Asian Religious Art and Architecture. Buddhism and Hinduism

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1 Asian Religious Art and Architecture Buddhism and Hinduism

2 Where have we been? Where are we now?

The Indus Valley At about the same time that the Great Pyramids were rising in Egypt and comparable developments were taking place in Mesopotamia, a third great civilization was taking shape on what

4 The Indus Valley At about the same time that the Great Pyramids were rising in Egypt and comparable developments were taking place in Mesopotamia, a third great civilization was taking shape on what today we call the Indian subcontinent. The Indus Valley Civilization developed along the Indus river and its tributaries in present-day Pakistan, beyond the northwest border of India. In this map the Indus river system has been highlighted in red. This area came to be known as the Punjab, meaning literally the area of the "five rivers," the five principle rivers seen here, the Indus itself being the westernmost. The impressive architectural, sculptural, and pottery remains of early Indus Valley civilizations were but a prelude to the development of a rich and varied culture in this land.

6 Yaksha and Yakshi Indian figures symbolic of fertility and procreation. Yaksha figures are males Yakshi figures are female

in the world. Yakshi from the Maurya Period c.

7 Yakshi A Yakshi relates female beauty and abundance to the generosity of the gods and workings of dharma in the world. Yakshi from the Maurya Period c. 250BCE Comparison with Woman from Willendorf c. 22,000 BCE

The Development of Buddhism 5th and 4th Century BCE, India Lunette with Buddha surrounded by adorants, 5th 6th century Hadda, Afghanistan Stucco; H. 16 1/2 in. The fifth and fourth centuries BCE.

9 The Development of Buddhism 5th and 4th Century BCE, India Lunette with Buddha surrounded by adorants, 5th 6th century Hadda, Afghanistan Stucco; H. 16 1/2 in. The fifth and fourth centuries BCE. were a time of worldwide intellectual ferment. It was an age of great thinkers, such as Socrates and Plato, Confucius and Laozi. In India, it was the age of the Buddha, after whose death a religion developed that eventually spread far beyond his homeland.

Buddhism Siddhartha, the prince who was to become the Buddha, was born into the royal family of a small kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. His was a divine conception and miraculous birth.

10 Buddhism Siddhartha, the prince who was to become the Buddha, was born into the royal family of a small kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. His was a divine conception and miraculous birth. Wise men predicted that he would become a universal conqueror, either of the physical world or of men's minds. It was the latter conquest that came to pass. Giving up the pleasures of the palace to seek the true purpose of life, Siddhartha first tried the path of severe asceticism, only to abandon it after six years as a futile exercise. He then sat down in yogic meditation beneath a bodhi tree until he achieved enlightenment. He was known henceforth as the Buddha, or "Enlightened One. His is the Middle Path, rejecting both luxury and asceticism.

Buddhist Philosophy Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence.

11 Buddhist Philosophy Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence. For most beings, nirvana lies in the distant future, because Buddhism, like other faiths of India, believes in a cycle of rebirth. Humans are born many times on earth, each time with the opportunity to perfect themselves further. And it is their own karma-the sum total of deeds, good and bad-that determines the circumstances of a future birth. The Buddha spent the remaining forty years of his life preaching his faith and making vast numbers of converts. When he died, his body was cremated, as was customary in India.

Stupas After his death, the cremated relics of the Buddha were divided into several portions and placed in relic caskets that were interred within large hemispherical mounds known as stupas.

14 Stupas After his death, the cremated relics of the Buddha were divided into several portions and placed in relic caskets that were interred within large hemispherical mounds known as stupas. Such stupas constitute the central monument of Buddhist monastic complexes. They attract pilgrims from far and wide who come to experience the unseen presence of the Buddha. Stupas are enclosed by a railing that provides a path for ritual circumambulation. The sacred area is entered through gateways, toranas, at the four cardinal points One of the greatest stupas in the world is at Sanchi in Central India. (left), was built by the great Mauyra Emperor Ashoka

Emperor Ashoka Ashoka Maurya (273-236 BCE) was the most famous of the Buddhist rulers of India. A dozen years or so after he began his reign, about 258 BCE, he became a convert to Buddhism.

15 Emperor Ashoka Ashoka Maurya ( BCE) was the most famous of the Buddhist rulers of India. A dozen years or so after he began his reign, about 258 BCE, he became a convert to Buddhism. He was a great administrator and a great builder. His empire encompassed the whole of India and Afghanistan. His doctrine was less concerned with the analytic aspects of Buddhism and dwelled exclusively on ethics. He dispatched missionaries to other parts of India as well as Ceylon, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, and Epirus. It is due to Ashoka that Buddhism became, and long remained, the predominant religion of India.

16 Maurya Period First great Indian empire. Rulers controlled most of modern-day Pakistan and India. Age of Alexander and Emperor Ashoka. Ashoka became a convert to Buddhism when he witnessed a massive slaughter on the battlefield, while ruthlessly invading a neighboring Indian kingdom in 260 BCE. In all, Ashoka built 84,000 stupas across his empire to house the many sacred relics of Gautama Buddha. The magnificent lion pillar,left, at Sarnath is a lasting testimonial to the emperor's miraculous change of heart.

18 The foundation of this important center at Sanchi was laid by the Emperor Ashoka when he built a stupa and erected a monolithic pillar here. Ashoka built a total of eight stupas on the hilltop of Sanchi including the Great Stupa, above. A great number of stupas and other religious structures were added over the succeeding centuries.

19 The stupa is the most characteristic monument of Buddhist India. Originally stupas were mounds covering the relics of the Buddha or his followers. In its earliest stages Buddhist art didn't represent the Buddha directly. Instead, his presence was alluded to through symbols such as the bo tree, the wheel of law or his footprint. The stupa also became a symbol of the Buddha. More exactly, it became a symbol of his final release from the cycle of birth and rebirth -- the Parinirvana or the "Final Dying."

21 Mandala Mandala is Sanskrit for circle, polygon, community, connection. Stupa floor plans were often based on a mandala. The mandala is often illustrated as a palace with four gates, facing the four corners of the Earth. The Mandala centre is often a lotus blossom with eight petals, resting on a bed of jewels. In the next ring are the walls of the palace with gates towards the four corners of the earth. The gates are guarded by four angry doorkeepers. Before the meditating person arrives at the gates, she must, however, pass the four outer circles.

22 Painted Mandala on the ceiling of a stupa in Katmandu, Tibet

24 Evolution of Buddhist Architecture

One face of a fence-rail from Bharhut: Worship at a Stupa Madhya Pradesh, India Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century CE Sandstone 18 11/16 x 20 7/16 x 3 1/8 in.

27 One face of a fence-rail from Bharhut: Worship at a Stupa Madhya Pradesh, India Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century CE Sandstone 18 11/16 x 20 7/16 x 3 1/8 in. Purchase, Freer Gallery of Art In the first century CE, India's artists, who had worked in the perishable media of brick, wood, thatch, and bamboo, adopted stone on a very wide scale. Stone railings and gateways, covered with relief sculptures, were added to stupas. Favorite themes were events from the historic life of the Buddha, as well as from his previous lives, which were believed to number 550. The latter tales are called jatakas and often include popular legends adapted to Buddhist teachings.

28 Scenes from the Life of the Buddha Gandhara, Pakistan 2nd century CE

29 This frieze is one of the earliest pictorial narratives of the Buddha s life. At the left, Queen Maya gives birth to Price Siddhartha, the future Buddha, who emerges from her hip.

30 Here the Buddha, seated in the Deer Park at Sarnath with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing, preaches his first sermon, in which he reveals the eight fold path.

31 In the next scene, the Buddha sits beneath the Bodhi tree while soldiers and demons of the evil Mara attempt to distract him from his quest for knowledge, but they are unsuccessful.

32 In the final scene, the Buddha lies dying among the devotees, who wail in grief, except for the meditating monk, who realizes that Buddha has achieved nirvana and release from suffering.

33 Remember this the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus Marble ca. 359 Note the similarities

34 Christian versus Buddhist Imagery Both influenced by the Greco-Roman Style.

35 Symbols of the Buddha In the earliest Buddhist art of India, the Buddha was not represented in human form. His presence was indicated instead by a sign, such as a pair of footprints, an empty seat, or an empty space beneath a parasol.

Iconography of the Buddha Many cultures have guidelines or conventions regarding iconography. By looking at the iconography of a non-western culture we gain a more complete view of the concept.

36 Iconography of the Buddha Many cultures have guidelines or conventions regarding iconography. By looking at the iconography of a non-western culture we gain a more complete view of the concept. All the fingers and toes are of the same extended length Long aquiline nose Elongated ears (from wearing jewelry as a prince) Protuberance in the top of the head (symbolizing great mental power and the soul s loose attachment to the body) Broad shoulders

37 Three Representations of Buddha Gandhara, Mathara and Gupta Styles

38 The Gandhara Style or Hellenistic Buddha In the first century CE, the human image of one Buddha came to dominate the artistic scene, and one of the first sites at which this occurred was along India's northwestern frontier. In the area known as Gandhara, artistic elements from the Hellenistic world combined with the symbolism needed to express Indian Buddhism to create a unique style. Youthful Buddhas with hair arranged in wavy curls resemble Roman statues of Apollo; the monastic robe covering both shoulders if arranged in heavy classical folds, reminiscent of a Roman toga.

40 Bodhisattva There are also many representations of Siddhartha as a princely bejeweled figure prior to his renunciation of palace life. Buddhism evolved the concept of a Buddha of the Future, depicted in art both as a Buddha clad in a monastic robe and as a princely Bodhisattva before enlightenment. Gandharan artists made use of both stone and stucco to produce such images, which were placed in niche like shrines around the stupa of a monastery.

41 Mathura Style Contemporaneously, the Kushanperiod artists in Mathura, India, produced a different image of the Buddha. His body was expanded by sacred breath (prana), and his clinging monastic robe was draped to leave the right shoulder bare.

The Gupta Period The Idealized Buddha The succeeding Gupta period, from the fourth to the sixth century CE, in northern India, sometimes referred to as a Golden Age, witnessed the creation of an

43 The Gupta Period The Idealized Buddha The succeeding Gupta period, from the fourth to the sixth century CE, in northern India, sometimes referred to as a Golden Age, witnessed the creation of an "ideal image" of the Buddha. This was achieved by combining selected traits from the Gandharan region with the sensuous form created by Mathura artists. Gupta Buddhas have their hair arranged in tiny individual curls, and the robes have a network of strings to suggest drapery folds (as at Mathura), or are transparent. With their downward glance and spiritual aura, Gupta Buddhas became the canonical model for future generations of artists. Gupta metal images of the Buddha were also take by pilgrims along the Silk Road to China.

45 Gandhara Mathura Gupta 1. Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara c.100 CE. 2. Buddha in the super hero style of the Mathura period c.300 CE. 3. Buddha in the highly stylized Gupta style c. 300 CE.

Mudras Dispelling Fear: Hand raised with palm facing outwards and fingers extended in

Teaching: Hand raised with palm facing outwards and index finger forming a circle

Teaching the First Sermon: Both hands together at the chest with fingers on one hand

to set it in motion (representing the beginning of Buddhist teaching) Meditation:

The gesture symbolizes perfect balance of thought and tranquility.

46 Mudras Dispelling Fear: Hand raised with palm facing outwards and fingers extended in a universal gesture of protection, benevolence, and peace. Teaching: Hand raised with palm facing outwards and index finger forming a circle with the thumb. Teaching the First Sermon: Both hands together at the chest with fingers on one hand forming a circle representing the wheel of law while the other hand touches the wheel to set it in motion (representing the beginning of Buddhist teaching) Meditation: Hands resting together on the lap. The gesture symbolizes perfect balance of thought and tranquility. Calling the Earth to Witness: With palm inwards, the right hand touches the ground and calls the earth to witness the Buddha s enlightenment. The gesture symbolizes unshakable faith and resolution and is the most common posture for Southeast Asian temple images.

47 Passage to Nirvana: The reclining Buddha representing the Buddha s death. The posture symbolizes complete peace and detachment from the world.

48 Some Buddhist Terms to Remember Buddha the Eight-fold Path Buddhism Bodhisattva Stupa Ttorana (stupa gate) Sutra (an account of a sermon or a dialogue involving the Buddha) Mudra (hand gestures with particular significance) Samsara (the cycle of birth, death and rebirth) Nirvana (release from samsara) Yaksha and Yakshi (male and female nature spirits) Urna (tuft of hair on brow of the Buddha, symbol of divine wisdom) Ushnisha (protuberance on the head of Buddha signifying his enlightenment) Karma (the totality of one s actions, good or bad) Mandala (a cosmic diagram) Circumambulation (walking around of a sacred site, usually a stupa)

49 Hinduism and Hindu Art

51 4 Goals of Hinduism According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human being should aspire to all four. Everyone should aim for dharma, or righteous living; artha, or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession; kama, or human and sexual love; and, finally, moksha, or spiritual salvation. This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India. Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha, its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life. It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

Krishna battling the horse demon Keshi, Gupta period (ca. 321 500), 5th century Uttar Pradesh, India Terracotta; H. 21 x W. 16 in.

52 Krishna battling the horse demon Keshi, Gupta period (ca ), 5th century Uttar Pradesh, India Terracotta; H. 21 x W. 16 in. Metropolitan Museum, New York The pluralism evident in Hinduism, as well as its acceptance of the existence of several deities, is often puzzling to non-hindus. Hindus suggest that one may view the Infinite as a diamond of innumerable facets. One or another facet, be it Rama, Krishna, or Ganesha, may beckon an individual believer with irresistible magnetism. By acknowledging the power of an individual facet and worshipping it, the believer does not thereby deny the existence of many aspects of the Infinite and of varied paths toward the ultimate goal.

Why so many arms? Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil.

53 Why so many arms? Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity.

54 Multiple Heads Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

55 The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India. If one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple, large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva, his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons

57 Vishnu Temple, India, early 6th century One of the first masonry Hindu temples. It is a simple square building with a tower.

60 Vishvanatha Temple, India, c.1000 It has four towers, each one taller than the preceding one, symbolizing Shiva s mountain home.

62 Mithuna releifs, detail of north side of the Vishvanatha Temple, India Ca. 1000

63 The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas. Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs. Loving couple (mithuna) Eastern Ganga dynasty, 13th century Orissa, India Ferruginous stone; H. 72 in. Metropolitan Museum

64 Compare What do you think? Sarcophagus and lid with portraits of husband and wife Italic, Etruscan, Late Classical or early Hellenistic Period, Late 4th early 3rd century B.C. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Loving couple (mithuna)eastern Ganga dynasty, 13th century, Orissa, India Ferruginous stone; H. 72 in.metropolitan Museum, New York

69 Vishnu Benevolent god Works for order and well being of the world. Often represented lying in a trance or asleep on cosmic waters. Symbols: wheel and conch shell. Often has four arms. Wears a crown and lavish jewelry. Rides a man/bird, Garuda.

70 Shiva Unpredictable, has both creative and destructive side, male and female, light and dark Often in meditation Known as a great lover Lord of Existence Lord of the Dance Embodies entire universe Associated with the bull

72 Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon Manisha Rock cut relief, granite,v7th century CE, India Hindu warrior goddess who defends civilization against the evil forces in the world. The combat symbolizes for Hindus the struggle between order and disorder

Durga is often depicted riding a lion; wielding weapons

She leads an army of dwarves in attacking the buffalo

Durga is empowered with weapons given to her by the male

73 Durga: She who is difficult to oppose. Durga is a form taken by the supreme Hindu goddess, Devi. Durga is often depicted riding a lion; wielding weapons in her eight arms. She leads an army of dwarves in attacking the buffalo demon, Manisha. Durga is empowered with weapons given to her by the male Hindu gods, who urged her to battle Manisha Slender and graceful Durga defeats the larger more powerful Manisha, symbolizing the power of good over evil.

74 Devi Devi is the Divine Mother of the Hindu culture. Her name means "goddess." She has many names and forms such as the warrior Durghaand the bloodthirsty Kali or she can be gentle as Parvati mother of the elephant god Ganesh. Devi is the consort (wife) of Shiva Devi is the "Mother Goddess," meaning she is the mother of all. In her hands she holds joy and pain, right hand; and life and death is held on her left hand. Devi is the god of nature and life because she brings rain and protects against disease.

75 Brahma Brahma is the first god in the Hindu triumvirate with Shiva and Vishnu. He is regarded as the senior god and his job was creation. He should not be mistaken with Brahman, who is the supreme God of all. Brahma is the least outwardly worshipped god in Hinduism today, and there are only two temples in the whole of India devoted to him, compared with the many thousands devoted to the other two. Brahma has four heads and it is believed that from these four heads came the four Vedas (the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus). Some also believe that the caste system, or four varnas, came from different part of Brahma's body.

76 BBC/Religion & Ethics: Janson, History of Art, Abrams 2001 Marilyn Stockstad s Art History: Second Edition (Volumes one and two) Metropolitan Museum of Art s Timeline of Art History. Available online at Strickland, Carol. The Annotated Mona Lisa The Web Gallery of Art. Available online at

Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200

Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200 Stupa and early Buddhist sculpture, narrative style and tribhanga pose Early iconography of the Buddha: from symbols to icon Buddhist Cave Shrines of Ajanta