Christianity in the World

Transcription

1 2008 Christianity in the World Authors: Glen Harris Aris Cole Martha Medina Anna Talbot Editor: Marsha B. Cohen, Ph.D. Samantha A. Reynolds Miami Institute for Global Enrichment This publication was written for the University of Miami-Master of Arts in International Administration (MAIA) in joint cooperation with the Miami-Dade County Public Schools

2 2 This publication was produced for the University of Miami-Master of Arts in International Administration (MAIA) in joint cooperation with the Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Copyright Pending 2009

3 3 Table of Contents Religion: Why Learn About it?... 4 Major Religions Around the World... 6 Origins of Christianity... 7 The Bible The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent The Great Schism The Crusades The Inquisition The Renaissance Science vs. Religion Diversity in Christianity Eastern Orthodoxy Catholicism Protestantism Beliefs and Practices Jesus Christ as Messiah Trinity Sacraments Baptism Eucharist Sin and Forgiveness Judgment after Death Christian Holidays Christmas Easter Christianity in the World Glossary Electronic Resources MiGlobE 28 Bibliography References Table of Contents

4 4 Religion: Why Learn About it? The United States is a magnet for people of different beliefs and cultures, where they can live together without surrendering their traditions and identity. It is not just a melting pot where all differences disappear. Our country prides itself on accepting people of all religions and backgrounds. The United States is a secular nation, which means that government and religious institutions don t interfere with one another. The first amendment to the foundation of our society, the U.S. Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, states, Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. 1 Americans are free to choose whichever religion they want to follow, if any. Surprisingly, the United States is home to more than seventeen different religions. 2 With that in mind, it is essential to learn about religious differences in our society. It is important to recognize and respect the different perspectives of others, especially since we live in a very diverse country. 3 What is a religion exactly? Religions, broadly defined, are belief systems that try to explain the meaning of human existence and the place of human beings in the world. Religions provide rules about how people should behave towards one another, and how to observe the rituals which are performed on holidays and at life cycle events birth, coming of age, marriage, and even death. Some religions have rules that tell their followers what foods to eat and not eat and specify certain days, called fasts when they should not eat at all. Some religions even have rules about what to wear. These rules are often based on or derived from passages found in sacred texts, while others are based on traditions which have been passed on from one generation to another for hundreds of years. Most religions tell their followers when and where to pray, and what to say when they do. Many religions provide places of worship where their followers can gather together for study, prayer and rituals. Religions have played important roles in the shaping of human history. Religion is often considered a private matter, a topic that should not be discussed outside of one s home. But since religion is also about rules that, for many people, influence everyday living, it is not surprising that religion is not something invisible or hidden away but rather very much in evidence in our society. Because Christianity was the faith of the founders of the United States and is the religion of the overwhelming majority of Americans, many Christian beliefs and practices are taken for granted as normal in American society. Many Christians think American values are Christian values, and if they are not, then they ought to be. Even though the United States is a secular country whose Constitution calls for the separation of church and

5 5 Religion: Why Learn About it? state, Christianity nevertheless has shaped American life. Schools, government offices, businesses, and shopping malls are closed on Christmas and Easter, the two most important holidays of Christianity, and the two longest breaks in the school year, in the winter and spring, take place during the weeks before and after Christmas and Easter. Until fairly recently, many cities and towns had laws that required all stores to be closed on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. Even today, many municipalities have restrictions on selling alcoholic beverages on Sunday, when Christians are supposed to be in church. The Bible upon which our government officials swear that they will uphold the Constitution and witnesses in courts of law swear that they will tell nothing but the truth is, except by special arrangement, a Christian Bible. At political and sports events, the prayers that are offered are usually Christian prayers. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, a memorial service was held to mourn the victims at the National Cathedral in Washington, DC. Most Christians take such things for granted, even in a secular society. Some believe that Christianity should be even more a part of American life, with prayer and Bible readings permitted and encouraged in public schools and biblical views of creation taught in science classes. As science has increasingly proven itself able to detect and preserve life from the earliest stages of human development until the final moments of the end of life, Christian theological views concerning the definition of human being, and when life begins and ends, have been part of legal and legislative debates over stem cell research, the concept of brain death, and various aspects of controlling human reproduction. As the U.S. becomes more religiously diverse, more people who are not Christians are now living in a culture which, although largely secular in many ways, is influenced by Christian traditions in ways that they, and that Christians themselves, may not recognize. This unit will explain some of major Christian beliefs and practices, its origins, and a few of the various interpretations of what it means to be a Christian. We will also explore the major divisions as well as the most important holidays. For true interfaith respect and understanding to be possible, it is important not only to learn about the concepts and customs of minority religions, but to learn about the history, evolution and diversity of Christianity. Let s find out more

6 6 Major Religions Around the World: Where is Christianity? Map from Warren Matthews World Religions, 3e Christianity is the largest and most widespread religion in the world, with more than 2.1 billion followers. One out of every three people in the world is Christian. Christianity is the religion of the overwhelming majority of people in the United States, as well as in Canada, Europe, and Latin America. As shown on the map, Christianity is located on all of the continents. The other major world religions include Islam (1.3 billion), Hinduism (851 million), Buddhism (375 million), Sikhism (24 million), and Judaism (14 million). 4

7 7 Origins of Christianity The word Christian comes from the Greek word, kristos, meaning anointed one. Christians share the belief that Jesus Christ was anointed by God to bring salvation to people from their sins. However, Christianity is also a very diverse religion, and even this broad definition of a Christian is not interpreted by all Christians in the same way. All practicing Christians revere the Bible, however, not all Christians agree on the extent to which the words of the Bible should be understood literally. All Christians celebrate the same major holidays Christmas and Easter but some Christians observe them on a different date than others. Christians share many rituals, such as baptism, but differ as to how, when, and how often they should be performed. They have a variety of interpretations of the relationship of Jesus, as the Son of God, to God the Father and to the Holy Spirit, and have diverse views of what the requirements for forgiveness and salvation are. Most Christians believe that Jesus Christ will return to earth at the end of days and judge the world, but Christian theologians (theology is the study of beliefs about God) offer different descriptions of how and when this will occur. Christianity began in the first century of the Common Era (CE), from which Christians count Anno Domini (AD)--the year of our Lord--when the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth became the basis of a new religion. Jesus was a first century Jew who lived in the northern region of Palestine known as the Galilee. He grew up in a humble family, with several brothers and sisters, and became a carpenter like his father. But he seems to have been interested in religious ideas from an early age, and studied the Jewish Torah and prophetic works. 5 According to the accounts of his followers known as the Gospels (from the Anglo-Saxon word godspell, meaning good news, which make up a major portion of the New Testament of the Christian Bible), Jesus began his career as a teacher and healer when he was about 30 years old. He claimed and demonstrated certain Godgiven and godlike powers that enabled him to forgive sins and to cure disease and deformity. 6 Since illness was believed to be caused by sin and demonic possession, the ability to forgive sins and cast out demons were essential to Jesus ability to heal. Jesus and his first followers were Jews. They lived at a time when Palestine was ruled by Rome. Roman officials were responsible for maintaining order and collecting taxes, which they did through local Jewish leaders. One Jewish faction, known as the Sadducees, was the political party of the priests and aristocracy. The Sadducees promoted friendly relations with Rome so that the Jerusalem Temple could function undisturbed. Another group, the Pharisees, appear to have been a distinct religious, social and political circle within Judean society. Pharisees had very strict rules for tithing and for ritual purity, even for non-priests and tithing. Pharisees based many of their beliefs and customs on ancestral oral law, rather than on the written Torah law of the Jews. Some members of Jewish groups like the Essenes are believed to have withdrawn from what they saw as the corruption of society and the profanation of the Temple, into self-sufficient communities. Still other Jews

8 8 Origins of Christianity tried to resist the domination of Rome, refusing to pay taxes and even leading armed rebellions. Some of these rebels were known as Zealots. At least one of Jesus disciples was a Zealot--Simon the Zealot and Judas Iscariot may have been one as well. 7 Jesus seems to have been in contact with members of all of these groups. In the gospels he is also depicted as challenging and even antagonizing them, criticizing the way the priests ran the Temple and objecting to the strict interpretation of the laws of purity of the Pharisees. His directive to Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar s in other words, to pay the taxes due the Roman government--probably irritated the Zealots. According to the gospels, Jesus taught through parables stories that had a moral message that responded metaphorically to the questions that his followers asked Jesus. He taught that the Kingdom of God was at hand that a community was being created which anyone, including the outcasts of society, could part be of. In the first century, many Jews were hoping that a political and military leader would emerge who would liberate Palestine from foreign rule and oppression, and restore Jewish sovereignty. The Hebrew word for this hoped-for leader was mashiach (messiah). The followers of Jesus reinterpreted this concept of mashiach, envisioning him as a krystos--a redeemer who would liberate all of humanity from bondage to sin and the power of evil. After a ministry of about a year, according the three synoptic gospels Matthew, Mark and Luke and three years according to the Gospel of John, Jesus was arrested and brought to trial. The gospels give different accounts of his arrest, and the charges brought against him are not clear. He seems to have been considered dangerous by the Sadducees. According to Matthew and Mark, the high priests plotted to kill him after the Passover festival was over, but they delivered him to the Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate instead. There are no actual portraits of Jesus that were made during his lifetime, For over 1500 years, artists have been imagining what he and his family might have looked. This mosaic depicting Jesus, found in Ravenna, Italy, was made in the sixth century.

9 9 Origins of Christianity In the Gospel of Luke, the priests and scribes accused Jesus of claiming to be the messiah and of ordering people not to pay their taxes. He was brought to the governing council, which asked the Romans to put him to death. The Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate, accused him of planning an insurrection and calling himself the King of the Jews. According to the accounts in all four gospels, Jesus was crucified. Crucifixion, a hideously cruel punishment in ancient times, is usually reserved for criminals accused of acting against the state and threatened the political order. 8 In all four gospels and in the book of Acts, the description of the death of Jesus by crucifixion is followed by accounts of his coming back to life after his burial in a tomb, and appearing to his followers in various ways. Belief in the resurrection of Jesus became central to the new Christian communities that arose around his teachings. According to Acts, on the seventh Sunday after the resurrection during a Jewish festival known as Pentecost, Peter, one of the disciples of Jesus, was visited by the Holy Spirit, and preached a sermon that converted 3,000 people to the new faith. Saul of Tarsus, who had been a persecutor of the first Christians, had a vision of the resurrection of Jesus and converted to Christianity. Under the new name of Paul, he became the main missionary of the early church to non-jews (Gentiles). In 54 AD, at least ten years before the Gospel of Mark (which most scholars consider to have been the first gospel to be written), Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. It included what became known as the kergyma (proclamation): the doctrine of the early Christian church that Jesus Christ died for the sins of mankind, was buried, and was raised from the dead. Until this point, the early Christians had thought of themselves simply as Jews who had recognized Jesus as Messiah. 9 In order to join their community and church, a believer who wanted to adopt the new Christian faith had to accept the teachings and practices of Judaism as well. But as Paul converted Gentiles in Syria, Greece, and Rome through his preaching and his letters, known as epistles, the Pauline church separated itself from Jewish belief and practice. Paul argued that the new faith should be open to Gentiles, who should not have to undergo circumcision or to accept the rituals, regulations and other requirements of Judaism. Salvation in Pauline Christianity was by faith alone: a Christian could be anyone who believed that Jesus Christ had died to atone for the sins of humanity, and that he had been resurrected. Not until after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, and of Jerusalem s community of Jewish Christians, was Paul s rejection of Jewish religious practices fully absorbed into the new faith, and Christianity separated from Judaism. Even as late as the fourth century, a few scattered Christian communities continued to follow Jewish law while fully accepting Christian theology. 10

10 10 The Bible The epistles and other letters of Paul and other followers, which were copied and read aloud at various churches, became the first part of the sacred scripture for the Christian church, which we know today as the Bible. A few years later, the four gospels were compiled and edited. Together with a history of the early church, which we know as The Acts of the Apostles, and the book of Revelations, these letters and summaries became the New Testament, the second part of Christian Scripture. The 27 of the books of the New Testament are widely believed to have been written between 60 CE. and 115 CE. 11 The four gospels of the New Testament offer different perspectives of the life of Jesus. Written long after Jesus death, the gospels are to be biographies of Jesus, but rather to offer different understandings of the meaning and message of his life had been. Three of the four gospels Matthew, Mark and Luke follow the same outline of the life and teachings of Jesus. They are known as the synoptic gospels, and contain many of the same stories, Tiffany Studios, The Baptism of Jesus. Union Congregational Church, Montclair, NJ. although each of the three contains some that the others do not. Mark is believed to be the earliest Gospel. It says nothing about the birth or childhood of Jesus. It begins with Jesus coming to the Jordan River, from Nazareth, in the Galilee region of Palestine, to be baptized John ( the baptizer ) who had been living an ascetic life in the Judean wilderness. When Jesus emerged from the water, the heavens opened up and the Holy Spirit descended on him like a dove, and a Heavenly voice, called out You are my son, the beloved; with you I am well pleased (Mark 1:9-11). After John was arrested, Jesus returned to Galilee, where he began preaching and healing. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus refers to himself as a son of man, and predicts his own persecution and that of his followers. After about a year of teaching and preaching, Jesus was arrested and crucified. When the followers of Jesus went to reclaim Jesus body from a sealed tomb, it was no longer there. About half of the Gospel of Mark deals with the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. According to Christian tradition, Mark is based on the memories of the apostle Peter. It is believed to have been written in Rome about 40 years after the death of Jesus. The Gospel of Matthew begins by tracing the genealogy of Jesus father Joseph through three periods of fourteen generations each: from the patriarch Abraham to the Israelite King David, from David until the Babylonian exile; and from the Babylonian exile and postexilic period to Joseph, his father and grandfather and father of Joseph until the Messiah (Matthew 1:1-17). Immediately after recounting Joseph s Davidic ancestry, however, the author of Matthew says that Mary, a virgin

11 11 The Bible betrothed to Joseph, was a virgin who became pregnant by the Holy Spirit, rather than her husband. Matthew s gospel states that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, and when King Herod learned from three wise men from the east that a king of the Jews had been born, he called for the deaths of all children in the region who were under the age of two. Mary, Joseph, and Jesus left Bethlehem and went to Egypt, where they remained until Herod s death. As in Mark, Jesus goes to the Jordan River to be baptized by John, and returns to the Galilee, where he gathers his first disciples and teaches through the parables, which make up most of Matthew s gospel. Jesus also performs miracles such as feeding five thousand people from two fish and five loaves or bread, and walking on water, as well healing the sick. The Gospel of Matthew tries to appeal to a Jewish audience by situating Jesus within Jewish history and tradition, fulfilling the prophecies of Jeremiah, Isaiah, and unidentified Hebrew prophets. The Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus concern for the oppressed. Outcasts the poor, the lost, victims of injustice, and the socially disadvantaged receive special concern in Luke s gospel. Women are also accorded special attention and respect. Luke is also the most detailed of the three synoptic gospels regarding the resurrection of Jesus. century. The gospels depict Jesus teachings about Sabbath observance, the laws of which were still in the process of being codified in the decades after his death, as being less restrictive and more compassionate than those of the Pharisees and priests. However, Jesus interpretations of other Jewish laws, such as divorce, were much stricter than those of either the Pharisees or Sadducees. Divorce was permitted according to the Law of Moses (Deut. 24:1), but what the grounds for divorce ought to be was a matter of disagreement among Jewish legal scholars. The more stringent Jewish position of the Sadducees allowed a man to divorce his wife only if she had committed adultery. The Pharisees allowed a dissatisfied husband to send his wife away if she did anything that displeased him, as long as he gave her a document that allowed her to marry another man and an amount of money stipulated in her marriage contract (ketubah). According to the teachings of Jesus recorded in the gospels, a man should never divorce his wife under any circumstances, and a divorced woman who remarried was an adulteress. Some of the debates about Jewish law that are reported in the Synoptic Gospels had not yet taken place during the lifetime of Jesus. They arose decades later, during the period of time when the gospels were being written. The stories recorded in the Synoptic Gospels (the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke) provide insights into some of the debates going on in Judaism during the first

12 12 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent Throughout the first century, Christians were subject to persecution by the Romans. The persecution of Christians, like that of the Jews, was more political than theological. Romans were pagans, and tolerated a great many beliefs about a great many gods. However, Romans considered the main function of religion to be the promotion loyalty to the state. They repressed religions that appeared to challenge or resist the state s authority, or that taught that it was more important to follow God s laws than those of the government. 12 According to the Roman historian Tacitus, in 64 CE the Roman emperor Nero blamed the Christians for the burning of Rome, which became an excuse for persecuting Christians. The apostle Peter, who is said to have brought the new faith to Rome, was martyred there. Other early Christian martyrs including Paul, Stephen, Peter, and Luke, who, according to Christian tradition, lost their lives while spreading the new faith. They became Christianity s first saints. 13 In the year 70, the Romans destroyed the Jewish Temple and the city of Jerusalem, after a four year Jewish rebellion begun by a nationalistic faction of priests who refused to allow the Roman emperor to send an offering to the Jerusalem Temple. Jerusalem Christians, who were Jews until that time, also suffered during this period, and the Jerusalem community, led by James, was wiped out. The persecution of Christians by the Romans continued with varying degrees of severity for about 250 years. It ended in 313 AD when the Roman Emperor Constantine legalized the practice of Christianity. Constantine is often credited with making Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, but this did not occur the end of the fourth century, during the reign of the Emperor Theodosius (ruled ). In the year 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which officially allowed the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire. 14 It also returned Christian property taken away by previous emperors to its owners. Although it is not certain at what point in his life Constantine actually converted to Christianity, he became the protector and sponsor of the Christian faith and gave Christians special privileges in the Roman Empire. When Constantine built his new capital, which he named Constantinople after himself, he declared that pagans, but not Christians, would have to pay for its construction. 15 Constantine s mother Helena, a woman of humble origin, is believed to have already been a Christian when he was young. Helena traveled to Palestine in the year 325. During her visit, Helena associated numerous Jerusalem locations with specific events in the life of Jesus, as described in the gospels. She claimed to have discovered the remnants of Jesus cross at Golgotha, and the precise points along the Via Dolorosa where Jesus rested the cross as he carried it to his crucifixion. Helena arranged for churches to be built on these sites, and originated the Christian tradition of pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Today, thousands of Christian tourists visit Israel each year to visit these churches and holy sites.

13 13 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent The reign of Constantine and his patronage of Christianity marked the beginning of the long process of codifying Christian belief and practice, known as canon law, which would apply and be enforced within the Roman church. Constantine was very concerned that Christianity be practiced the same way throughout his empire. He left the details of the doctrines and rituals for church leaders to debate and decide. Between 325 and 787, seven ecumenical councils met to standardize the doctrines and practices of Christianity. These ecumenical councils were meetings of all the bishops of the Church, whose decisions about church policy were published in documents called canons (from the Greek word meaning rules ). These decisions became the official views and positions of the Roman church. Beliefs that were different from those agreed upon by the ecumenical councils were considered to be heresy. The development of canon law marked the beginning of Christian persecution of other Christians. One of the first and most persistent challenges to the new official church dogma was how to explain the nature of God. A bishop and theologian named Arius ( ), who lived in Alexandria (in what is modern day Egypt) were accused of teaching that Jesus Christ was not the same person as God but a separate person. This belief contradicted the emerging church dogma concerning the Trinity that the One God had three distinct persons who were nevertheless of one and the same substance: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ); and the Holy Spirit, who had always existed. Arius taught that there was a time when Jesus Christ did not exist, while God the Father had always existed. 16 Arius therefore concluded that God the Father was the only true God and Jesus Christ the Son, although divine, was different from and less than God the Father and the Holy Spirit. To deal with the theological question of the relationship of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, Constantine called for a formal meeting in 325 of the first ecumenical council in Christendom. It became known as the Council of Nicaea, named for the city (in present day Turkey) where the meeting took place. The Council rejected the teaching of Arius, and issued the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. This belief became official church dogma, expressed in the Nicaean Creed, which continues to be recited by many Christians today. The Council also decided that Easter would no longer coincide with the Jewish festival of Passover, but would instead be observed on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring (vernal) equinox. The Council of Nicaea set a precedent for asserting central Church control over doctrine. It established a format for debate among church leaders and for the enforcement of what was decided upon as the official Church view. 17 Another challenge to dogma came from a bishop named Nestorius ( ) who argued that Jesus Christ had two distinct natures: God and man. The Ephesus Council declared this belief to be heresy in 431, asserting that Jesus Christ was one person whose single nature was both fully God and fully human. The fourth Ecumenical Council, held at Chalcedon in 451, convened because the patriarch of Alexandria, Eutyches, was accused of minimizing the human aspect of Jesus Christ s

14 14 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent single nature. A schism (split in the Church) resulted, and Eutyches supporters, the Monophysites, separated themselves from the Church. 18 The Great Schism The Western Roman Empire was first invaded by Germanic tribes around 300 CE, and it was weakened and was eventually overrun, in the year 476. Historians refer to the period after the fall of Rome as the Dark Ages. Many Christians, at this time, looked for a spiritual explanation for the fall of Rome and could only conclude that God was unhappy with them. This led to increased intolerance of dissent within the Church. There were also struggles over power and authority within the Church hierarchy. In the mid fifth century, the bishop of Rome and the bishop of Constantinople argued over who had the right to be considered the first among equals. This began what would eventually become a split within the Church into Western (Latin) and Eastern (Byzantine) halves. This split became final in 1054, when the Great Schism between the Western and Eastern Christian churches occurred. Although the break involved theological issues such as the debate over the use of icons that broke out in the eighth century and earlier arguments about the precise wording of the Nicaean creed, there were cultural and geographical differences between the Eastern and Western churches as well as language barriers: the two churches had developed different rites and rituals, in different languages: the Western Mass was recited in Latin, the Eastern Mass in Greek. 19 But it was a power struggle between Pope Leo IX, the Bishop of Rome, and the Patriarch Cerularius of Constantinople that led to the permanent split between the Eastern and Western churches. When Cerularius wrote Leo a letter in which he addressed him as brother instead of father, Leo considered to be a challenge to his supremacy over the other territorial bishops (which in the East were called patriarchs) including Cerularius. Leo sent a cardinal by the name of Humbert to Constantinople to deal with Cerularius. When Cerularius refused to meet with him, Humbert excommunicated him. Cerularius then excommunicated Humbert as well as Leo IX. While the validity of any of these conversions was questionable, it was not until over a thousand years later, in 1965, that Pope Paul and Patriarch Athenagoras withdrew them during the Second Vatican Council meeting. All efforts to reunite the Roman Catholic (Western) Church and the Eastern (Orthodox) Church, have failed. The Crusades The Crusades were a series of European religious expeditions with the stated intent of liberating the Christian holy sites in Jerusalem from Muslim control. Jerusalem had been taken from the Byzantines and added to the newly emerging Muslim empire in 637 by the Caliph Umar.

15 15 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent There were nine Crusades in the 200 years between 1095 and The First Crusade began when the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I asked Pope Urban II to help him stop the Muslim advance into his empire. Besides having lost Jerusalem more than four centuries earlier, the Byzantine Empire had more recently lost most of what is modern day Turkey to the Muslims. In 1095, the Muslims were about to move into what is modern day Greece. 20 Some historians believe that Urban thought he could reunite the Western and Eastern churches after the Great Schism, and expand his own power by raising an army, if he agreed to help Alexius. At the Council of Clermont, in France, Pope Urban II declared a Holy War against the Muslims. Urban promised both heavenly and earthly rewards, including forgiveness of all sins to anyone who was willing to join the armed pilgrimage which would continue on to Jerusalem. Urban expected that knights from the French aristocracy (especially younger sons who would not inherit any family property) would welcome the opportunity for adventure and accumulating wealth while fighting for Christendom. While the warriors from noble families prepared for their journey, large numbers of disorganized, illiterate and largely ill-prepared peasants, with no fighting skills, set off for Jerusalem, with no idea where it was. Many died on their way, having no food or water. Those who survived formed undisciplined mobs that left a path of destruction as they moved eastward. Jewish communities were attacked and even destroyed. The mobs pillaged Christian towns along the way as they desperately searched for food and supplies. Reaching Constantinople, they tried to attack and loot the city. Jerusalem was finally captured in 1099 CE. Godfrey of Bouillon of Lorraine (in present day France) declared himself the defender of the Holy Sepulchre. His brother, Baldwin, took the title of King of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Muslims regained control of Jerusalem with the victory of Saladin s armies in 1187 C.E. In 1229 the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II reconquered the city but in 1244 the Muslims armies once again retook Jerusalem. During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, on their way to Jerusalem, the crusaders detoured and looted the Byzantine capital city, Constantinople. Many atrocities were inflicted by the crusaders on their fellow Christians. The crusaders sacked the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), Orthodox Christianity s most sacred site. It was desecrated and burned the city to the ground. 21 This made the Great Schism even more irreversible. The destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders weakened the Christian Byzantine Empire, setting the stage for its fall to Muslim forces in 1453 C.E. Pope Innocent III, who had commissioned the fourth Crusade, condemned the acts committed by the crusaders but this could not prevent the permanent division between the Eastern and Western churches. The later crusades were even more materialistically motivated, and any pretext of spiritual motives were abandoned. Pope John Paul II

16 16 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent apologized twice in 2001 and 2004 for the acts of Christian crusaders. The Inquisition In its quest to stamp out heretical beliefs and practices not authorized by the Church, the Inquisition was first established by the western Roman Catholic Church around It lasted well into the nineteenth century. The Inquisition attempted to root out heresy and witchcraft through interrogations and by censoring books and ideas. On the Iberian Peninsula, Christian troops conquered Spain and Portugal, pushing the Muslims south and finally, out of Europe. In 1492, with the fall of Granada, the last vestiges of Muslim rule in Iberia were eliminated. Muslims and Jews remaining in Spain were given the choice of death, conversion or exile. The Inquisition, with the consent and approval of the Pope, turned its attention to New Christians--Muslim and Jewish converts to Christianity-- who secretly practiced their former faith. As Spanish and Portuguese explorers traveled to the New World and to Asia, the Inquisition went with them, establishing offices ready to investigate charges of heresy and dissent among Christians, old and new. 22 The Renaissance The Crusades, for all their barbarity and cruelty, introduced Europeans to many new ideas. The science and philosophy of the ancient Greeks had been translated, preserved and refined by the Muslims. During the Renaissance these would be retranslated into European languages. Travel to the Middle East also introduced Europeans to luxury goods and to the arts that they had never imagined. The demand for them created opportunities for trade. As a result of the Crusades, the Roman Catholic Church gained unprecedented wealth and power. Many artists were sponsored by the Church, and were commissioned to produce great works of art with Christian themes that have survived until today. This wealth would also express itself in corruption within the Church. The Protestant Reformation challenged the Pope s authority was rejected, and divided the Western church. One of the first reformers was an Augustinian friar, Martin Luther who, in 1517, wrote a list of 95 Theses criticizing church policies, for which he was excommunicated. 23 Science vs. Religion The eighteenth century became known as Age of Enlightenment and brought even more challenges for Christianity. This was the age of reason and science, which launched debates about God s role in the natural world. Philosophers of the time such as Voltaire, Diderot, Hume, Kant, Pascal, and Rousseau challenged Christian doctrines. 24 Galileo Galilei ( ), an Italian physicist, astronomer, mathematician and philosopher, aroused the wrath of the Church by asserting that the sun was the center of our solar system, rather than the earth. The Church thought that the earth

17 17 The Spread of Christianity: Doctrinal Development and Dissent was the center of the universe. Galileo was forced to recant (take back) his concept of the heliocentric universe. The Church nevertheless kept him under house arrest until his death. In 1992, the Church offered an apology and declared that his teachings were now acceptable. 25 Protestant Christianity began in various places in sixteenth century Western Europe, challenging the power and authority of the Roman Catholic Church. These challenges became known as the Protestant Reformation. At the time, literacy was becoming more widespread and printing presses were making Bibles more readily available and affordable. While some early Bible translators were punished with excommunication and even death for distorting the truths and teachings of Scripture and misrepresenting God s word, the Bible was soon available in most European languages. Once Christians were able to read the Bible for themselves, many began to understand it in new and different ways. Protestant religious leaders such as Martin Luther and John Calvin began to offer distinctive interpretations of Christian beliefs and practices. A variety of Protestant denominations grew out of Lutheranism and Calvinism. Several European rulers established their own state churches, of which they were the titular head, so they were no longer bound by the rulings of the Pope. The Church of England (Anglican Church) kept many features of Catholic ritual and theology when Henry VIII of England when he removed the Church of England from the Pope s authority and made himself the head of the church. While the catalyst for the break from Rome was the refusal of the Pope to annul Henry s marriage to his brother s widow, Katherine of Aragon when she could not produce a male heir, Henry also wanted to gain control of valuable church lands. Once the separation was complete, debates within Church of England over doctrine and ritual emerged. Some Anglicans saw themselves as non-papal but fully practicing Catholics, Other Anglicans regarded the Anglican Church as a movement within the Protestant Reform movement that was seeking to return to the indigenous traditions of the pre-catholic English church. These differences culminated in the English Civil War. The Gutenberg Bible (1455) was one of the first books to be printed with a mechanical movable-type printing press. This copy is in the Library of Congress in Washington DC.

18 18 Diversity in Christianity There are three main subgroups within Christianity today Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and Protestantism. While they share certain beliefs and rituals, they disagree with one another about various doctrines. Some of these disagreements are about theology--ideas about God. Others have to do with when, why and how certain rites and rituals are observed. Still other differences have to do with church organization and authority within the church--who has the right and power to speak for God and make rules in the community. Eastern Orthodoxy church. 26 There are about 250 million Orthodox Christians in the world today. The majority of Orthodox Christians live in Greece, Turkey, the Balkans, and Russia and in countries near them. The Estimated number of Orthodox Christians in the U.S. ranges from 1.2 million to 5.5 million. They are affiliated with 22 different ethnic jurisdictions of Orthodox Christianity in the U.S. The largest is the Greek Orthodox Church, with which about 60% of American Orthodox Christians are affiliated. As many as a third of Orthodox Christians are believed to be converts from other branches of Christianity. The Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church officially split apart in 1054, with each considering itself to be the original and authentic Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the World The Orthodox Church is subdivided into several regional churches, each governed by its own bishop or patriarch. The Patriarch of Constantinople ranks first Dominant religion Important minority religion (over 10%)

19 19 Diversity in Christianity among the patriarchs of Orthodox Christianity, but he does not have the authority over the other patriarchs and bishops that the Roman Catholic pope exercises over Roman Catholic bishops and clergy. Orthodox clergy are permitted to marry, while Roman Catholic priests and the Catholic Church hierarchy are required to remain celibate. Orthodox Christianity permits and encourages the veneration of icons (from the Greek word eikona, which means image). Images of Jesus Christ and numerous saints can be found in Orthodox churches and homes. Churches often have a wall of religious paintings and icons called an iconostasis. Orthodox homes may have an area set aside for family prayer, where icons are displayed. Icons are often illuminated by candlelight. Catholicism About half of all Christians in the world today about one in every six people--are Catholics. There are about 72 million Catholics in the U.S. The word catholic comes from the Greek word, katolikos, which means universal. The Catholic Church considers itself to be the continuation of the original Church of Rome established by Jesus disciples, Peter and Paul, in the first century. Catholics believe that for salvation, observance of seven sacraments is required, and that no degree of faith is sufficient for salvation. Catholics consider the Pope to be the highest religious authority on earth, whose decisions must be followed and may not be questioned. Orthodox Christian doctrines concerning the sacraments are similar to those of Roman Catholicism: there are several differences in practice. For example, babies not only receive the sacrament of baptism, as they do in the Roman Catholic Church, but also chrismation (the Orthodox term for confirmation) and communion (Eucharist). St. Peter s Square, Vatican City: Vatican City is home to the major figure of the Catholic Church, the Pope.

20 20 ity Diversity in Christianity Protestantism The Anglican Communion is now the third largest church group in the world, with 77 million members, second only to Roman Catholicism and the Eastern Orthodox Church in size. The primary church of the communion, with which 44 national churches are affiliated, is the Church of England. Its symbolic religious primate is the Archbishop of Canterbury, although each of the churches in the communion can determine its own doctrines and liturgical practices. The Protestant Episcopal Church of North America represents 77 million Anglicans in the U.S. Today there are half a billion Protestants worldwide, 170 million of whom live in the U.S. Some Protestant sects, particularly in the U.S. where there was no official state-controlled religion, emphasized freedom of conscience, and the right of believers to read and interpret Scripture in their own way without fear of persecution. themselves to be above or outside the three branch divide. Some have practiced Christianity since ancient times, long before these divisions took place. Others are newer Christian sects that emerged in Europe and the U.S. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, also known as the Mormon Church, claims 13 million members worldwide, nearly half of whom (6.3 million) live in the U.S. As Christianity has gained converts in various parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, it has merged with a wide variety of local religious and cultural traditions. However, according to one estimate there are at least 30,000 different Christian groups and sects in the world today. 27 Today s Christianity is diverse, and Christians embrace and observe Christianity s teachings in a wide variety of ways. Protestants put less emphasis on the sacraments than the Catholic Church had done. According to the doctrine of grace, nothing human beings are capable of doing is deserving of God s forgiveness and salvation, which are freely granted to believers on the basis of their faith. Sacraments such as baptism were reinterpreted, based on biblical teachings. Some Protestant sects replaced or reinforced infant baptism with adult baptism. Within Christianity there are numerous other religious groups, large and small, who consider

21 21 Beliefs and Practices Christians share certain basic concepts such as belief in Jesus Christ as messiah and the doctrine of the Trinity. Some Christian practices that are common to most denominations are prayer, holidays, and certain religious rites which are called sacraments by some Christians. Certain beliefs are unique to Christianity and shared by most Christians, although they may understand them differently. Jesus Christ as Messiah The word Christ comes from the Greek word for kristos, and messiah from the Hebrew word mashiach, both of which mean anointed one. Nearly all Christians share the belief that Jesus Christ was anointed by God to bring salvation to human beings from their sins. Trinity Nearly all Christians believe in one God--an all powerful Supreme Being who created all things who, nevertheless has three aspects or persons: God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The nature of the distinction between these three aspects, as well as of their interrelationship with one another, while comprising one single deity, have been debated by Christian theologians throughout the history of Christianity. Sacraments In Christianity, Jesus is believed to be the messiah. Described by St. Augustine as a visible sign of an invisible reality, sacraments are church rites that convey divine grace on the participants. According to the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, there are seven sacraments: 1) Baptism; 2) Confirmation (called chrismation in the Orthodox tradition); 3) Mass (also known as the Eucharist or Lord s Supper; 4) Confession; 5) Extreme unction ( last rites, administered when a person is dying; 6) Matrimony and 7) Ordination. While the first five are required of all believers in the Church, matrimony is only required of people who get married. Ordination is only a rite for those who becoming priests or who move up into higher positions within the Church such as bishops or cardinals. According to Orthodox teachings, many other rituals and religious activities beyond these seven can also be considered sacramental. Anglicans recognize all seven of the sacraments that the Roman Catholic Church does, but only consider two of them baptism and the Eucharist as primary sacraments explicitly required for salvation. The Lutheran

22 22 Beliefs and Practices Church considers baptism, the Eucharist ( sacrament of the altar ), and confession to be the three sacraments necessary for divine grace. Some Christian denominations, including Quakers and the Salvation Army, emphasize inner spiritual transformation, do not believe that any sacraments are necessary. Protestant denominations that use the term sacrament usually applied it only to the rites specifically ordained by Jesus Christ that must be performed by a qualified clergyman. Other practices, such as getting married in a church, are considered to be traditions that are encouraged and widely observed. Baptism In the ritual of baptism, water is used to ritually cleanse away sin and to mark the admission of a Christian into a church. In some denominations infants are baptized at birth; in others, baptism occurs at various stages in life. In the Roman Catholic Church, baptism takes place as soon as an infant is born to remove the stain of original sin. According to Catholic doctrine, an unbaptized infant who has not committed any sins through its actions cannot go to heaven if it dies unbaptized. In the Orthodox churches, infant baptism is performed, but it is also practiced at various other stages in life. According to the Baptist church and certain other Protestant sects such as Pentecostals, only someone who understands the purpose of the baptism rite and knowingly joins a church and accepts its doctrines can truly receive baptism. Infants who have undergone baptism must be baptized again when they are old enough to comprehend and agree to the doctrines of the church. Baptism is performed in different ways. In some Christian denominations it is done through sprinkling of holy water (aspersion), in others through pouring water over the head (affusion), while some require immersion of all or part of the body in water. Eucharist The Eucharist is also known as the Mass, Holy Communion and the the Lord s Supper. According to the Gospels, the night before he was arrested, Jesus ate and drank with his apostles. At this Last Supper, he told his followers to observe a similar meal to remember him. 28 Many Christians participate in a sacrament called the Eucharist (from the Greek word for thanksgiving), in which bread or a wafer represents Christ s body and wine represents his blood. (Grape juice is used in churches that do not allow drinking alcohol.) Christian churches differ in their understanding of the Eucharist and how it is observed. Usually a recipient of the Eucharist comes forward to accept a small wafer (often called the host) from the officiating priest or clergymen, followed by a sip of wine from a chalice or glass. Christian theologians disagree about whether Jesus

23 23 Beliefs and Practices Christ is physically present in the bread and the wine or his presence in them is symbolic. Sin and Forgiveness Christians call an action that is considered to be wrong or evil by God a sin and a person who does something wrong to be a sinner. A person who commits a sin must recognize what they have done as unacceptable to God, confess and ask for forgiveness. In some churches a person must confess what they have done wrong, and ask for forgiveness (absolution) from God through the church sacrament of confession. In others it is personal and private, and forgiveness can be received by faith in Jesus Christ having died for the sins of humanity. Some Christians believe in the doctrine of original sin: that a person is tainted with sin by nature or as a result of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, original sin must be removed by infant baptism. In the teachings of many Protestant sects, the inherently sinful nature of human beings can only be overcome by divine grace. Judgment after Death Most Christians believe that human beings will be judged as good or evil after they die. Good people will be rewarded and sinners will be punished. The afterlife where good people are rewarded is called Heaven; while sinners are sent to Hell for punishment. There are many different Christian views of reward and punishment. According to some Christian church doctrines, certain sacraments, such as baptism or confession, in order to enter Heaven, while others teach that nothing a person does can make them worthy of Heaven except faith in Divine grace. According to one Christian view of the afterlife, sinners are punished in Hell for a designated period of time, based on the seriousness of the specific sins they committed, while according to another, punishment in Hell is for all eternity. Many Christians believe that only Christians can go to Heaven. Christians also believe that at the end of time, Jesus will return and judge the world. Christian Holidays There are two major Christian holidays: Christmas and Easter. However, not all Christians celebrate these holidays in the same way. Each sub-group of Christianity has its own special practices and traditions. Christmas Christmas is observed by Christians as the day that Jesus Christ was born, although no date is given in the New Testament, where Luke and Matthew recount the traditions