MPS 17 The Structure of Persuasion Logos: reasoning, reasons, good reasons not necessarily about formal logic

Transcription

1 MPS 17 The Structure of Persuasion Logos: reasoning, reasons, good reasons not necessarily about formal logic Making and Refuting Arguments Steps of an Argument You make a claim The conclusion of your argument a statement you want your listeners to accept Textbook prices are too high Visual aids make ideas easier to remember You offer evidence The supporting material you use to prove a point As an advocate you have an obligation to support your position with valid arguments You must offer your listeners reasons to accept your conclusion You show how the evidence proves the claim You link the evidence to the claim For example: Statistics may underwrite the claim that there is some X-Trend You qualify the link Probably Certainly Without a doubt likelihood Steps of Refuting an Argument State the position/claim your are refuting State your position/claim Support your position/claim Show how your position undermines the opposing argument Types of Argument Argument by Example Inductive form of proof Uses a few specific instances to assert a broader claim Tests of Examples: Are the examples true? Are the examples relevant?

2 2 Are the examples sufficient? Are the examples representative? Argument by Analogy Links two object or concepts and asserts that what is true of one will be true of the other Appropriate when what you oppose or support has been tried elsewhere (in a way it is like an argument from precedent) Tests of Analogies: Are the similarities between the two cases relevant? Are any of the differences between the two cases relevant? Argument by Cause Connects two elements or events and claims that one is produced by the other Can reason from effect to cause or from cause to effect The difference is chronological Tests of Causal Arguments: Does a causal relationship exist? Could the presumed cause produce the effect? Could the effect result from other causes? Argument by Deduction Moves from a general category to a specific instance Can consist of three elements as a syllogism: Major premise: a claim about a general group of people, events, or conditions (generally, that your audience accepts) Minor premise: places a specific person, event, or condition into a general class Conclusion: argues that what is true of the general class is true of the specific instance or individual Steps: State your major premise Say because, and then state your minor premise Say therefore, and then state your conclusion Tests of Deductive Arguments: Do the premises relate to each other?

3 3 Is the may premise true? Is the minor premise true? Enthymeme: State your minor premise Because it is raining State your conclusion You better take an umbrella Audience supplies missing Major premise(s) from store of what they already know This is some STRONG persuasion! It seems like (and in fact is) common sense! Argument by Authority Uses testimony from an expert source to prove a speaker s claim Its validity rests on the credibility the authority has for the audience Tests of Argument by Authority: Is the source an expert? Is the source unbiased? Fallacies of Argument Hasty Generalization Faulty form of argument by example Quantity and quality of examples questionable Insufficient and unrepresentative instances False Analogy If the items compared in an analogy differ in critical ways Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc After this, therefore, because of this. A chronological fallacy assumes that because one event followed another event, the first event caused it Slippery Slope Asserts that one action inevitably sets in motion a chain of events or indicates a trend The domino effect Red Herring Can be a faulty argument by deduction

4 4 An argument makes a claim based on an irrelevant premise The red herring fallacy introduces an irrelevant issue to deflect attention from the subject under discussion Appeal to Tradition Defends the status quo and opposes change by arguing that old ways are always superior to new ways False Dilemma You have more that the two options presented Polarizing False Authority Advocates support their ideas with the testimony of people who have apparent, but not real, expertise I m good a golf. Buy this Buick. Bandwagon Faulty argument by authority It assumes that popular opinion is an accurate measure of truth and wisdom Ad Hominem Arguments that ask listeners to reject an idea because of the allegedly poor character of the person voicing it Most obvious form: name calling Selecting Propositions for Persuasive Speeches Characteristics of Propositions A proposition is a declarative sentence expressing a judgment you want the audience to accept It expresses a judgment that is debatable, and that requires proof Express a judgment States a position you will defend It should be a declarative sentence expressing your position Can be an answer to question Should we stay the course? Proposition: we should stay the course. Debatable The judgment must include some degree of controversy

5 5 Once we accept a proposition as a fact, it ceases to be an appropriate topic for a persuasive speech Require proof A proposition is an assertion, and assertions are statements that have not yet been proven Your objective as a persuasive speaker is to offer compelling reasons for listeners to accept your proposition Types of Propositions Propositions of fact A proposition of fact focuses on belief You ask the audience to affirm the truth or falsity of a statement Propositions of value Requires a judgment of the worth of an idea or action You ask the audience to determine the goodness or badness of something Propositions of policy Advocate a course of action The statement usually includes the word should Monroe s Motivated Sequence Moves listeners to action by using a progression of motivated steps Particularly appropriate when you discuss a well-known or easily established problem Five steps: Attention Must first command the attention of your listeners Need Establish a need Physiological Safety Belongingness Self-esteem Self-actualization Satisfaction Propose a way to solve, or at least minimize, the problem

6 Visualization Seek to intensify the listeners desire to implement and adopt the proposed solution Imagine this... Action Request action within the power of the audience to act Call Sign this petition Go to the mall 6