of Carlos V, for some months to plan and start the works of fortification at Mazagan today El Jadida (the New) in Morocco. But his main task was to direct and retrain some of Portugal s most outstanding architects, who were sent there for this purpose. The following years saw a renovation of the defensive systems in places and territories that, with rare exceptions, managed to remain under Portuguese domination in the face of Dutch attacks on their eastern strongholds. And this is a fact that will be dealt with in more detail in another context. In fact, with the exception of Ceylon, where, despite everything, the structures were small, weak and only built to face attacks from land, and the posts of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea network (Hormuz, Mombasa, etc.), the places where the crown erected urban defences following the bulwark system were those that remained under Portuguese sovereignty until the fall of the Província do Norte. Even so, Daman and Diu survived there until 1961, the latter being the first place after Mazagan where the new system of fortification was erected in In other words, besides the Província do Norte I am alluding to Goa and Macau. This raises a question for which there is still no answer: given its importance within the framework of the Estado da India, why was Malacca never fortified? Why was it that only Macau deserved such a benefit in the Far East? Was it because the hill where the Portuguese fortification was built had sufficient natural characteristics, or because the peculiar situation of the strait made an unviable territorial control necessary rather than a bulwark fortification. With this exception, if we look at the places where the crown started erecting these kinds of perimeter works and fortifications facing the sea from 1550 to 1570, it seems to denote that a choice was made regarding the loss or abandonment of certain footholds. While Vasai was the first to be fortified in 1554, for example, followed by other places in the south of India and Ceylon, Kochi was endowed with a small, weak structure much later, however without conviction and prefiguring its fall. Anyone could see at the time and the viceroys told the court that unlike the strongholds and bars of the Província do Norte, Goa and Macau, Kochi was as vulnerable from attack by land as it was by sea. Was it a conscious or thoughtless choice? Less complex and so easier to interpret were the choices made in North Africa, where 38 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

39 Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan were protected by bulwarks and remained under Portuguese rule until non-violent processes brought it to an end. The scope of military engineering, however, was not restricted to fortifications. Ultimately, as we have seen, military engineering was the technical back-up for strategic territorial options that encompassed the definition and establishment of the urban fabric, the definition of urbanism and overall urban management. In the absence of alternatives, it also provided technical assessment for multiple civil and religious interventions. While religious congregations counted on architects and engineers among their faithful for their own needs, the crown, even in its secular undertakings for the Padroado, mainly counted on its military engineers, even though some of them were originally religious, and who had to be both architects and urban planners. Because of this, the progress made by modern military engineering was due to the theatre of operations of Portuguese expansion being used as an experimental laboratory from the early stages both in North Africa and the Orient. While at first the statute and professional category was somewhat ill-defined high civil servants, pilots, etc. worked as engineers everything evolved to the point where everyone had his identifiable task within the group. The contribution of foreign technicians, especially during the Iberian Union and its aftermath (or the Restoration), together with the training of locals, some of whom, like Manuel Godinho de Erédia ( ), were born in and never left the Orient, produced specific works that have led experts to admit the existence of a true Portuguese school. This was revealed in both the efficiency of the defensive system in Diu in the middle of the 16 th century and in the stabilisation of Goa s frontiers in the middle of the 18 th century, which led to the consolidation of the Novas Conquistas. Other European powers that appeared in the Orient took advantage of this. The progress of Dutch military architecture, recognised as the vanguard in the first half of the 17 th century, succeeding the Italian and then being succeeded by the French, must have owed something to the Portuguese experience in both the Orient and in Brazil. It is significant that both the Dutch and the British followed similar paths to the Portuguese and it is clear that they learned from the good and the bad. They began with a strategic and aggressive commercial-military posture in the form of monopolist companies specially constituted for the purpose, the socalled India Companies. These reduced the areas taken to what was strictly necessary for trading (factories) and the respective security (fortifications) and gradually spread until they reached the situation of colonial domination, the Raj in the British case, which was much more extensive, intensive and consistent (classical?) than the Portuguese. Under the Raj, the VOC (the Dutch India Company) and other powers of greater or lesser expression, however, the Portuguese presence was maintained, impregnating the cultural palimpsest of extensive areas of the Orient in extraordinarily varied forms, through acts performed by agents who were rarely aware of what they were doing. Besides the language, the present influence of which is not as strong as is sometimes trumpeted, it is essentially in spaces and in the buildings that form them intrinsically architecture and urbanism, even drastically adulterated that we find the greatest testimonies of Portuguese influence in the Orient today. As I wrote in another book some years ago, Please excuse my General Overview: what s what in this book 39

40 bias, but nothing outlasts the urban and territorial structures of a culture, not even language. And why not architecture in its more restricted sense? Because buildings disappear, but they are replaced or defaced, but their urban remnants in the urban morphology are more enduring, especially when considered in complexes, systems and networks. Portuguese urbanism in the Orient, however, is also a problematic question, as cities founded from scratch are few and far between, and there are even fewer that were planned and built following a definite project (Dili, Vasco, Silvassa, while Daman is the only one from the Ancien Régime). Urban complexes sprang up around authorised factories that were soon fortified (Kochi, Vasai, Chaul), a merchants camp annexed to a different nucleus (Macau, Mylapore), and a place with even less expression and diffused historical influence (Panaji). A greater part were occupied cities that, despite being modified and enlarged, could not have lost their initial gene (Malacca), even when the occupation lasted for several centuries (Goa). Many of these cities did not even attain a Portuguese urban dimension (Diu, Thane). But there is something immaterial in the spatiality of all of them in many cases defined by architecture that has nothing to do with it that betrays a Portuguese era (Mumbai). But also here, within the theme of Portuguese city, the who, when and why are essential elements. As all the agents I have mentioned here State, Church and private individuals, with their importance in that order were the usual and inevitable promoters for the founding of cities, the construction of defensive systems, monuments and buildings, the extraordinarily varied and flexible forms and protocols through which they appeared and acted in the Orient are scarce in other theatres of the former Portuguese Empire. As were the results, which we must always have in mind when looking at or reading this book. What, who knows and who said what As I wrote above, knowledge of the history of the Portuguese presence in the Orient has been considerably developed in the last two or three decades. This has been mainly due to a fortunate series of factors, of which the commemorative cycle celebrating the half millennium of the Discoveries was merely the catalyst. It happened not only through the widening of research, but essentially in the way it has been approached, from political, economic and social history to aspects of anthropology or arts that had rarely been dealt with before. Among the reasons for this are the improvement in conditions for the progress of research, freedom of ideological and methodological attitudes, etc., the normalisation of relations between Portugal and the countries that either emanated from former Portuguese possessions or were naturally part of them, plus the increase in the interest that has arisen for Portuguese phenomena in the Orient outside Portugal. At the same time the progress of historiography on the presence of other colonial powers in that region of the planet has increased, as has the widening of the studies on the various regions of Asia that have always been the favourite target of research: the west coast of India. All this has led to means for the study of this wide subject appearing in various universities, some of them in the form of study groups or centres that, above all, promote multiple scientific meetings and publications in Portuguese and other languages. This 40 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

41 in turn had led to not only an ever-increasing thematic specialisation but also a greater internationalisation, even though the subject has always deserved the attention of foreign researchers. There are many and, at times, true pioneers, those that dedicate themselves to the history of the Portuguese presence in a certain geographic area. Many of them are local-born and thus have access to information that is of difficult access to others. Whenever justified, I will try to mention them in each of the five regions dealt with here. Geographical specialisation is a current trend. Those that venture into global studies are rare today and individual research that intertwines the two geographical nuclei of the First Empire, Asia and Brazil, is almost non-existent. This was the perquisite of the first generation of historians, but this now is only possible in collective works, but even so these are less rare than the production of texts that synthesise them. It is extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible, today to include, select and process in a balanced way all the necessary information that is available, but this does not prevent efforts being made so that specialists on both sides of the world especially those on the ground, as it is much easier for the Portuguese to gain more knowledge of the other side of the coin, as this interacts with the events, structures and situations that they are studying. Jaime Cortesão ( ) stands out among those that managed to produce an overall reading with the ten chapters he wrote for volumes III and IV of the História de Portugal edited by Damião Peres ( ), published by between 1931 and 1934 and later compiled in separate editions. This was done in a period, that of the Estado Novo, when everything that was published was strictly controlled, especially sensitive material like that concerning the colonial empire, and this was especially so after the Second World War. And in this context I must mention the efforts made by the participants at the Primeiro Congresso da História da Expansão Portuguesa no Mundo (First Congress of the History of Portuguese Worldwide Expansion) held in 1937 and which gave rise to the publication of three volumes (the second of which is of special interests to us here) entitled História da Expansão Portuguesa no Mundo and coordinated by António Baião ( ), Hernâni Cidade ( ) and Manuel Múrias ( ). In a certain way it functioned as a propaedeutic for the Centenary Commemorations that were to take place three years later, in the ambit of which the Congress of the Portuguese World was held. Among more recent works (necessarily collective), I must mention Portugal no Mundo (Portugal in the World), published in six volumes (plus a special one dedicated to fortifications, edited by Rafael Moreira) in 1989 and edited by Luís de Albuquerque, and História da Expansão Portuguesa (History of Portuguese Expansion), published in five volumes in and edited by Francisco Bethancourt and Kirti Chaudhuri, which is today an essential reference even though most of its material has become a little outdated in the last ten years, which shows the volume of research on the subject that exists. Among the authors of the texts of these collective works one can of course find specialists like Kirti Chaudhuri on the Portuguese and/or European presence in the Orient. But we must in no way forget other structuring researchers such as Charles Boxer and Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, to name but two, or with a more and recent international reach Anthony Disney and Malyn Newitt, I must notice that regarding the Orient, Boxer has been especially dedicated to the study of Macau. General Overview: what s what in this book 41

42 What would present-day historiography be, for example, without Luís Filipe Thomaz, who has published a considerable number of essential texts, some of them in De Ceuta a Timor (From Ceuta to Timor), a collectanea published in An inveterate researcher, with enduring, brilliant groundwork carried out in several places in the Orient, a pioneer in the knowledge and use of local languages in research and with a remarkable work in encouraging the formation and following up of a flourishing group of investigators the Centro de História do Além Mar (Centre of Overseas History) of the Universidade Nova of Lisbon, a task shared with Artur Teodoro de Matos and today continued by João Paulo de Oliveira e Costa. Among the considerable number of high quality theses and the bibliography already published there, emphasis must be placed on the ongoing production of the Enciclopédia Virtual da Expansão Portuguesa (Virtual Encyclopaedia of Portuguese Expansion) and the publication, already with nine numbers, of Anais de História de Além-Mar (Annals of Overseas History). Another important centre is the Centro de Investigação Científica e Tropical (Scientific and Tropical Research Institute), both for the work it does and for the patrimony it possesses as the direct heir of the former Junta de Investigações do Ultramar (Overseas Research Board). A patrimony of research and publication bul also of archives, prominent amongst which is what must be the major collection of documents on the history of Portuguese expansion, the Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (Overseas Historical Archive). I shall mention others later. Among various publishing projects of these two research centres, members of both have brought out a general history of the Portuguese presence in the Orient in three volumes and edited by Luís Filipe Thomaz, of which only the first volume Portugal e Oriente: el proyecto indiano del rey Juan (Portugal and Orient: the Indian project of King João) by João Paulo Oliveira e Costa and Vítor Rodrigues was published in Madrid in From another origin but also of enormous importance due to its geographical breadth and scope is the História dos Portugueses no Extremo Oriente (History of the Portuguese in the Far East), published in four volumes (plus indexes) between 1998 and Outside Portugal, outstanding due to its length and pioneering value is the work of Jean Aubin ( ) and Geneviève Bouchon, who among other things were the main dynamic of the magazine Mare Luso-Indicum, four numbers of which came out between 1971 and More recently, Sanjay Subrahmanyan, of whose works on the Portuguese presence in Asia I shall only mention the classic The Portuguese Empire in Asia, , a political and economic history, published in 1993, also stands out due to the geographic and chronological breadth and the methodological innovation of his work. What is extraordinarily important for us is his work on what Charles Boxer and George Wilnius, another relevant reference, designated as the shadow empire, i.e., the extensive informal or even clandestine space of Portuguese influence where private individuals operated. It has been on the basis of the work of these historians and their closest collaborators that the International Seminar on Indo-Portuguese History, which has already had thirteen editions and publication of the respective proceedings, has been successfully held since This considerable set of historians, as can be seen, works with a vast collection of information and there is much more to be inventoried. A part of this information is in ordinary types of sources, namely archives, but it is not always to be found in places where one should 42 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

43 expect to. In regard to this, the huge effort made throughout decades by some people to publish archival sources, at times systematically, must be mentioned. The role of the Estado Novo also lent its support in this task, namely through the Ministério do Ultramar (Ministry for the Overseas Provinces), formerly Colonies, through organisms such as the Agência Geral do Ultramar (General Overseas Agency), created for propaganda and dissemination services, and the above-mentioned Junta de Investigações do Ultramar (Overseas Research Board), the last-named having research departments dedicated to history and old maps, which is what interests us most here. These efforts focused on the Portuguese presence and influence in the Orient, which I shall deal with later. Amongst the works I must mention are the eight volumes of A. da Silva Rego, Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa (Portuguese Overseas Documentation) and the twelve of Documentação para a historia das missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: India (Documentation for the history of the Portuguese Padroado missions of the Orient: India). The last-named has been republished by the Orient Foundation with an additional volume of indexes compiled by Isabel Pina. Edited by Artur Basílio de Sá ( ), the work would have a parallel with another series of six volumes dedicated to the Malay archipelago. There are also the Documentos remetidos da India ou Livro das Monçoes (Documents from India or the Book of Monsoons) from the Torre do Tombo archives, the first four volumes of which were published under the editorship of Bulhão Pato ( ), then up to volume ten by A. da Silva Rego, and then completed with another two by A. Teodoro de Matos. A large part of the collection is in the Goa Historical Archive and was partially microfilmed on the initiative of A. da Silva Rego, of which there is an index compiled by Maria Augusta da Veiga e Sousa, which I mention in the final list relative to sources. It is essential to mention the huge work, Documenta Indica, of the Society of Jesus, edited by Joseph Wicki (the last volumes by João Gomes) and published in Rome in eighteen volumes. With various institutional teams and backing, A. Teodoro de Matos has been directing the publication of a varied series of sources of specific interest, examples of which are summaries of the documents of the Junta da Fazenda (Public Finances Board) of the Estado da India in three volumes, Tombo de Damão (1592), Tombo de Chaul ( ) and Tombo de Diu (1592), but the list does not end there. In the face of this brief mention of the publication in Portugal of a large series of documents on the Portuguese in the Orient, it is important to refer to another initiative of António da Silva Rego, the Studia, a journal of the Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos (Centre of Overseas Historical Studies), 59 numbers of which were published by the Agência Geral do Ultramar (General Overseas Agency) (and its successor) between 1958 and A complete edition up to number 53 has been produced on a CD-ROM. Being a journal, most of the articles published have to do with the study of previously unpublished documents. Also of enormous importance for research was the publishing activity of the Estado da Índia, supported at first by the Typographia Nacional (National Typography) and then by the Imprensa Nacional (National Press) de Nova Goa, especially in the 19 th century when a romantic sense of a new identity, the Goan, flourished. The pioneering historiography that is to be found in the books of Fathers José Nicolau da Fonseca and Gabriel de Saldanha, published General Overview: what s what in this book 43

44 in 1878 and 1898 respectively, certainly had an influence in this. But at the same time a great amount of relevant local material that needed to be transcribed, published and studied was available. This material included the Archivo Portuguez-Oriental (Portuguese-Oriental Archive), a documentary repository of six tomes, and the Chronista do Tissuary (The Tissuary Chronicler), a periodical that published forty-two numbers, both edited by Cunha Rivara ( ), plus O Orient Português (The Portuguese Orient), a periodical that published twenty-eight numbers and where the role of António Bragança Pereira ( ) stands out, and the Boletim do Instituto Vasco da Gama (Bulletin of the Vasco da Gama Institute), all of which are an essential source of information. Panduronga Pissurlencar ( ), who was more or less of the same generation, also played a leading role in investigating and publishing different sources, including the Roteiro dos arquivos da India Portuguesa (Index of the archives of Portuguese India), published in His publication in five volumes of Assentos do Conselho de Estado do Governo Geral do Estado da India (Affairs of the Council of State of the Government of the State of India) and the Regimentos das fortalezas de India (Rules of the fortresses of India) is of the utmost importance. In most of these cases, the work of these men has to do with the fact that they were employed in the archives and libraries where the main sources, many of them still unpublished, are to be found. In fact, besides the written, iconographic and cartographic documents that are scattered around national and foreign institutions the Biblioteca Nacional (National Library of Portugal) (Lisbon), the Academia das Ciências de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Sciences), the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa (Lisbon Geographic Society), the Arquivo Histórico Militar (Military Historical Archive), the Gabinete de Estudos Arqueológicos de Engenharia Militar (Office of Military Engineering Archaeological Studies), the Arquivo do Instituto Português de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento (Portuguese Institute for Development Support Archive), the Biblioteca Pública de Évora (Évora Public Library), the Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra (Coimbra University Library), the Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto (Porto Municipal Public Library), the Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro (Brazilian History and Geography Institute), the Arquivo Nacional (National Archive) (Rio de Janeiro), the Arquivo Histórico do Itamarati (Itamarati Historical Archive) (Rio de Janeiro), the Arquivo Público da Baía (Baía Public Archive ) (Salvador), the Propaganda Fide Archive (Rome), the Vatican Secret Archive, the Xavier Centre of Historical Research (Porvorim, Goa), the Indian Office of the British Library and the Fond Portugais, National Library of France it is in Lisbon, in the Arquivo Nacional Ultramarino (Overseas National Archive), in the Biblioteca da Ajuda (Ajuda Library) and the Torre do Tombo (The National Archive), that the largest and most coherent collections are to be found. The Goa Historical Archive (Pangin), the Goa Patriarchal Curia, the Archivum Romanorum Societatis Iesu (Roma) and the Biblioteca Nacional (National Library) do Rio de Janeiro must be added to this list. Parts of some of these collections to be found abroad have been microfilmed for the Filmoteca Ultramarina Portuguesa (Portuguese Overseas Film Library), a branch of the Instituto de Investigação Científica e Tropical (Scientific and Tropical Research Institute). It has its own journal and has so far published fifty numbers that are also available on CDrom. It is important to mention that there is an index for parts of all these collections, which 44 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

45 will be listed at the end of this text in relation to their sources. Of ever-increasing importance (because only recently did it take in the Orient) is the Memórias de África e do Oriente (Memories of Africa and the Orient) project, with its headquarters at Aveiro University, which has been making a systematic inventory of the above-mentioned publications and archive and library sources and making the immense amount of data available on-line. Besides the precious and practically unending documentary evidence, the historiography of the Portuguese presence in the Orient can also count on information contained in travellers reports, most of them with an assumed chorographic or even historiographic purpose and others almost certainly having the aim of collecting information while spying for European powers. For obvious reasons the later are not so plentiful and are from the early times, when very little was known about Asia in Europe. In both cases and maybe more so than in documents, these written accounts need refining, but the fluidity and the generosity of the writings provide a raft of information that in some respects is impossible to find in other types of sources. It is not possible to list and comment on all these works here, but they will be referred to throughout the book, especially in the bibliography annexed to this introduction and the text on the sub-region of Goa, as this is the most documented subject. As far as travellers are concerned, we have three names and the dates of their journeys: Abbé Carré ( ), Pietro della Valle (1657) and Pyrard de Laval ( ). Denis L. Cottineau de Kloguen (1831) and Frederick Charles Danvers (1894) made a more historiographic approach. A large number of these authors essentially dedicated their writings to Goa, so a special reference must be made to the agronomist António Lopes Mendes ( ), who recorded information he patiently collected between 1862 and 1873 in the Portuguese possessions of Goa and Daman, including an important series of his own drawings, in India Portugueza. Most of these texts are by authors of other European nationalities, which shows the interest the Orient has always aroused in general. The Portuguese appear as those that opened the door. It is also of interest to note that many of these reports continued to be regularly republished in the countries they were related to, namely India (Marg and Asian Educational Press) and Ceylon. As some of them contain illustrations and, also like various later albums of images despite not being directly concerned with Portuguese vestiges, nevertheless here and there contain important elements of them. The most outstanding publication as far as text and the quality and quantity of engravings is concerned on the world that was by then Dutch, but had not long before been Portuguese, is Naauwkeurige Beschrjvinge van Malabar en Chromandel, der zelver aangrenzende Ryken, en het machtige Eyland Ceylon by Philippus Baldeus ( ), published in Amsterdam in Despite being geographically limited, it has more relevance for us than its immediate antecedent Itinerário, Voyage oƒte Schipvaert van [ ] naar Oost oƒte Portugaels Indien Jan Huygen van Linschoten ( ), also printed in Amsterdam in 1596, but which dealt more with questions of a geographic and ethnographic order. It wasn t chance that Dutch ships sailed the Indian Ocean for the first time in that year. Both these works have been republished in several languages more than once. But the most relevant iconic collection within the ethnographic and anthropological ambit, however, but not so much in the General Overview: what s what in this book 45

46 architectonic field, is a manuscript of an anonymous Portuguese from the middle of the 16 th century which is to be found in the Casanatense Library in Rome and which has already been published. Side by side with these gratuitous reports, writings and drawings we have the reports commissioned by the crown, some of which were secret at the time, others were illustrated and thus followed the maxim a picture is worth a thousand words, especially in regard to our specific material, the architectural and urbanistic heritage. Although we know that João III made some express requests in 1546, for example it is no coincidence that they started being made systematically at the time that other European nations threatened the Iberian hegemony in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, i.e., at the beginning of the 17 th century. Fortunately all these works have been published in many different places, either in journals or complete editions of excellent quality. Some have been abridged, while others have a more limited geographical scope, so that the list of places they deal with is very varied. As they are fundamental sources for many of the entries in this book, I think I should concentrate on an essential list, as they are only details of the titles that have been published and which are listed in the bibliography. The most highly praised work, not only because of its wide geographic scope and its artistic exuberance but because it was the most frequently reproduced work of its time, is the Livro das Plantas de todas as Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoações do Estado da India Oriental com as Descripçoens da Altura em que Estão, e de Tudo que ha Nellas, Artilharia, Presidio, Gente de Armas, e Vassalos, Rendimentos, e depeza, fundos, e Baxos das Barras, Reys de Terra Dentro, o Poder que tem, e a Paz, e Guerra, e Tudo que Esta Debaxo da Coroa de Espanha (Book of the Maps of all the Fortresses, Cities and Settlements of the State of Eastern India with Descriptions of the latitude in which they are to be found and of Everything that is in them, Artillery, Prison, Numbers under arms, and Vassals, Revenue, and expenses, deeps, and Sandbanks of the Bars, Kings in the Interior, the Power they hold, and Peace, and War, and Everything that is under the Crown of Spain), a report written by António Bocarro ( ) and superbly illustrated by Pedro Barreto Resende (1590?-1651) between 1633 and 1635, the original of which is to be found in Biblioteca Pública de Évora (Évora Public Library), and of which there is an excellent publication prepared by Isabel Cid. Among its descendents are the following reproductions: a copy in the library of the Vila Viçosa Ducal Palace, from which an edition was made by Luís Silveira with the title Livro das plantas das fortalezas, cidades e povoações do Estado da India Oriental com as demonstrações do marítimo dos reinos e províncias donde estão situados e outros portos principais daquelas partes: contribuição para a história das fortalezas dos portugueses no ultramar (Book of the maps of fortresses, cities and settlements in the State of Eastern India showing the maritime characteristics of the kingdoms and provinces where they are situated and other main ports of those parts: a contribution for the history of Portuguese fortresses overseas). The version dated 1646, revised, increased and autographed by Resende himself and which is to be found in the British Library in London. A copy made by João Teixeira Albernaz (?-1662?), which he made in Lisbon and sent to Madrid, is today in the Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid (National Library in Madrid). Another copy is in the collection of the national archives of Sri-Lanka 46 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

47 in Colombo. There are four similar copies in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (Munich), the Osterreichsche Nationalbibliothek (Vienna) and the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Paris). Finally, one other sequel to the work of Bocarro and Resende that is to be found in the Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal and which was made in 1639, from which we have an edition published by Pedro Dias: Descripçam da Fortaleza de Sofala, e das Demais da India com uma Rellaçam das Religiões Todas, que há no Mesmo Estado (Description of the Fortress of Sofala and all the others in India with a Report on all the Religions that exist in the Said State) by António de Mariz Carneiro (?-1642?). It seems probable, however, that Pedro Barreto Resende s drawings of around 1635 were done because he updated and standardised the original work Plantas de Praças e Conquistas de Portugal Feytas por ordem de Ruy Lourenço de Távora Vizorey da India. Por Manuel Godinho de Erédia Cosmógrafo em 1610 (Maps of the Portuguese Strongholds and Conquests Made on the Orders of Ruy Lourenço de Távora Viceroy of India. By Manuel Godinho de Erédia Cosmographer in 1610), which is to be found in the Biblioteca Nacional (National Library) do Rio de Janeiro and of which only loose reproductions exist. Erédias drawings are technically more expressive than Resende s and have captions, which in some cases is decisive. This album, in fact, may have directly evolved into O Lyvro de Plantaforma das Fortalezas da India (Book of the plan-forms of the Fortresses of India), compiled between 1610 and 1630 and which contains some originals by the hand of Manuel Godinho de Erédia. It is today kept in the São Julião da Barra Fort (Lisbon surroundings), together with a printed edition edited by Rui Carita. There is also a poor reproduction of another album of this series by Erédia, known as the Atlas Miscelânea, that has contributions by other cartographers and/ or artists, but its present whereabouts is unknown. Armando Cortesão ( ) and Avelino Teixeira da Mota ( ) made a comparative study of almost all these albums in volumes IV and V of Portugaliæ Monumenta Cartographica (1960). This was also done with a possible systematisation in the third volume of Luís Silveira s (1912-?) Ensaio de iconografia das cidades portuguesas do Ultramar (1956) (Essay on the iconography of Portuguese cities Overseas). José Manuel Garcia studies the series in his recent book Cidades e Fortalezas do Estado da India, séculos XVI e XVII (Cities and Fortresses of the State of India, 16 th and 17 th centuries), his contribution being fundamental for whomever wishes to follow and discuss the proposal in detail, which he puts forward for the first time, for a complete index of the cartographic representations of the Estado da India, besides providing relevant data on the biographies of several authors and other protagonists. The above-mentioned Livro das Cidades, e Fortalezas, que a Coroa de Portugal tem nas partes da India, e das capitanias, e mais cargos que nelas há, e da importância delles (Book of the Cities and Fortresses that the Portuguese Crown has in India, and the captaincies, and the positions that exist in them, and their importance), without illustrations, is another fundamental source for our work, as it consists of a detailed anonymously-written report from around It has been published and in his above-mentioned book José Manuel Garcia put forward the hypothesis that it was written by one Luís Ramos da Silva. In reverse order, these elements are the antecedents of Bocarro and Resende s work and it must be noted that they were all produced on direct orders of the monarchs that ruled General Overview: what s what in this book 47

48 Portugal when the Iberian crowns were united. We can consider Ásia Portuguesa (Portuguese Asia) by Manuel de Faria e Sousa ( ), a report written in Spanish in Madrid in the 1630s, but only published by his son between 1666 and 1675, i.e., when that Asia was much smaller, as the piece that closed the series. It is not so correct as far as iconic elements are concerned, but it raises some interesting questions related to the artistic taste and culture of the Portuguese, which was discussed in an article by Paulo Varela Gomes. It must be noted that the author had never been in Asia and copied the drawings from third parties, not all of them reliable, plus the fact that the quality of the copyist s and the engraver s work is poor. Of an essentially nautical or historiographic nature we also have a fundamental series of descriptive sources that are prior to the Iberian Union (1580). We begin with Roteiro de Goa a Dio (Itinerary from Goa to Diu) by João de Castro ( ), written in 1538/1539. As the name indicates, it was a work to guide ships and was a part of a series of two other sailing itineraries by the same author, De Lisboa a Diu e do Mar Roxo (From Lisbon to Diu and the Red Sea). It includes, however, highly important representations of some cities and significant ones regarding some buildings, especially as they are some of the oldest ones known. In this synopsis on sources, we must also mention, as fundamental texts on the historiography and the vast collections of information in relation to the Portuguese presence in the Orient, the following: História do descobrimento & conquista da India pelos portugueses (History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese) by Fernão Lopes de Castenheda ( ), published in eight volumes between 1552 and 1561; Décadas da Ásia (Decades of Asia), the title of the first being most expressive: Ásia de Joam de Barros. Dos feitos que os Portugueses fizeram no Descobrimento e Conquista dos Mares e Terras do Oriente. Primeira Década (Asia by João de Barros. Of the feats that the Portuguese performed in the Discovery and Conquest of the Seas and Lands of the Orient. First Volume), an initiative of João de Barros ( ) (four published between 1552 and 1615), then continued by Diogo de Couto (eight, but not all of them have reached us) and by António Bocarro (one) up to Diogo de Couto ( ) also left us Soldado Práctico q trata dos enganos e desenganos da India (The Practical Soldier who deals with the illusions and disillusions of India), published in Several monographs on the actions of the viceroys were written in the form of the Décadas from the end of the 17 th century, but most of them remain unpublished. The main exception is the Epanaphora Indica na qual se dá noticia da viagem, que [ ] Marquez de Castelo Novo fez com o cargo de Vice-Rey ao Estado da India, e nos primeiros progressos do seu governo... (Epanaphora Indica in which gives news of the voyage that [ ] the Marquis of Castelo Novo made as the Viceroy to the Estado da India, and the first progress of his governorship ) by José Freire de Monterroio de Mascarenhas ( ) and published in Lisbon in 1746 and completed with another volume published in Other relevant texts had been written before, but were only published much later. We can mention, for example the Suma Oriental que tratado Mar roxo até aos Chins (Oriental Summary that deals with the space between Red Sea till the Chinese) by Tomé Pires (1465?-1540?) about 1515, and the Livro de Duarte Barbosa (Book of Duarte Barbosa) ( ). 48 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

49 But among all these pioneering works of the historiography of the Portuguese presence in the Orient, Lendas da India (Legends of India) by Gaspar Correia ( ), written in the middle of the 16 th century, is the most important for us, as besides its inestimable descriptions it contains a significant number of city views, in some cases with a considerable degree of detail and accuracy, at other times with an aura of fantasy. In addition to this, in most cases they were the oldest known city views and probably, together with those from the itineraries of João de Castro, they were the first images that the king and the Portuguese court were able to see of their possessions in the Orient. It seems highly probable that, with or through a Goanese painter, Gaspar Correia was responsible for the execution of a considerable series of other iconic representations related to the Estado da India in the middle of the 16 th century. These include portraits of the governors and viceroys in 1547 and a series depicting the armadas of 1549, which were copied for the Livro de Lisuarte de Abreu (The Book of Lisuarte de Abreu) ( ) and for the Memória das Armadas (Memorial of the Armadas) (1567). Besides these there is also the above-mentioned manuscript in the Casanatense Library in Rome. These are hypotheses proposed by José Manuel Garcia in his above-mentioned book. Histories written by chroniclers of the religious congregations, which obviously concentrated on the institution itself but inevitably contain important lateral information that is at least relevant to the study of religious architecture, must be added to this series of an ethnographic and historical content. There is no place for a listing here, but it will obviously appear during the course of the book. The same goes for the multiple illustrations, surveys, plans and projects relative one single place and/or a built complex. However, we think it is important to refer to one of these works, as it contains details that are relevant to our subject, even more so as the author played a leading role as an architect in some of the items dealt with here. It is the Historia del principio y progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales: (The History of the beginnings and progress of the Society of Jesus in the East Indies: ) by Alessandro Valignano. An extremely singular work is Peregrinação (Pilgrimage) by Fernão Mendes Pinto ( ), published in Lisbon in Singular because it relates facts that have been corroborated together with others that are absolutely impossible. Written as a narrative of the author s adventures, this impossibility is revealed through the incompatible intensity, chronology and ubiquity. It is, so to say, the compilation of narratives of several adventures lived in one single adventure. All this has discredited it as a reliable source, but a recent critical edition edited by Jorge Santos Alves places facts and fantasy in order and has possibly turned it into a work of some use for historiography. It is not, however, of special relevance to our central subjects of architecture and urbanism. It is with all these sources and the legacy of those first historians that the historiography of the Portuguese presence in the Orient has progressed. It would be fastidious and necessarily incomplete to try and characterise or even list this process. Having mentioned what I think is crucial to the most recent production, I think it is necessary before dealing with production specifically dedicated to architecture and urbanism to make a brief reference to a period, already mentioned above in relation to the publication of documents, te one of the Estado Novo. General Overview: what s what in this book 49

50 The new world order that was left over from the Second World War was seen to be incompatible with classic colonialism. The Portuguese World the name of a large exhibition celebrated in a counter-current a few years before within the ambit of the 1940 Centenaries Commemorations was scattered over Africa, where the potential for expansion and progress were especially evident in Angola and Mozambique, and the Orient, where foot-dragging decadence was smothered by the effusive invocation of the past. The Portuguese Orient at the time consisted of the two Indian enclaves of Daman and Diu, Macau in China, the territory of Timor, recently rent asunder by the war in the Pacific, and Goa, which was the best known possession of all. The problems of one or two decades before related to the Padroado, British decolonisation and the independence of India in 1947 accentuated the counter-current nature of those commemorations and everything that followed. The Estado Novo reacted by going ahead with development projects in all its possessions in an attempt to promote the idea of a multi-continental Portugal. But it is true that it had only been in the previous two decades that internal stability had allowed such policies. As there was no special pressure being exerted on Macau or Timor, Goa, Daman and Diu, under the watchful eye of the Indian Union and the constant actions of local integrationists, became the focal point of development plans based on the reconnaissance and survey of the realities of the territories. Among other initiatives, scientific missions were dispatched whose reports, many of which were published in Garcia de Orta, Revista das Missões Geográficas e de Investigações do Ultramar (Garcia de Orta, Journal of Geographic Missions and of Overseas Investigation), are a fundamental basis for the various areas of research into those territories during Portuguese rule. I would like to remind you of what we said above regarding the publication of vast collections of documents within that same context and by the same agents. Various events were held within this movement that led the Estado Novo to channel its politico-ideological policies into the colonial world in its central decades, namely congresses that simultaneously had a commemorative and scientific character, but always subject to ideological control. It was not by chances that some of the most brilliant researchers of the subjects dealt with here were banned. But we must emphasise the importance the abovementioned Congress of the Portuguese World in 1940 and the Commemorations of the Fifth Centenary of the Death of Infante D. Henrique (Henry the Navigator) had as moments for weighing the Portuguese presence in the Orient, as they both produced important publications. In context and for the well known reasons mentioned here, the Estado Novo promoted the spread of knowledge of the history of the Portuguese presence in the world, with emphasis on the Orient, and this left an indelible mark on the knowledge we have today. To sum up, I will mention one fact that I think is particularly illustrative. In the heat of the integrationist threat of the Portuguese territories in India and the corresponding response of the Portuguese authorities, in 1951 the Estado Novo invited Gilberto Freyre to visit Goa. It was in a conference he proffered in Pangin at the time that this celebrated Brazilian anthropologist coined the expression luso-tropicalism for the first time, an expression that took root and has come into fashion again in the last few years. Ten 50 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

51 years later, in an act that was more suited to an ideological struggle rather than propaganda, the Estado Novo published the text of this conference O Luso e o Trópico, sugestões em torno dos métodos portugueses de integração de povos autóctones e de culturas diferentes da Europeia num complexo novo de civilização: o luso-trópical (The Portuguese and the Tropics, suggestions around the Portuguese methods for the integration of autochthon communities and of cultures different from the European in a new complex of civilisation: Luso-Tropical) in a collectanea of the author s works. It was in 1961 that the Portuguese territories in India were annexed by the Indian Union. It was also within the ambit of this transnational act and the prognostics of a post-colonial Portuguese presence in the world that witnessed the beginning of the end of the empire. In a completely different context, another long cycle of commemorations that were simultaneously commemorative and historiographic and which had a powerful and enduring impact took place: the Commemorations of the Portuguese Discoveries, organised by the respective National Committee (Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, CNCDP), from 1986 to In a democratic Portugal, with decolonisation completed and diplomatic relations with the former colonies normalised, the impact of the commemorations was decisive for the progress made in the last two decades that have been summarised above. Due in part to the influence of these commemorations, but essentially part of the series of actions that contextualised and prepared the transition of the administration of Macau to China at the end of the millennium, the Orient Foundation was set up in The two institutions the former more intensely due to the fact that it had to fulfil its missions within a time window, the latter on a continuous basis catalysed a vast direct and indirect number of publications, both of sources and re-editions. They also played a crucial role in internationalising knowledge of the Portuguese presence in the world by interconnecting Portuguese research with international counterparts. A good example of this is the three magazines that they published. Oceanos, forty-nine numbers of which were published by the CNCDP between 1990 and 2002, was a landmark due to the quality of the articles and the graphic design. The same institution also published twenty-two numbers and some special editions of Maré Liberum, which was dedicated to academic-scientific material, including sources, between 1990 and The Orient Foundation has published nineteen numbers of its magazine Oriente since The themes of the CNCDP s programme basically attempted to follow the most relevant events of Portuguese expansion in a succession of five hundred year time windows. This led to a fruitful initial phase on the diverse aspects that, by sailing down the West African coast, led the Portuguese to the Orient. This culminated in with a series of specific events, the most important of which for our subject was the exhibition Os Espaços de um Império (The Spaces of an Empire). The following years were necessarily to be dedicated to Brazil. As the main aim of the commemorations was the widespread public dissemination of a celebrative nature, it was necessary to frequently resort to fields of knowledge with a wider communicative capacity, namely artistic. In fact it became necessary to resort to material culture for the multiple exhibitions and publications, which had a considerable impact on General Overview: what s what in this book 51

52 the development of the related knowledge. All this had been preceded by the XVII European Exhibition of Art, Science and Culture, on the theme of The Portuguese Discoveries and Renaissance Europe, held in Lisbon in In November of that same year, the Grupo de Estudos do Património Arquitectónico Português fora da Europa (Study Group of Portuguese Architectonic Heritage outside Europe), which began with a census of this heritage, was formed in the Faculty of Architecture of the Lisbon Technical University. It was a pioneering initiative but its sole outcome was the holding of an exhibition of the results of the first phase of its work and an international meeting, the First Congress of Portuguese Built Heritage in the World, an event that had the backing of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation and was held from 25 March to 5 April The minutes were never published and the sole publication was a catalogue, a small outcome in the face of the material exhibited. This material is dispersed or of whereabouts unknown. With all that the history of Portuguese art in the world enjoyed unprecedented impulse in the 1980s and 1990s. It became impossible to write about it, as almost always has had always been the case before, without interpreting the artefacts in their context, i.e., a global reading of the empire. Studies until then, more than specialised, were thematically and geographically compartmentalised, disconnected from the places of production, thus ignoring the influences that determined the specificity of the materials, programmes and forms. But in the midst of all this, it is curious that even today a comprehensive work on Portuguese art (including Portugal and the rest of the world) is still missing. In the existing Portuguese histories of art, the decision on whether to include something about the artistic, architectural and urbanistic production of Portuguese influence outside current Portuguese territory has always been left up to this or that researcher. Rafael Moreira s texts on military engineering in volume seven of História da Arte em Portugal (History of Art in Portugal), published in 1986, can be considered as almost groundbreaking. In its following congener, História da Arte Portuguesa (History of Portuguese Art), edited by Paulo Pereira and published in three volumes in 1995, only the chapter A cidade portuguesa (The Portuguese City) adopted an inevitable and comprehensive view of the Portuguese world. The following ones maintained the same limitations. The desire and the challenge remain that someone will soon propose to lead a team that will apply itself to a task of this breadth. Even more so because works with a comprehensive but more detailed reading of Portuguese art outside Portugal have already been published, more precisely História da Arte Portuguesa no Mundo ( ) [The History of Portuguese Art in the World ( )] by Pedro Dias and published in Some sequels have been published in the form of magazines or addenda, such as the collection in fifteen volumes recently published by the newspaper Público entitled Arte de Portugal no Mundo (Portuguese Art in the World). These are probably the main references for this book, as they deal with almost all the places and items mentioned here. Besides this work of global reach, there are many works that focus on regional or local subjects which I will deal with later, as most of them are concerned with places in the Orient. Thanks to its refined and diversified civilisational development and the exoticism that it implies, art of Portuguese influence in those places has always been seen as an added value in its attraction and challenge to other regions of the globe. 52 portuguese heritage around the world: architecture and urbanism

53 Daman, India Detail of window in the Chapel of Our Lady of the Rosary (former Hermitage of the Mother of God) Photo: Walter Rossa General Overview: what s what in this book 53

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