A Critical Study of Responsibility in Theravāda Buddhist Philosophy

Transcription

1 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 A Critical Study of Responsibility in Theravāda Buddhist Philosophy Tun Pa May Abstract In Buddhist thought, the personality of an individual is identified with what his or her kamma makes of it. This paper is an attempt to solve the problem of why Theravāda Buddhist thought responsibility is an essential element of human dignity. Theravāda Buddhist thought recognizes the crucial role of the decisions of the individual man and emphasizes Self- Reliance. In this paper descriptive and evaluative methods are used. The principle of reciprocity is applied to show that man can fulfil his sense of dignity and integrity through responsibility. In Theravāda Buddhist thought, man should put into consideration the classical distinction between merely living and living well. To live just for the sake of living will not lead to a worthy life. So, this paper tries to present the fact that our mode of living should contribute to spiritual good as well as to the good of society. Keywords: human dignity, self-reliance, responsibility, Kamma. Introduction The problem of the role of responsibility is important for all men and it demands an idea that is in accord with the solution. Physical wellbeing and subsistence are basically important for all men because these are the most necessary goals and without them, one can do nothing. But, it is more appropriate and essential for a man that man should live with the knowledge of his responsibility because it contributes to a virtuous life. The problems which are attempted to be solved by the philosophers of the West and East are almost the same. But, since the cultures are different, there are differences in solving the problems. Sometimes, man s status in society is often being judged by the material wealth he has accumulated in life. In ancient times as well as in modern times, people used to hold the view that material wealth is important for men. But some observe that this is a narrow and destructive view of human life. Some philosophers tried to set up a scale of goods of the mind, character and health. This is in agreement with the popular saying which is explained in Tutor, Department of Oriental Studies, Hinthada University

2 126 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 the book of The Purpose and the Goal of Life by Dr. Min Tin Mon as follows: When wealth is lost, nothing is lost; when health is lost, something is lost; when character is lost, everything is lost. 1 Hence, in Myanmar Buddhist thought the character of man constitutes the most important and the most pressing practical problem of all philosophical problems since it concerns all men so intimately. In the history of philosophy, philosophers have made various attempts to define what man is, what man s authentic existence is and what the values in his life are, because the task of philosophy is to examine the nature, meaning, purpose and dignity of man. Theravāda Buddhist thought accepts that responsibility is important in moral values. The Myanmar Buddhist criterion of responsibility is an essential element of moral development and character progress in Myanmar society. It can be said that responsibility is traditionally accepted in Myanmar society. It is accepted to be the driving force in Myanmar culture. That the moral concept of responsibility is essential is substantiated by Paticca-Samuppāda (Law of Dependent Origination), the law of Kamma, the five precepts and four cardinal values. Paticca-Samuppāda (Law of Dependent Origination) Theravada Buddhist thought believes in the principle of Ye dhammâ hetuppabhava (a, "r m a[wkyüb0g), Ye dhamma hetuppabhava which means that everything is conditional. The condition or cause which Buddhism believes in is not supernatural. It means that everything happens in accordance with the related condition. It also believes in life circle or ocean of existence. It believes that there is causal relation between everything, whether it is nature or human life. In Theravāda Buddhist thought there are twelve causal relations which explain the conditionality and dependent nature of uninterrupted flux of manifold physical and mental phenomena of existence. It explains how each individual is involved in the wheel of existence undergoing the rounds of rebirths and misery in the long chain of existences. Myanmar Buddhism calls it Samsāra. According to Buddhism, all physical and mental phenomenons are conditional. The arising of a phenomenon depends on a specific condition. According to Paticca-Samuppāda, action takes place

3 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No through twelve factors and these factors are: (1) There is a cause for jarā and marana, ageing and death. (2) Jarā and marana, ageing and death, are due to jāti, new existence. (3) Jāti, new existence, is due to bhava, the kammic causal process. (4) Bhava, the kammic causal process, are due to upādāna, clinging. (5) Upādāna, clinging, is due to tanhā, craving. (6) Tanhā, craving, is due to vedanā, sensation. (7) Vedanā, sensation, is due to phassa, contact. (8) Phassa, contact, is due to athtāyatana, six organs of cognitions. (9) Athtāyatana, six organs of cognition, is due to nāmarūpa, mind-and-body. (10) Namarūpa, mind-and-body, is due to viññanā, consciousness. (11) ViññāÓa, consciousness, is due to sa~khèra, volitional activities. (12) sa~khèra, volitional activities, is due to avijjā, ignorance. 2 Thus it is believed that life is continued by law of cause and effect and then man receives the good and the bad in accordance with his actions. The Law of Kamma Theravada Buddhist thought emphasizes the role of an individual s action and responsibility as a dignity of man. It accepts the law of kamma. It can be applied to human problems and looks at man as a being who is responsible for his actions and that man s actions are determined by the law of kamma. Each person has to develop himself and to work out his own emancipation, for man has the power to liberate himself from all bondage through his own personal effort and intelligence. Everyone should do his work, for the Buddha who has discovered the Truth only teaches the way. The Buddha teaches the principle of individual responsibility and freedom. This freedom is necessary because, man s emancipation depends on his own realization of Truth. According to Myanmar Buddhist thought, man is not thrown into the world by chance or by created by a supernatural being. Man comes into being in this world by his actions or deeds which he himself did in the past. On the other hand, man is born in this world because of his own craving and attachment. So, man cannot be separated from his own kamma, self-reliance and responsibility. For Myanmar Buddhist thought, man is made up of matter and mind. Mind is composed of four aggregates such as feeling, perception, mental formation and consciousness. According to it, in the mental formation Cetanā is the most important one which co-ordinates the other mental factors. Cetanā is a mental potentiality which together with man s

4 128 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 consciousness is like a commander-in-chief who fulfils its responsibility and regulates the work of others as well. Cetanā fulfils its own function and regulates the function of other mental factors associated with it. Cetanā plays a predominant role in all actions of man. Man s Cetanā creates the will, volition, intention, motivation, conation, drive, stimulus, disposition, determination, effort, choice, etc. Since Cetanā stimulates the mind, so man is committed by deed, speech and thought. Therefore Cetanā, mental potentiality, is called Kamma. Myanmar Buddhist thought accepts that kamma is intimately related to merit. Kamma refers to volitional action, of which there are two types, one is Kusala (good) and the other is Akusala (bad). Kusala kamma or good kamma produces merit for which there is favorable or pleasurable retribution and while akusala kamma or bad kamma produces demerit for which there is unfavorable or unpleasant retribution. Hence, one s fate is determined by his kamma and one s life is the consequence of his own prior action (kamma). Myanmar Buddhist thought not only believes in the endless cycle of births and rebirths but also accepts that human may not always be born as human and they may be born as celestial beings or as lower forms of life. Anyone can be born again as an animal or an insect. Believing in this law, Myanmar Buddhism accepts that each living being is the result of his deeds, words and thought throughout the cycle of birth and rebirth till they are liberated and attain Nibbāna. According to Buddhism, depending on one s kamma man is born and dies again and again as sentient beings. Men are trapped in this cycle of birth and rebirth because of their ignorance and false understanding of reality. Theravāda Buddhist thought accepts that what they suffer is due to their own kamma, their own misdeeds. So an individual bears sole responsibility for what he does (kamma). Myanmar Buddhism accepts that the law of kamma plays a key role in a man s ethical life. So the law of kamma is the heart of Myanmar Buddhist ethics. Buddhism accepts that man has responsibility because each action leads to another and this goes on throughout the cycle of existence ; life cycle or ocean of existence. In Myanmar Buddhist thought, involuntary, unintentional or unconscious actions, though technically deeds do not constitute kamma, because of volition (Cetanā), the most important factor in determining kamma, is absent. Kamma does not necessarily mean past actions. It

5 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No embraces both past and present deeds. One s present lot, whether it is good, bad or indifferent, is the result of past deeds. The deeds of the present and some of the past will be the cause of pleasant or unpleasant situations in the future. The Five Precepts and Responsibility In Myanmar Buddhism, Samsārā is characterized by a continuum of pleasure and pain. This differential distribution of pleasure and pain is a direct retribution for action performed. According to the law of kamma, action performed in conformity with Buddhist precepts produces well whose kammic recompense is a pleasant rebirth. Conversely, action, which violates the Buddhist precepts produces bad, whose kammic retribution is a bad rebirth. So, according to Myanmar Buddhism, the merit obtained from conformity with precepts leads to a better existence and to live in accordance with the five precepts which is an important source of merit. Good moral deeds and bad immoral deeds exist in life. Good begets good, and bad begets bad. As one sows, so one shall reap. In verse 119 of Dhammapada the Buddha gives noble guidance for all persons as follows; Those who have committed evil may have enjoyment and happiness so long as their immoral deeds do not yet mature. In this period they look blissful. However, when evil deeds become time to mature, to bear-suitable fruits these bad persons experience various kinds of sorrow and suffering. Conversely in the Dhammapada verse 120 the Buddha gives noble guidance for all persons as follows: A man may find pleasure in evil as long as his good has not given fruit, but when the fruit of good comes then that man finds good indeed. Although good persons have done good deeds, they experience poor condition so long as the good deeds do not yet ripen. However, when such good deeds have ripened, they experience happiness of good action. Understanding the law of kamma teaches man self-reliance and sense of responsibility because what one enjoys or suffers is a result of one s own kamma (own deeds). So man should try with self-reliance and responsibility to keep his dignity. Besides if man believes in the five

6 130 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 precepts and abides them then he serves his responsibility. By abiding sêla he can keep his dignity. The precepts (Sīla) which comprise the core of Myanmar Buddhist morality include three sets of prohibitions which are a minimum set of five, and an expanded set of eight or ten. The five precepts, which are incumbent on every Myanmar Buddhist, include abstention from killing, stealing, illicit sexual relations, lying, and imbibing any intoxicant conductive to slothfulness. The Meaning of Precept The word of 'precept' is defined by Mingun Tipitakadhara Sayadaw in the book of Obeisance and Taking the Precepts as follows: The precept means sikkhāpada. Sikkhāpada is code of conduct. The code of conduct to be practiced is threefold: precept, concentration and wisdom. These threefold, codes of conduct to be practiced, are: (1) Sīla-sikkhā: precept to be practised (2) Samādhi-sikkhā: concentration to be practiced (3) Paññâ- sikkhā: wisdom to be practised According to Sayadaw, one will not succeed if one practises concentration and wisdom without abiding the percepts. Precept is like the earth. All enterprises to be successful need to be firmly established on the ground of precept. Thus precept is the base for the upper stages of concentration and wisdom. Myanmar Buddhism asserts that all of our thoughts, our speeches and our actions are directed by our mind. But our mind seems to be not very powerful. This is so because our mind is not concentrated but dispersed, not clear but defiled by ignorance (moha), craving (lobha), anger (dosa) and other defilements. So, the first step in purifying the mind is to observe the five precepts. These five precepts constitute the basic moral training (or) the first stage in the noble way of life. In Myanmar Buddhism, moral training seems to be very simple and easy to practise. Yet it bears great significance and it is not as easy to practise as one thinks.

7 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No Establishing the Five Precepts The first precept is Pā ātipātā Veramani Sikkhāpada½ Samādiyāmi. It means that one can establish, accept and practise the precept by abstaining from killing and taking one s life. The second precept is adinnādānā Veramani Sikkhāpada½ Samādiyāmi, It means that one can establish, accept and practise the precept by abstaining from taking what is not given to him by the owner. The third precept is Kāmesu micchācārā veramani sikkhāpada½ Samādiyāmi. It means that one can establish, accept and practise the precept by abstaining from misdemeanor in sexual relations. The fourth precept is Musāvādā Veramani Sikkhāpada½ Samādiyāmi. It means that one can establish, accept and practise the precept by abstaining from speaking falsely. The fifth precept is Surāmeraya majjhappamadatthānā Veramani Sikkhapada½ Samādiyāmi. It means that one can establish, accept and practise the precept by abstaining from taking intoxicants. To abstain from killing any sentient being is a noble way of cultivating loving-kindness, forbearance, patience, forgiveness, courage, justice and other virtues. For Theravāda Buddhist thought, Man does not like to be killed by others for all sentient beings love themselves and all are afraid to die. It is unjust to kill other beings. Killing is performed under the influence of ignorance and anger. Ignorance here means being ignorant of the law of kamma. Since Myanmar Buddhism believes in the law of kamma, man must control his anger and abstain from killing. So to abstain from killing is one of the best forms of self-control, and it is an act of goodwill to let all beings live in peace. The same kind of reasoning can be applied to the remaining four precepts. It is unjust and degrading to steal the property of others and to take what is not given to him. The person whose property is stolen will be sad and the peace in the community is disturbed. So, to abstain from stealing is an act of courtesy and goodwill to the community, and it is also a form of self-control, restraining one s greed and covetousness. Furthermore, if everyone abstains from killing and stealing, from committing sexual misconduct, from lying and cheating and from indulging in intoxicants, then everybody will be happy, and the whole community and the whole world

8 132 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 will be at peace. So, abiding by the five moral precepts constitutes the foundation of morality. So, the happy and peaceful life of everybody and of the whole community and the whole world depend on man s responsibility and self-control. In order to fulfil his responsibility man should not only abide precepts but also four cardinal values. If a man holds the moral precepts and the four cardinal values, he has fulfilled his responsibility. At the same time his action is an act of courtesy and good will to the community. Consequently he is a dignified person. Therefore, everyone should know how to behave, especially, how he should fulfill his responsibility which leads to dignity. Everyone wants his life to be peaceful and stable. The five precepts are basic values to practice moral uprightness. If everybody maintains and preserves himself with the five precepts then the whole of his community would be peaceful and stable. Myanmar Buddhist thought believes that man s life is like bubbles in water in the life cycle and if he cannot live by a peaceful life then his life is meaningless. So Myanmar Buddhists believe that resolution of life problems depends on the values that man holds. According to Myanmar Buddhist thought, in order to obtain a pleasant human life in this world only Dāna (giving), Sīla (taking and keeping moral precept), Bhāvanâ (mental development or meditation) Samādhi (concentration) and Paññâ (knowledge) are not sufficient without abiding the four cardinal values. For example, if it stands at the prow then the stern is bow (or) if the stand in the stern then the prow is bow as a boat. So, according to Myanmar Buddhist thought, in order to fulfill one's responsibility and to be in harmony with society man should try to build up one s character or one s intelligent which is based on the four cardinal values. Four Cardinal Values and Responsibility According to Myanmar Buddhist thought it is essential that man must fulfil his responsibility to get benefit for him as well as for others. In Myanmar Buddhist thought, an individual has to fulfil his responsibilities; these are responsibility of a child, responsibility of parents, responsibility of a teacher, responsibility of a husband, responsibility of a wife, responsibility of master, responsibility of servants or employees, responsibility of a friend, responsibility of a householder, responsibility of a holy monk and

9 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No responsibility of a lay follower, etc. Man has to fulfil these responsibilities in his life step by step. In doing so, it is necessary to go along with the values of life which lead to his dignity. One has to live in accordance with Brahmā Vihāra. Brahmā Vihāra means the four cardinal values which are essential for a man's life. Theravāda Buddhist thought strongly accepts that abstaining from killing and making effort to prolong life of others depends on the concept of mettā. Mettā means loving kindness, Karu ā means compassion, Muditā means joy in other s good fortune, and Uppekhā means equanimity. Myanmar Theravāda Buddhist thought believes that these basic values are norms. These values can be applied as norms in fulfilling the responsibility of man. According to Visuddhimagga, loving-kindness or Metta is characterized as the aspect of welfare. The function of mettā is to prefer other people's welfare. It sees lovable aspects in all beings. Compassion or Karu ā is characterized as a way of allaying suffering. The function of compassion is to sympathize with the sufferings of others and to help them. It is to help others in their misfortunes. It is to help others to overcome suffering. Gladness or Muditā is joy in the success of others. It is sympathetic or appreciative joy which tends to destroy jealousy. The way for developing Muditā is the same as that for developing loving-kindness and compassion. Equanimity or Uppekhā means an equally balanced mind taking a neutral attitude without discrimination. One should develop by reminding oneself that it is equanimity: sabbe sattâ kammassaka, which means that the state of all beings is determined by their individual kamma. Either good or bad depends upon their own actions done in the past as well as present which bring happiness or misery. These actions bear fruits as resultant effects which have inherited according to the law of kamma. These four principles are the moral foundation of man. At the same time these are the values which can be applied as norms to fulfill the responsibility of man. According to Buddhism, a man of virtue has a strong desire for the welfare of all beings. Buddhism maintain that beings are interrelated and interconnected and also realize that the concept of mettā is a most appropriate state of mind which can guide Myanmar people in their

10 134 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 relationship with the world and other sentient beings. In these four cardinal values mettā must be extended to all beings. Conclusion Theravāda Buddhist thought states that man has the responsibility to fulfill. In order to fulfil one's responsibility one should follow the four cardinal values and five precepts. By doing so, man can fulfil one kind of his responsibility to bring peaceful and pleasant community. Only if man has good character he can try to give pleasure to living beings and nonliving beings. Hence a man should try to have a good character so that he could carry on the welfare for others. Therefore, another kind of responsibility is man s effort to have a good character. First, this paper tries to consider the social dealing of man and his human environment. In fact, although a man develops mettā only in himself he cannot be said that he has taken full responsibility, because he needs to serve the welfare for the whole community and environment. For Myanmar Buddhism, man cannot live alone. He has to live by the support of his environment. So it is important for a man to know that he has responsibility to know the gratitude of his environment. His environment consists of both living beings and non-living things. Therefore, man is responsible for the welfare of his nation. In doing so, he can preserve the welfare of his environment and repay the gratitude of his nation and his state and his environment. If a man can construct only for his own life then it cannot be said that he fulfils his responsibility as a man. Furthermore, this man is no more valuable than that of a tree, upon which many birds rely and stay. Myanmar Buddhism believes that it is an intrinsic value for a man to act for the benefit of his own life as well as to conserve the welfare of others. When a man fulfils his responsibility he has to know that there is interrelation between others and him. In the field of health, doctor and patient, in the field of economics, seller and buyer, in the field of sovereignty, the government and citizens, in the field of society, one and his friends (or) associates, and in the field of education, teachers and his pupils, are interrelated with each other. Man cannot live alone so that he has responsibility to fulfil in his community and environment. Hence man has to take the full responsibility in his life. These are responsibility of children, responsibility of parents, responsibility of pupil, responsibility of teacher, responsibility of husband, responsibility of wife,

11 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No responsibility of a servant, responsibility of a master, responsibility of a friend, responsibility of a householder, responsibility of a lay follower, responsibility of a holy monk, responsibility of citizens, responsibility of a government. Myanmar Buddhist thought accepts that responsibility is an essential element of human dignity. Theravāda Buddhist moral values urge that man should realize that his responsibility can lead to a peaceful and happy life for himself, his environment and mankind. To be a good citizen, man must understand his responsibility. But, it is more important for a man how to live with the knowledge of reality. Myanmar Buddhist thought believes that since all men are artisans of their future it is essential for a man to control himself with the sense of responsibility. It also believes that although man cannot be free from mistake, it is essential to abstain from these mistakes as much as he could. So a man who wants to live with dignity must take responsibility completely realizing that responsibility is a dignity of man. If he does not fulfil this, then he may be engulfed in overwhelming despair at the meaninglessness of life. Believing in the law of causality or Law of Kamma, establishing precepts and holding Brahma Vihāra, man can fulfil his responsibility. These are the steps to build up ones moral life. In this way, man can accumulate good Kamma till he achieves moral perfection or Nibbāna. These are the responsibilities man has to fulfil and it is the dignity of him. References Frechtman Bernard. (1974). Existentialism. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc. Frost, Jr. (1942). Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers. New York: Garden City, Doubleday & Company, Inc. Hla Pe, Dr. (2004). The Myanmar Buddhist: His Life from the Cradle to the Grave. Yangon: 33 Street (middle block). Mahanidana Sutta. Maha Vagga (2003). Digha Nikaya. Yangon: Myanmar Pitaka Association. Myanmar. Mingun Tipitakadhara Sayadaw (2006). The Safeguard of the Discourse on Loving Kindness. Yangon: No. (12), Sacawar Street, Tipitaka- Nikârâ Press. Mingun Tipitakadhara Sayadaw (2006). Obeisance and Taking the Precepts. Yangon: No. (12) Sacawar Street, Tipitaka- Nikârâ Press.

12 136 Universities Research Journal 2011, Vol. 4, No. 7 Mingun Tipitakadhara Sayadaw (2006). The Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. Yangon: No. (12) Sacawar Street, Tipitaka- Nikârâ Press. Mya Tin,Daw. (1995). Dhammapada. Yangon: Pitaka Association Press. Myanmar. Spiro, Melford E. (1970). Buddhism and Society. New York: Evanston, San Francisco, London, Haper & Row, Publishers, Inc. jrefrmbmomudk;um;usrf;rsm; ausmfvdiifod;? (2004)? jz pfw n fr Iy" me 0g' v r f;amu mi f;? &efukef? yk*hpmtkyfwdkuf/ Munfopf? (2004)? [ dki fa ' * g? &efukef? yk*hpmtkyfwdkuf/ ee modef;zh? (1986)? b 0t "dyüg, fesi fhb 0o pfpm? &efukef? vdiif;opfpmay/ rmp0? (1985)? q Hk;r pmaygi f;cskyf? &efukef? ESvHk;vSpmayNzefUcsDa&;/ rif;ugef;wdyd#u"&q&mawmfbud;?(1990)?u masr mv m?&efukef? wdyd#upmtkyfwdkuf/ rif;wifrgef? a'gufwm? (1998)? b 0 u dp öesi fhb 0 y e f; w kdi f? &efukef? jr&wemrgefpmay? '*khnrdkue,f?