Downloaded on T23:19:26Z. Title. Re-imagining Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage culture in India. Author(s) Kalmar, Brigitta.

Transcription

1 Title Author(s) Editor(s) Re-imagining Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage culture in India Kalmar, Brigitta Kapalo, James Butler, Jenny Heinhold, Chris Publication date 2017 Original citation Type of publication Link to publisher's version Rights Kalmar, B 'Re-imagining Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimage Culture in India', Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5, pp Article (peer-reviewed) Access to the full text of the published version may require a subscription. 2017, The Author(s). Item downloaded from Downloaded on T23:19:26Z

2 Kalmar: Re-imagining Brigitta KALMAR Re-imagining Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimage Culture in India ABSTRACT: This article explores how Tibetans have defined India, the birthplace of Buddhism, as a space for themselves and hence created, re-created and reinvented their ancient pilgrimage destinations and rituals there since the middle of 20 th century. I begin this paper by introducing the historical development of pilgrimage in the Buddhist tradition and mapping the sacred Buddhist geography of India. In the second part, I explore the development of pilgrimage traditions in Tibetan Buddhism and the network of sacred sites used by pilgrims. In the third part, I introduce some of the Tibetan inventions and reinventions of the pilgrimage tradition over an extensive period of time, between the 12 th and the mid-20 th century. Finally, partly based on my fieldwork findings, I examine how the Tibetan diasporic community in India has maintained and reinvented its pilgrimage culture and what possible changes have occurred subsequently. KEYWORDS: Buddhism, pilgrimage, Tibetan, India, Tibetan Buddhism Brigitta KALMAR holds a JD in Law from University of Szeged, Hungary, an MA in Human Rights from University of Ulster, UK and an MA in Contemporary Religions from UCC, Ireland. Her research interests include contemporary Buddhism in India and Nepal, women and Buddhism in the 21 st century, gender equality and pilgrimage studies. 40

3 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 Introduction Pilgrimage is an ancient universal human activity and one of the most common phenomena found in all major religious traditions. Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam all have developed complex pilgrimage cultures, with a range of sites and unique traditions. Despite modernity and secularization, pilgrimage has still remained extremely popular for religious practitioners, and has been transforming along with the 21 st century`s social, economic and technological developments. Interestingly, despite its enduring prominence, until relatively recently, the study of pilgrimage has not attracted much scholarly work. The academic study of pilgrimage is a relatively new field of enquiry, which only emerged during the 1960`s and 1970`s, initially focusing on the Christian and Islamic pilgrimage traditions. The first works were produced by historians and subsequently social scientists. Social anthropologists especially began to contribute to this new emerging field in which the works of anthropologist Victor Turner played a key part (see Turner 1974 & Turner & Turner 1978). Turner found similarities among pilgrimage practices of historical religions and developed a rich theoretical vocabulary, including structural, anti-structural, liminoid and communitas, which could be employed for further research in the study of religions. While many scholars were influenced by Turner`s work, his theories were also widely criticised, 1 some finding them too restricting and limiting for an extremely complex phenomenon. As Reader argues, many of Turner s critiques then moved toward limiting and restricting the field of pilgrimage studies at a time when we feel that it ought to be broadened (Reader 1993, 13). He adds however that one of the attractive things about pilgrimage is that it straddles so many disciplines, including history, theology, folklore, social geography and anthropology, and hence offers vast scope for interdisciplinary studies (Reader 1993, 14). Indeed, contemporary research on pilgrimage has expanded considerably since the early 1990s, some of the works successfully managing to cross disciplines such as anthrophony, ethnography, sociology, history, religious studies, gender, tourism and migration studies. With the gradual opening of the Tibetan region to tourism in the 1980 s, travelling to Tibet and doing fieldwork became possible for Western scholars interested in the subject matter. 2 As a result, a new generation of researchers from various disciplines has begun to explore the Tibetan 1 See for example Brian Paffelberger (1979), Barbara Aziz (1987) and Eade and Sallnow (1991), in Reader 1993, For example Guiseppe Tucci and Robert Ekwall. 41

4 Kalmar: Re-imagining pilgrimage culture and places, producing a number of studies. 3 Interestingly, all of these works completely neglected the Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage places and culture of India Tibet s immediate neighbour and the birthplace of Buddhism which, as Huber noted, concerning the development of Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage culture, has been extremely important to the Tibetans themselves for a very long time (Huber 2008, 7). He further argues that research on the Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage culture of India should have attracted more of a scholarly interest, given the fact that for the very first time in history a permanent Tibetan society, along with its religious leaders, has been residing in India for over 50 years due to major political changes in Tibet s other important neighbour, China. The history of Sino-Tibetan relations is a long and complex one. The earliest records show Tibet s first contact with China in the 7th century AD 4 during the reign of Tibet`s king Songsten Gampo (c AD), who married the Chinese princess Wencheng, forming a diplomatic and powerful alliance between the two nations. In modern history, the relationship has rather been shaped by a series of dramatic political events. The 1911 Chinese Revolution against the Manchu Empire resulted in the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 which had also ruled over Tibet. In what became known as the Tibetan Uprising of , Tibet declared its de facto independence from China, despite China s refusal to recognize it as a separate country. These strained relations then resulted in occasional out-bursts of conflict along the border frontiers of Tibet in the years that followed. Subsequently the turning point in Tibetan history came in 1949, when the Chinese Communist Party came into power and officially proclaimed the People s Republic of China on October 1 st 1949, followed by the annexation of Tibet. Fighting continued to occur throughout the region resulting in a massive popular uprising in Lhasa in 1959, calling for independence and self-determination, resulting in the 14 th Dalai Lama and his entourage fleeing Tibet into Northern India. He was granted political asylum by Jawaharlal Nehru in Dharamsala (state of Himachal Pradesh), where he founded the Tibetan Government-in-Exile. About 85,000 Tibetans, along with most of the religious elite followed him to India, creating a small but significant diaspora community in exile. Due to the sensitive political climate in China, visiting the traditional pilgrimage places of the Tibetan plateau has become complicated for most Tibetans living in India, therefore they have been forced to re-imagine and re-create their ancient practice of pilgrimage in modern India. 3 See for example Buffetrille (2000), Blondeau and Steinkellner (1996), Blondeau (1998), Gutschow (2003), Huber (1999), Macdonald (1997), McKay (1998) in Huber 2008, 7. 4 While there are a few resources on Tibet`s history before the reign of King Songsten Gampo, their nature is scattered and often contradictory. See McKay 2003,

5 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 Two fieldwork studies were conducted during the summer of 2014 and winter During the first stay I visited three of the four most important Buddhist sites in India - Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar - to observe Tibetan presence and pilgrimage rituals. During the second fieldwork I participated in the 32 nd Kagyu Monlam festival, one of the largest Tibetan prayer festivals in present day India, and observed pilgrimage activities in and around Bodhgaya s holy sites. Altogether I conducted 10 unstructured interviews, involving both genders and various age groups. In Part I. of this article, Early Buddhism and pilgrimage, I begin by introducing the historical development of pilgrimage in the Buddhist tradition and mapping the sacred Buddhist geography of India. In Part II., Pilgrimage in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, I explore the development of pilgrimage traditions in Tibetan Buddhism and the network of sacred sites used by pilgrims. In the third part, I introduce some of the Tibetan inventions and reinventions of the pilgrimage tradition over a long period of time, between the 12 th and the mid-20 th century. In the final part, Exile in India, partly based on my fieldwork findings, I examine how the Tibetan diasporic community in India has maintained and reinvented its pilgrimage culture and what possible changes have occurred subsequently. Part I. Early Buddhism and pilgrimage Pilgrimage was not a practice that the Buddha explicitly taught or prescribed for his followers. However, soon after his passing in 486 BC 5, pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha s important life events became a common practice among his disciples. The validation for starting such a practice stemmed from a single reference within its source text, the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra or Buddha s Last Days, in which the Buddha, close to the end of his life, spoke these few words to his attendant and closest disciple, Ananda: Ananda, there are four places the sight of which should arouse emotion in the faithful. What are they? "Here the Tathagata was born" is the first. "Here the Tathagata attained supreme enlightenment" is the second. "Here the Tathagata set in motion the Wheel of Dhamma" is the third. "Here the Tathagata attained the Nibanna element without remainder" is the fourth. And, Ananda, the faithful monks and nuns, male and female lay-followers will visit those places. And any who die while making the pilgrimage to 5 The conventional dates for Buddha`s life are BC but the exact dates are uncertain. 43

6 Kalmar: Re-imagining these Shrines with a devout heart will, at the breaking-up of the body after death, be reborn in a heavenly world (Zangpo 2001, 22). These abovementioned four key events of the Buddha`s life occurred at the present sites of Lumbini in Nepal (the place he was born), Bodhgaya (where he attained Enlightenment), Deer Park at Sarnath (where he delivered his fist teachings), and Kushinagar, (where he passed away); all three are situated in north-central India. These sites are often referred to as the Four Great Holy Places or the sites of the Four Great Miracles (Falk 1977, 282). After the Buddha passed away, as per his instruction, his body was cremated. His tangible remains (ashes, teeth, fragments of his skull, bits of bone and flesh, blood remains and so on) became venerated as relics by his followers and were enshrined in large memorial monuments called stupas at the four sites of which were regularly visited (Falk 1977, 282). The practice of venerating the relics of holy persons and making pilgrimage to the places that enshrine them is not unique to Buddhism. Pilgrims of various religions 6 believe that the relics of their saints form a bridge between the earthly realm and the divine, therefore they can be channels for healing, for answering prayers or gaining religious merit. According to some, the most sacred relics are the bodily remains of saints or holy persons, thus their tombs are popular sites of pilgrimage (Martin 1994, 273). In early Buddhism it was believed that both Buddha s relics and the stupas were in actual fact living entities, so much so, that relics were considered as actual human beings with legal rights (Schopen 1987, 206-9). For the pilgrims by contacting them (physically visiting them and doing certain activities in their presence) meant a direct and transformative encounter with the Buddha himself, which could act as a catalyst in one s spiritual awakening and in reaching enlightenment. The early veneration of the Buddha s traces was a rather unstructured activity. It largely consisted of certain types of bodily prostrations and offerings, such as incense, flowers, vegetarian food, precious cloths and perfumes. The practice of circumambulation or pradakshina (meaning keeping the centre to one s right ) had a special importance due to its assumed transformative power, during which 6 For example, the body of the Catholic Saint James the Apostle in Santiago de Compostela in Spain and the tomb of 14 th century Sufi master Mu in-ud-din Chisti in Ajmer in India have drawn millions of pilgrims throughout the centuries. In Hinduism however in contrast to Buddhism, the cult of relics has been relatively non-existent according to mainstream scholarship, arguing that the very notion of relics is incompatible with Hinduism due to the Brahmanical abhorrence of everything connected with death (Bakker 2007, 42 cited in Fleming 2015, 455). Only a few scholars claimed that the practices of burial and veneration of mortal remains may have been marginally part of the Brahmanical tradition in pre-buddhist India, but only as a regional (in northern India and Nepal) and an exceptional practice (as submersion of cremated remains into bodies of water was favoured at the holy sites) (Fleming 2015, 455). 44

7 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 pilgrims circumambulated around the holy site clockwise at least one or three times (Falk 1977, 287). In India s devotional traditions, walking around something or someone is also a way of showing honour to the teacher or a holy place (Eck 2012, 57). As the Buddhist relic cult developed, not only were Buddha`s physical remains and stupas venerated but everything that came in contact with the Buddha himself: his begging bowl, his robe, leaves from the Bodhi tree (under which he reached enlightenment), his hand and footprints, even his toe nails which were collected by his disciples during his lifetime (Davidson & Gitlitz 2002, 517). Likewise, not only were the four sites associated with Buddha s most important life events visited by pilgrims but other places as well which the Buddha himself also visited during his lifetime. In the process of expanding the network of pilgrimage sites the Mauryan ruler Ashoka, who lived about 200 years after Buddha`s death, played a crucial role. After becoming Emperor of India 7, he became a follower of Buddhist teachings and he took it as his mission to spread the Buddhist Dharma throughout his kingdom. He visited the four main sites as the Buddha suggested and also an additional twenty-eight, all of which, it was told, that the Buddha personally visited in his lifetime. Out of these thirty-two holy places, eight gradually became particularly important for pilgrims. These places are known today as the Eight Places of Pilgrimage or Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage (San 2001, 15), which consist of the Four Great Holy Places and additional four sites 8 of other important events of the Buddha s life. In summary, in early Buddhism, two types of pilgrimage practice arose both related to relic worship. The first and probably more important one appeared based on the Buddha s last words, and involved worship of the Buddha s actual corporal relics and the funeral monuments enshrining them. The second, which was later developed by Emperor Ashoka, encompassed the veneration of other objects and places which allegedly came into direct contact with the Buddha during his life. As Buddhism developed and spread outside of India, remains, objects and places connected to subsequent teachers also became objects of worship resulting 7 Until the British colonization, the largest united empire on the Indian subcontinent was created by Ashoka. 8 The four additional sites: Savatthi or Sravasti (where the Buddha ascended to Heaven to teach his mother who passed away soon after Buddha`s birth and where he spent 25 rainy seasons with his Sangha), Sankasia or Samkasya (where the Buddha descended from Heaven after preaching to his mother and the devas for three months), Rajagaha or Rajgir (where the Buddha tamed the drunken elephant and also spent several years meditating and teaching) and Vesali or Vaishali (where miraculously a band of monkeys dug a pond for the Buddha s use and also women were accepted to the Buddhist Sangha for the first time, including Buddha`s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami), (San 2001, 15). 45

8 Kalmar: Re-imagining in a great expansion of Buddhist pilgrimage sites, an important process for Buddhist practitioners that continues today. Part II. Pilgrimage in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition Buddhism introduced in Tibet From the very beginning, Buddhism was a missionary religion. The Buddha visited many places on the Indian subcontinent spreading his Dharma and explicitly told his disciples to follow his example. During Ashoka s reign in the 3 rd century BC, Buddhism already crossed India s borders and gradually spread throughout East Asia. On India s soil, Buddhism had thrived since its establishment, often supported by royal patrons. It especially flourished between the 7 th and 12 th century AD, during which the Buddha-Dharma was taught in large universities, like at the famous Nalanda University, where it is believed to have housed over 10,000 students. However, around the 12 th 13 th centuries, Nalanda and the other major living Buddhist hubs including the major pilgrimage places were attacked and completely destroyed by invader Muslim Turks. Monks and nuns were killed, survivors left the country or went into hiding; thus around 1,500 years after its birth and continuous presence, Buddhism on its birth land nearly became extinct and only survived in some pockets of India. While Buddhism declined on Indian soil, it continued to flourish elsewhere in two major forms: Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. 9 Due to its geographical inaccessibility and lack of trade routes, it was only in the 7 th century AD, during the rule of Tibet s unifier king Songsten Gampo, when Buddhism was introduced to Tibet as the official court and state religion. 10 According to the legend, Songsten Gampo s two Buddhist wives 9 As the Buddha did not appoint any successor, he left his teachings to be upheld and interpreted by his followers. In the absence of a leading authority, various traditions and sub-schools sprang up shortly after his death. Many of these schools and sub-schools have since died out, with the exception of two traditions: the traditionalist Hinayana Buddhism (also referred to as the Lesser Vehicle, later represented by its only surviving school, the Theravada Buddhist school), which puts emphases on renunciation, and strictly follows the Buddha`s original teachings and ethical codes. The other is the revolutionary Mahayana Buddhism (or the Great Vehicle), which focused on compassion and introduced the notion of the bodhisattva, a saint like figure, who vows to help all sentient beings to reach Enlightenment. The former mostly reached Southeast Asian countries (such as Ceylon/Sri Lanka, Burma/Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos), while Mahayana Buddhism spread in the Northeast (such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia) (Keown 2013, 20). 10 Given the countries that surrounded Tibet, most probably Buddhism reached Tibet earlier than the 7 th century AD but found no fertile soil due to lack of general interest, patronage and written language which was essential for the preservation and promulgation of the religion (McKay 2003, 27). 46

9 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR a Chinese princess and a Nepalese princess - were the inspirational forces behind the conversion. Consequently in 642 AD, the king sent a Tibetan to India to look for written Buddhist texts and also built Lhasa s most famous temple, the Jokhang and thus the slow conversion of Tibetan society to Buddhism began through royal patronage. In those early days, Buddhism was probably practiced only by the royal courts and a few noble families, learning very basic principles of Buddhism. There were no Buddhist texts translated into Tibetan (they were provided from India and Nepal) and no priests to teach. And Buddhism did not drive out the old, pre-buddhist religion of Bön. 11 The kings continued to worship Bön holy mountains, were buried in a non-buddhist ceremony and still consulted oracles (Richardson 2003, ). It was during the reign of Trisong Detsen ( ), when Bön practices were supressed and the influence of Buddhism grew immensely. He established Tibet s first monastery, Samyé in around 779 AD, sponsored the Tibetan translation of Buddhist texts and invited the famous Mahayana scholar Śāntarakṣita and mystic tantric master Padmasambhava from India. The rise of Buddhism continued under subsequent kings until the fall of the Tibetan Empire in 842. It is said that the last emperor, Lang Darma (r ), being a devoted Bön practitioner, withdrew royal patronage of Buddhism (according to some accounts, he also persecuted Buddhists until his assassination in 842 by a Buddhist monk). After his death, Tibet was broken up into small kingdoms and remained without a central power for four hundred years. Despite its early success, Buddhism went into decline and Bön began to flourish again. Monastic Buddhism disappeared from Central-Tibet and only the esoteric form of Mahayana Buddhism, Tantra (or Vajrayana) was practiced. It was only in the mid-10 th century that the second wave infusion of Buddhist teachings from India took place in Tibet, this time without Bön opposition. This wave gave rise to a number of new Tibetan Buddhist schools and sub-lineages, and also gave birth to some of greatest monasteries of Tibet. 11 Bön is said to be the pre-buddhist religion of Tibet and it has often been characterized as 'shamanistic' or 'animistic'. Its classification and exact origin are uncertain. Some scholars such as David Snellgrove argue that it was a form of Buddhism, which was introduced from Iranian regions of inner Asia to the west of Tibet and flourished especially in the old Zhangzhung kingdom. Others, like Namkhai Norbu believe that Bön was rather an authentic, indigenous tradition to Tibet (McKay 2003, 36). Nevertheless, the present, known and organised form of Bön religion with its monastic institutions, tantric ritual, scriptures and philosophical systems did not exist before the 7 th century AD, but was rather the product of the interaction with Buddhism. Contemporary scholarship even doubts that the term bön was used as the name of the pre-buddhist religion of Tibet (Kapstein 2000, 12-13). There are some fundamental similarities between the two religions, most importantly the belief of law of karma (law of moral causality) and the quest for enlightenment. Although Buddhism sought to suppress and regulate it, it was never able to dispense with it and even today many Tibetans are devoted followers of Bön. 47

10 Kalmar: Re-imagining Buddhism is often called a guest religion as it is able to adapt to its host culture (Zangpo 2001, 8); and so it did in Tibet. As Tantra gradually fused with Bön practices, it embraced its principal deities, the use of oracles, the use of prayer flags, 12 funeral rites, its art of healing and system of tulkus (incarnated lamas) (Davidson & Gitlitz 2002, 73). It also absorbed and converted some of its holy pilgrimage sites such as Mount Kailash, a process that Katia Buffetrille calls `Buddhicisation` of sacred places and which will be explained in detail in Part II. The notion of Pilgrimage in Tibetan Buddhism Pilgrimage is not only the core element of religious practice in the Tibetan cultural world but it is also a significant cultural phenomenon with social, political and economic elements. Despite the historical changes, pilgrimage still remains a universal feature of the diverse Tibetan society, and through examining Tibetan pilgrimage practices, we can gain great insight into Tibetan history, culture and identity (McKay 1998, 1). Pilgrimage practices played a crucial part in pre-buddhist societies as well as in the Indian Tantra adopted by Tibetans. It has been undoubtedly one of the most popular Buddhist practices for the Tibetans, equally attracting both lay persons and monastic Tantric practitioners. Just as the Buddha declared in the Gautamīya Śāstra, all mountains, all rivers, holy lakes, tirthas 13 (places of pilgrimage), the abodes of seers, cow-pens, and temples of gods are sin-destroying localities (Bharati 1963, 137), so Tibetans visit the Buddhist holy sites in the hope that the pilgrimage can purify their negative karma (negative deeds committed previously) and can obtain merit necessary for achieving Buddhahood. As a rule, the pilgrim must walk to the holy place but the journey can also be performed by doing full body length prostrations, in which case pilgrimage can take even several years. Pilgrimage in Tibet has rather been collectively performed than individually; members of the same family, settlement or monastery would go on pilgrimage together and would not mix with other pilgrimage groups. The sort of communitas that Turner observed in other pilgrimage groups have not been present in the Tibetan world, not even today as observed by Buffertrille, suggesting that the different social classes of Tibetan society exist even during pilgrimage practices (Buffertrille 2003, 2). For example, certain pilgrimage routes have been closed for women 12 Colourful flags with payers/mantras printed on them. 13 The Sanskrit word tirtha literally means fords or crossings, which comes from a verbal root meaning to cross over. In ancient times in India, the tīrtha was literally a place to cross the river. However, spiritually speaking, as explained in ancient Hindu texts of the Vedas, Upanishads and Mahābhārata as well, the tīrtha is a place of spiritual crossing, a word of transcendence, a destination of pilgrims, where divine powers are close to the worshipper and one s prayers and spiritual practices are amplified (Eck 2012, 19-20). 48

11 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 pilgrims such as most routes around Mount Tsari (Zangpo 2001, 113) or the inner circumambulation route around Labrang Monastery (Makley 2003, 611). The reason behind this discriminatory practice is that Tibetan Buddhists in general consider the female body as a lower rebirth (in Tibetan: skye dman), which is inherently and karmically impure, able to pollute the sacred places and has the capacity to drain the male power (Makley 2003, 610). Once the pilgrim reaches the sacred place, she/he performs certain rituals and practices. Although every individual s pilgrimage is unique and it can depend on the level of the practitioner, there are general patterns of activity that can be observed. In Tibetan, pilgrim is called a gnas skor ba (in English: the one who goes around the sacred place), indicating the most important rite a pilgrim must perform which is circumambulation (in Tibetan: kora). Pilgrims perform kora or koras around the sacred space (monastery, hill, lake, meditation cave, place of miracle, stupa etc.) either by walking or full body prostrations. Besides kora, pilgrims generally recite mantras and prayers, do prostrations, offer substances (for example water, butter for lamps, incense) and the more advanced practitioners do meditational practices. However, for an advanced Tantric practitioner pilgrimage has a deeper meaning. In Tantra 14 the practice of pilgrimage is situated at the level of the phase of completion which requires the advanced practitioner to travel to and contact external sacred grounds and employ certain higher level tantric practices, such as meditation (Zangpo 2001, 56). Tibetan sacred geography One of the most well-known features of Tibetan culture has been in the belief that the physical environment is occupied by a host of indigenous and Buddhist deities and spirit forces. These beings are said to possess a range of powers and to reside at specific locations, pervading the entire landscape. According to both the pre-buddhist religion and the various forms of Tibetan Tantra, humans are capable of interacting with these beings through various practices and methods (Huber 1999, 78-79). In pre-buddhist Tibet, prominent features of landscapes, such as lakes and mountains were worshipped as sacred as they were believed to 14 According to Buddhist tantric teachings, the human body is made up of hundreds of thousands of meridians or channels, through which energies circulate, carrying "the vital essence of enlightenment, acting like a bridge to the consciousness and the ever present Buddha-nature. It is believed that tantric practices using the body s energies through the channels can quickly lead the practitioner to enlightenment. And as the body corresponds to outer environments, travelling to outer sacred places and contacting their sacredness or enlightened nature can provide a powerful catalyst for inner improvement, towards Buddhahood, which is the ultimate goal of every Buddhist practitioner (Zangpo 2001, 61 63). 49

12 Kalmar: Re-imagining be abodes of powerful territorial gods (yul lha) of the land. Especially mountains were considered sacred due to their important function as sources of water, feeding the valley's river with life force (Kapstein 2006, 44). The most well-known of such sacred sites in Tibet is undoubtedly Mount Kailash, venerated as holy by followers of Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Hinayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. During the first diffusion of Buddhism of Tibet (7 th -9 th century), there was no record of Buddhist pilgrimage practices. The earliest sources mentioning pilgrimage practices are only from the second diffusion period (end of 10 th to 11 th century), but the exact starting point of the tradition of pilgrimage to sacred landscapes cannot be dated. With the eventual adoption of Indian Buddhist Tantra, a new cosmic view and the use of mandala 15 became the model behind shaping the spatial organization of Tibet's architectural and cultural landscape. Many pre- Buddhist sacred sites were transformed to Buddhist holy places, in what Buffertrille calls a process of Buddhicisation (Buffertrille 1998, 20), during which pre-existing indigenous deities were converted or subjugated to Buddhist deities, and Buddhist practices were imposed on the territorial god. In the case of mountains such as Mount Kailash, the original yul lha was appropriated as now the protective deity of the sacred place within the Buddhist understanding, and thus the indigenous sacred place became gnas ri, a sacred Buddhist place. The process consists of the appropriation of space (by installing the mandala and incorporating the yul lha in it), constructing of religious buildings (such as a stupa), and opening up circumambulation paths for the pilgrims. The transformation of savage nature into gnas (a sacred site or power-place) by eliminating the wilderness through subjugation is an ideal aspiration in the Tibetan Buddhist mind (Ramble 1997, 133). In Buddhism, a site typically becomes sacred through the actions of a holy person or a wondrous event. Due to their association with the Buddha or other holy figures, certain ordinary locations became converted to sacred spaces, just as the eight sites associated with Buddha`s important life events became the Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage. Similarly in Tibet, once an accomplished master died, places in association with him or her soon became pilgrimage grounds. For example, the monasteries of Lhasa and places associated with Guru Rinpoche 16 have been very popular destinations for pilgrims. Furthermore, as Tibetans also adopted the cult of 15 Mandala is the Buddhist cosmic model of the Universe explained in the Buddhist text Abhidharmakośakārikā dating from the 4-5 th century AD. It is represented in either 2D (on paintings for example) or 3D (as the design of temples and stupas). Tibetans use the mandala in their religious activates (such as meditation or during ceremonies) and also as a tool to systematically structure Tibetan architecture and landscape (Xu 2010, ). 16 It is believed by Tibetans that an 8 th century Indian master called Padmasambhava or Guru Rinpoche (in English: precious guru) played a crucial role in bringing Buddhism to Tibet and he is worshipped as the Second Buddha. 50

13 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 relics from India, therefore physical remains of highly realized Tibetan Buddhist masters have been venerated as relics as well. Relics are usually placed into chortens (Tibetan counterpart to stupa) which also became popular destinations for pilgrims (Martin 1994, 275). Interestingly, Tibetan sacred geography has never been limited solely to the Tibetan plateau. With the second diffusion of Buddhism, Tibetans adopted the Indocentric Buddhist world cosmology and geography, which placed the Vajrasana (the exact spot where Buddha reached enlightenment in Bodhgaya, India) in the centre of the world. Thus India became the holiest of all places for Tibetans, a superior land which not only produced the Buddha and his knowledge, but according to numerous Tibetan narratives, India is the place where all future Buddhas are going to originate and reach enlightenment (Huber 2008, 78). Although the earliest Tibetan pilgrims (that we know of) departing to India between the late 10 th and mid-13 th century were aware of the main Buddhist pilgrimage places in India, (including the Eight Great Places of Pilgrimage), there is no record that any of these pilgrims visited more than three of the eight places of the Buddha. As the flourishing Tantra of late Buddhist India became dominant in Tibet so did its sacred geography. Consequently, the attention of Tibetan pilgrims was rather focused upon places specifically associated with the Indian Tantric sites, also known as pitha 17 (centre of pilgrimage) (Bharati 1963, 147), which completely ignored the traditional pilgrimage sites of India. Indian Tantric texts most commonly (but not exclusively) speak of a network of twenty-four pithas, a list of external sites of specialized pilgrimage located on subcontinental India, and of internal sites within the practitioner body which correspond to the external pithas during tantric practices (Huber 2008, 87). Although the network of pithas was exclusively based on the Indian subcontinent, due to circumstances, pithas soon appeared in Tibet which was just the beginning of a forthcoming and many centuries-long Tibetan invention process of sacred sites within and outside of the Tibetan plateau. Part III. India and the Tibetan sacred sites: inventions, reinventions, rediscoveries, transfers, replications and colonization from the 12 th century to the mid-20 th century 17 In the Indian religious context, the term pitha has a number of different and overlapping meanings. Usually pithas mean significant shrines and pilgrimage destinations (power places) in goddess-focused Hindu traditions (such in the Shaiva tradition) or in other words power seats of the Goddess (Eck 2012, 279). According to Indian Buddhist Tantra, these places are both external sites on the Indian sub-continent and internal locations within the human body, where male and female practitioners could come together and engage in sacred rites either physically or internally. 51

14 Kalmar: Re-imagining Appearance of Indian pithas in Tibet After the invasion of India in the th centuries, Muslims established permanent roots there and thus the Holy Land became a hostile territory to visit within the Tibetan understanding. Consequently, Tibetans not only no longer had a connection to the Indian Tantric masters but they were also forced to develop their own textual scholarship and sacred sites. Soon a number of pithas appeared on the Tibetan plateau. The first pitha related to the Holy Land which was claimed to exist in Tibet was in the late 12 th and early 13 th centuries by various branches of the Kagyu school, one of the four main Tibetan Buddhist lineages. In the following centuries two other main schools, the Gelug and Nyingma also made similar claims, only the Sakya order argued against any Indian pitha existing in Tibet (Huber 2008, 113). The identification of Tibetan territorial places in association with India was not only a smart way of continuing pilgrimage practices for the common and higher level Tantric practitioners but also a clever strategy for sectarian expansions. During the 13 th century, which was one of the most creative and dynamic periods of major sectarian developments, many Tibetan agents systematically adopted forms of Indian Buddhism into their own local system. It was during this time for example, when three sacred mountain sites 18 came under Drigung 19 control to establish their own retreat sites. By claiming that these mountains had been visited by the Buddha in person in the past, they identified the sites as part of the legitimate Indian Tantric pitha system and thus legitimized the school, the sacredness of the sites and their sectarian control (Huber 2008, 113). In the following centuries Tibetan agents cleverly learned how to use effectively India s high Buddhist status in Tibet to validate their further inventions and innovations. Simultaneously, something even more remarkable took place in this innovative process: Tibetan agents began to invent and reinvent sacred places outside of Tibet. Reinventing the Holy Land in the Holy Land Since the 16 th century, another Tibetan invention process took place, but in India. In order to have physical access to the Holy Land and its sacred sites again, Tibetans reinvented certain Indian sites in those parts of India which were still accessible to visit. Huber in his extensive research provides excellent examples of such Tibetan reinventions of sacred places in India, of which one of the most remarkable is the creation of the replica Kushinagar. While creation of replica holy lands has been a popular phenomenon in Buddhism, Tibetans never engaged in such an activity. For example, despite the lack of access to India, they have never made local replicas of any of the 18 Tsari, Labchi, and Kang Tisé. 19 One of the sub-lineages of the Kagyu school. 52

15 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 Buddha s main sites, unlike Thai and Burmese Buddhists who directly recreated the entire religious topography of Bodhgaya on their home territory. Instead, Tibetans created a Buddhist holy land replica directly in India itself by rediscovering the lost sacred site of Kushinagar at an entirely different location (Huber 2008, 126). The historical site of Kushinagar, the place where Buddha passed away, was completely lost and buried beneath the northern Indian soil for the most part of the last millennium. Due to excavation works in the 20 th century it is know now that it was originally situated in the Middle Ganges region of India, presently in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Nevertheless, when Tibetans found the lost site of Kushinagar, they did it about 500 kilometres to the East of its original location in the valley of Assam, at a place called Hajo. The circumstances of this (re)discovery are uncertain, and many Tibetan traditions had claims on it. For example, according to the Kagyu school, the Buddha appeared in a vision to the Second Karmapa Lama, Karma Paksi ( ) and told him that since the holy sites of India are inaccessible to pilgrims from Tibet, the Assamese site was equivalent with the original Kushinagar (Huber 2008, 129). Regardless of the uncertainty of its origin, for Tibetans the site at Hajo was the real site of Buddha s paranirvana (final passing and no rebirth) and it had become the most popular pilgrimage destination for Tibetan pilgrims between the 16 th century and mid-20 th century (Huber 2008, 128). For the devoted Tibetans, India the Holy Land was lost since the 13 th century due to the demise of Buddhism and ongoing Muslim rule. Also, India was otherwise deemed to be a dangerous place to visit, not only due to the presumed hostile Muslims (and Hindus), but due to other dangers as well, such as being robbed, attacked, killed, as well as the sufferings from extreme heat and tropical illnesses. The discovery of the long lost holy Kushinagar at a location which was easily and conveniently accessible from Tibet meant a direct access to the Holy Land again, after hundreds of years. Tibetan pilgrims began to flock to Hajo and slowly Tibetanized the place. By the late 19 th century the site at Hajo developed into a specifically Tibetan landscape, covered with mani stones 20 and Tibetan prayer flags (Huber 2008, 142). Guru Rinpoche in Punjab In the development of Tibetan sacred geography and pilgrimage culture, the life and deeds of the 8 th century Indian Buddhist master Padmasambava or Guru Rinpoche (in English: Precious Guru) played a significant role. According to Tibetan narratives, Padmasambava with his miraculous 20 Larger stones of which the well-known Tibetan mantra, the Om Mani Padme Hum is carved into. 53

16 Kalmar: Re-imagining powers subdued the demons and gods of Tibet and hence enabled the establishment of the Buddha-Dharma. Therefore he became a type of Second Buddha for Tibetans. Eventually he was developed into and worshiped as a Tantric deity and the places he supposedly visited became important pilgrimage places. A vast range of holy sites (such as caves, lakes and rocks) in relation to his life events were discovered and worshipped across the Tibetan plateau and was later extended throughout the adjacent high Himalayan ranges, such as the Kingdom of Bhutan. As part of the Tibetan invention process of sacred sites, some Guru Rinpoche sites began to appear in India as well. By the 19 th century, Tibetans identified a whole new range of holy sites in the Punjab, in North India, all dedicated to Guru Rinpoche. The area was not unfamiliar for Tibetan pilgrims as they had regularly visited Punjab since the 13 th century due to one famous Indian Tantric pitha called Jalandhara (Huber 2008, 238). Punjab is the historic home and permanent residence for the Sikh community of India. Their most important holy site, the Golden Temple in Amritsar has been visited by Sikh and Hindu pilgrims in great numbers. However, in the late 18 th century some Tibetan pilgrims also appeared at the Sikh temple and worshiped a pond located in its centre as according to some Tibetan folklore, Guru Rinpoche was born in that exact pond despite common knowledge that he was born in Zahor (Uddiyana in the Swat Valley) (Bharati 1963, 156). Early 20 th century India and its impact on Tibetan pilgrimage rituals The first half of the 20 th century brought a huge transformation to India; changes that eventually brought about the revival of Buddhism and the development of a new type of Tibetan pilgrimage ritual. The rise of monumental archaeology as a distinctive feature of British colonialism completely transformed the understanding of Indian Buddhist topography. Many holy sites that have been neglected and laid in ruins for at least seven hundred years were identified, excavated and began to be restored to their original glory. The Mahabodi Temple at Bodhgaya which was built at the exact spot where the Buddha reached enlightenment was found in semiruins. Its origin was long forgotten and was worshipped by Hindus as a holy site dedicated to the Hindu deities. The stupas at Sarnath were in ruins, many of the bricks had been taken away by locals to use in construction work. The sites at Kushinagar, Lumbini and Nalanda were completely buried under the soil. The excavation and restoration process of these and other important sites of the Buddha had a profound cultural significance: the resurrected ancient sites became available again for possible religious purposes. The new resurrected material form of Buddhism helped the modern Buddhist revivalist movement which began simultaneously at the end of 54

17 Journal of the Irish Society for the Academic Study of Religions 5 (2017) ISASR 2017 the 19 th century in Ceylon. The Mahabodhi Society (founded by Ceylonese Buddhist monk Anagarika Dharmapala and his associates in 1891) gradually developed into a missionary organization, promoting a rather idealized view of Buddhism to the world as a religion of modernity, science, tolerance, equality and reason, with the newly rediscovered holy sites in India. The missionary activities of the Mahabodhi Society were wideranging: it published books and journals, constructed temples, fought to take control over the Mahabodi Temple in Bodhgaya and most importantly began to organize pilgrimage tours for international tourists and possible donors to the resurrected main holy places of the Buddha (Huber 2008, 293). In order to maintain a strong Buddhist revival movement, Dharmapala and his team mostly focused on developing new Buddhist pilgrimage and ritual culture at the main sites. To attract pilgrims and practitioners, the Mahabodhi Society built pilgrim s rest houses, promoted the use of the modern Indian railway system and advertised its pilgrimage tours as a safe, friendly, and convenient form of ritual in India (Huber 2008, 304). One of the greatest innovations of the society was the establishment of a grand annual relic festival in Sarnath in During the festival, the Buddha s relics, which were also excavated along with the sites, for the first time were presented and circumambulated among the public, and the program quickly attracted thousands of Buddhist pilgrims from all around the world, including Tibet. The relic festival had another important significance: it was the first modern organized Buddhist pilgrimage ritual which united all types of Buddhist regardless of sectarian differences, as pilgrimage practice has been universally accepted among all Buddhist sects; thus the Buddha s sites became a shared and uniting religious ground (Huber 2008, 295). What effect did these profound early 20 th century changes in India have on Tibetan visitors to the Holy Land of India? Did they go to the newly excavated sites or did they continue to visit their established locations, the 24 pithas and their invented sites? Was their pilgrimage process and style of worship affected by modernity? As far as the pilgrimage sites are concerned, a few changes took place during the first half of the 20 th century. First, after the Archaeological Survey of India excavated the actual site of Kushinagar between 1904 and 1912, it became clear to the leading Tibetan clerics that the long cherished site in Assam was a mistake. The first Tibetan visit to the real site of Kushinagar was in fact a very important one, done by the 13 th Dalai Lama and his party in During the first half of the 20 th century knowledge of the discovery of the real site gradually spread among Tibetans, Tibetan writers of pilgrimage guidebooks also alerted pilgrims and by the 1950s, the Hajo Kushinagar declined as a major pilgrimage destination (Huber 2008, 154). 55

18 Kalmar: Re-imagining From the accounts of ordinary Tibetan pilgrims visiting India we know that while they continued to visit their holy places that they had been visiting for hundreds of years, they too began to visit one or two of the recently excavated Eight Places of Pilgrimage, usually Bodh Gaya and/or Sarnath. Also, many pilgrims took part in the annual relic festival at Sarnath, moreover some monks even performed the unique cham dance (public Tantric ritual dance) 21 during the festival which had never been performed outside of Tibet before (Huber 2008, 301). Only the religious elite (the 6 th Panchen Lama and 13 th Dalai Lama) made pilgrimage to more than two of the eight sites during their official visits to India (Huber 2008, 268). In terms of ritual practices a few changes were apparent as well. Tibetans still performed koras around the sacred places, did prostrations, put up flags, offered flowers, gold, prayers and so on, collected substances at the holy places and carefully transported them back to Tibet (Huber 2008, 312). But they abandoned the tradition of walking to the holy places. Instead they rather used the modern train system which was faster but as it posed certain obstacles for Tibetans (overcrowded trains, loud arguments over seats and so on), it easily substituted walking as an important karmacleansing activity (Huber 2008, 310). Also, while in Tibet the pilgrimage season fell during the summer months, in India pilgrims went on pilgrimages between November to February due to extreme weather conditions (the rainy season and extreme heat). Consequently, Tibetan attitudes towards India improved too during the first half of the 20 th century. The narrative of the previously extremely dangerous Holy Land began to change as Tibetans experienced modern and safe India for the first time and started to develop a much more positive attitude towards it (Huber 2008, 314). The events and changes of the first half of the 20 th century began to alter significantly the knowledge of the holy sites in India and its related pilgrimage culture for Tibetans. These changes were leading up to an even bigger revolution, when India became home for many Tibetans in the second half of the 20 th century. Part IV. Exile in India The unexpected re-connection with the Holy Land 21 During Tibetan Buddhist festivals, public ritual dance or cham is often performed for the lay audience. Cham is a popular social event in Tibetan societies, often attracting large crowds during festivals, like the Tibetan New Year. During the circumambulatory dance, monks wear colourful costumes and masks, mainly representing the protectors of religion. According to early Tibetan literature, cham originates in Indian Tantric dances and its main esoteric purpose is the expulsion of evil forces, by which all participants and the local environment is purified and ground is turned into a ritual space (Shrempf 1999, 200). 56