UNIT 11 CHARACTERISATION & TECHNIQUES

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1 UNIT 11 CHARACTERISATION & TECHNIQUES 0 bjectives Introduction Macbeth as Tragedy Macbeth As Tragic Hero The Supernatural in Mackrh Lady Macbeth Minor Characters Duncan Banquo Macduff Malcolm and Donalbain Choric Characters Techniques Imagery Dramatic Irony Let Us Sum Up Answers to Exercises 11.0 OBJECTIVES This is the last Unit of the Block, and we have concluded our study of the text itself. Now we are ready to take an overall view of the play. By the end of this Unit, therefore, you should be able to;. discuss the development of all the major characters; discuss whether or not the play is a tragedy, and if so, what kind; come to some conclusions of your own concerning the main issues in the play. In this last Unit, we will try to bring together all that we have discussed in the previous four Units. In those Units, you will remember, each Act was taken up individually, and issues and iharacters discussed as and when they arose. Although a summary is provided at the end of every unit, this unit will put together the various threads of the fabric of the play. In this manner, we will be able to discuss aspects of the play in their entirety, looking at them from all angles. Again, throughout the previous units, we have postponed making judgements on keyissues and many of the characters. Now, we will be in a position to make up our minds once and for all these issues lma CBETH AS TRAGEDY Is Macbeth a tragedy, and if so, in what sense? That is, now are we going to define this most problematic of terms? A good way to begin such an exercise is to take any one accepted definition and then apply it to the text. In this way, we can modify, change or even, entirely discard the definition as we subject it to our understanding of the play. Now that we have been through the play andyou have had a chance to look at all the aspects of the play from various angles, we can see if any definition of tragedy has emerged from our reading of the play. The filst thing we must do, then, is to assume a definition. The one that we propose here, is a wmpi'ation of various ideas that have, over the years, come together to form an acwtable notion of traaedv. TheAristotelian ~hrase that is often used in

2 this connection is that a tragedy "describes a serious action". Without going into the strictly Aristotelian idea of tragedy, let us accept this phrase at its face value. The next question is, what is the nature of this action, and how is it described? Characterisstion & Techniques For the moment, let us assume that an action is "serious" if it can be seen, not only as having serious consequences, but also, important metaphysical implications. Let us also assume that the person who carries out this action is our protagonist - in this case, our hero. The traditional notion demanded that the hero be of high birth - preferably royal - and of high social standing and wealth. This is not all; the hero must also be a man of exceptional character. That is, he must be an essentially "good" man. However, there is a flaw in this otherwise flawless nature - which Aristotle calls "hamaertia" - which is usually pride - called "hubris" by the Greeks. We are now ready for the tragic action; this, takes the form of a choice which faces the hero. The choice is a difficult one and the hero is usually aware that any decision that he takes will have serious consequences, but he is in a situation where he is forced to make a decision. Having made his choice, the hero is then left to face the consequences. These are usually grave and cause a great deal of suffering to the hero and other people. Finally, this suffering ends in the death of the hero, and the play ends with an affirmation of the values that the hero died for. Now let us see if it is possible to fit Macbeth into this framework. We know that the murder of Duncan is an action with very serious consequences and, as we have seen, involves some profound metaphysical ideas as well. Furthermore, Macbeth fits the mould of the hero insofar as he is of high - if not noble - birth, and the play deals with his rise to great heights and his downfall thereafter. His character, however, poses a problem. He is, without doubt, a murderer. He has not only killed the king, he is also responsible for the deaths of various innocent people. How then, can we say that he is essentially a "good" man, and if we cannot, does he qualify as a tragic hero? 11.3 MECBETH AS TRAGIC HERO This is where we will have to modify the definition that we have assumed. In that definition, we have taken for granted that the "goodness" of the hero will be assessed in traditional moral terms. According to these terms, we have seen that "murderer" and "good" are antithetical terms; a murderer cannot be good because he has broken the first and most important commandment - "thou shalt not kill". Clearly, the traditional virtues do not apply to Macbeth. What then, are the virtues which we can uphold in Macbeth? As we have noted in the previous Unit, Macbeth is the most important character in the play because of his level of self-awareness and his sense of perspective. The range of his vision is deeper and vaster than anyone else's in the play. The quality of his suffering also is of a different order than that of the average human being because of the awareness that goes with it. His complete isolation emphasises his strength and courage, and his fighting spirit remains undaunted to the last. Moreover, he is so highly imaginative and sensitive, that his experiences are more vivid and yield deeper insights than the normal persons would. Add to this list intelligence and vitality and an unshakeable sense of his own individuality, and you have a rough sketch of what we can call "existential virtues". This is the sense in which Macbeth can be considered heroic - confirming virtues that we can uphold and applaud - and these are the qualities that are affirmed in his death at the end of the play. But even if we grant that he is, therefore, heroic, in what sense can we say that he is tragic? Macbeth's tragedy lies, not only in the fact that he dies, but in the fact that he must die. That is, his death is imperative on two counts: first, is is his fate to be defeated by the forces that he is fighting, and second, his death is necessary in order to restore the moral and socir' order that he has destroyed. (We have seen, in the last IJnit, that by defying this order, he has helped tn rrinfrlrr~ it \

3 'Macbeth Thus, at the end of the play, we are left with a sense of great wdte and the loss of human potential. This is the essence of the tragedy of Macbeth Check Your Progress 1 a) Do you agree with the above definition of tragedy, and if not,-make another makeshift definition of your own and see if the play can be fitted into it. (Give the new outline in five points below.) b) Name three Existential virtues. i)... ii)... iii) FATE AND CHARACTER IN MACBETH The question that we must address ourselves to here, is whether Macbeth was wholly responsible for this destiny or whether his life was entirely in the hands of fate. When dealing with a tragedy, this allocation of responsibility is of paramount importance; if the individual is completely at the mercy of fate and has no control over his own life, then he is little better than a puppet and his fate may be sad, but it cannot be tragic. Similarly, if the individual has complete control over his own life and can forge his own destiny, then he may be a man who chooses evil, but again, he is not tragic. A man's life can be tragic only when he is pitted against large and powerful forces whom he chooses to fight. That is, when a man's character comes in conflict with his fate, then the struggle that ensues is a tragic one, since, inspite of his courage, the man is doomed to defeat. Hence, the tragedy traces the destiny which is made up of a mixture of fate and character, Such a man is Macbeth. We have seen, in our reading of the play, that, although his kingship has been prophesied by the witches. the decision to kill Duncan is his own. In fact, every decision tbet,!&ebeth makes is made only after much agonising and soul-searching on his part. At every point, he is fully aware of the coniequences and meaning of his actions. In this sence, he is wholly responsible for his actions. He cannot, however, control the actions of others, and he is eventually defeated by a series of accidents and coincidences. It may be argued that hu defeat, too, is foretold. His actions are of no use if he is fated to die. This is the essence of the tragic hero; he must be aware of the odds against him, and he must continue to wage war against his fate with courage and determination. If he accepts defeat and surrenders without a fight, as many people do, then he is an average human being and not of tragic stature. Tragic stature is, therefore, determined by the level of awareness of the hero, the quality of his suffering, the courage with which he faces his destiny, and his stoicism in the face of death. These are the qualities that make Macbeth tragic - not his fate, but what he makes of it The Supernatural in Macbeth Much is made of the role of the supernatural in Macbeth, from the witches and Lady Macbeth's invocation to the powers of evil to the 'moving' of Dirnam wood and the man who proves to be not 'of woman born'. The first point to be made here is that, except for the witches, each of the so-called manifestations of the supernatural can b~ explained away in natural terms. Lady Macbeth's invocation is easily understood in psychological terms, her ambition overpowering her temporarily only for her rnncri~nr~ tn ciirfar~ and dt IVP hpr mad. nirnarn wnnd as we knnw is nnt art~~allv a

4 forest at all, but men covered in the leaves and branches of Dirnam wood; and Macbduff is not born of a woman only insofar as his was premature and Ceasarian birth, not a normal delivery., Characterisation & Techniques The witches, however, are presented to us as quite clearly supernatural. They are seen to disappear, to materialise out of thin air, foresee the future and indulge in magical feats like pulling heads and babies out of their cauldrons. We are asked, in other words, to accept them as supernatural beings. This is important because it must be made quite clear that Macbeth's kingship and defeat are both fated. Only by making a supernatural power state these two prophesies can this point be clarified. The role of the supernatural, then is to represent the forces that Macbeth is fighting against. Moreover, the Second set of prophesies are not, if you remember, catagorical. That is, the witches do not say that Macbeth will be defeated when Birnam wood comes to Dunsinane, nor do they say that Macbeth will never be killed. They are extremely ambiguous, leaving Macbeth free to interpret their cryptic words. This suggests that he is doomed only if he decides to act in a certain way; that there may be a way out if he is wise and can understand the deeper meanings of their prophesies. This is where Macbeth's own character comes into play: his arrogance and determination lead him to understand that he is safe; he ignores, that is, the latter half of the prophesies. Thus, Macbeth's fate, as we have seen, is a mixture of fate and character, and the element of the supernatural clearly defines the role of fate. Check Your Progress 2 a) Do you agree that Macbeth's destiny is not governed solely by fate? Give reasons. (100 words). b) What is the reason for Shakespeare's introducing an element of the supernatural in the play? (70 words) LADY MACBETH We can discuss Lady Macbeth under four main headings: i) as a fourth witch; ii) as an externalisation of Macbeth's inner psyche; iii) as a warning to Macbeth;

5 First, let us consider how and why Lady Macbeth has come to deserve the unfortunate epithet of the fourth witch. Critics who attach this label to her are largely referring to her hand in persuading Macbeth to the crime and her invocation to the evil powers. That is, she continues the work that the witches had begun.-it is, however, not quite true to say that she is responsible for Macbeth's decision to kill Duncan; it would be more correct to say that he allows himself to be persuaded by her just as he allows the witches to influence him when he could easily have ignored them. Furthermore, Lady Macbeth plays the role of instigator only as far as the first crime goes. Thereafter, she does her best to dissuade him from the murders of Banquo, Fleance, and the Macduff household. Therefore, it is unfair to pass such a blanket judgement on her. As for her invocation to evil, it has already been said that it was more psychological than real; no evil spirits actually materialise, she is merely fortified into being able to suppress her conscience and humanity for the period of the murder. After that, her conscience catches up with her and the invocation has obviously lost its power already. Thus, it is more feasible to see her as the second category - an externalisation of Macbeth's own inner compulsions. This is to say that she represents that part of Macbeth which is ambitious and wishes to use evil means in order to achieve his goals. Again, this is only true up to an extent. After the crime is over, Lady Macbeth has very little in common with Macbeth and, we see them grow apart. By the time she goes insane, Lady Macbeth has ceased to symbolise any part of Macbeth's being. The third category exists side by side with the second. In our horror at Lady Macbeth's invocation, Shakespeare seeks to imply the moral norm. That is, we recognise the immorality of the crime that they are contemplating as we become aware of our revulsion to the evil necessary to commit such a crime. Later, as Macbeth continues on the path of death and destruction, Lady Macbeth's reactions are pointers to the level of degradation that he is reaching. Her fear that Macbeth will go mad, that he is overstepping the limits of mere ambition, her estrangement from him, all these indicate to us the abnormality of Macbeth's actions. Finally, when she goes insane, Lady Macbeth functions as a warning to us and to Macbeth, saying, as it were, that the normal person would go mad in the face of the knowledge that they have sold their souls. Again, she gives us the reaction of the average human being while Macbeth's reactions are those of the extraordinary tragic hero's. Finally, we can see, in Lady Macbeth, the restrictions that the average Elizabethzn woman lived under. The main point to remember in this connection is that, as a woman, Lady Macbeth cannot act on her own; she can only be the initiator of action. This is because she is living in a patriarchal system where the only authority acceptable is male. Moreover, when she wishes to take the initiative into her own hands and act, she is renounced as evil. Her being regarded as a fourth witch is part and parcel of this syndrome, where the active woman is seen as appropriating the powers of the male. Thus, she becomes 'unnatural' and therefore, a 'witch'. Hence, the figure of Lady Macbeth shows us the limitations of the woman in Elizabethan times by being the exact opposite of the average woman; by rebelling against the norm set; by society, and suffering the consequences. Check Your Progress 3 a) Which of the above four perspectives on Lady Macbeth appeal to you the most and why? (70 words)

6 b) Do you think any other perspectives on Lady Macbeth are possible? If so, give a briefly argued outline of your interpretation of her role and character. (100 words) MINOR CHARACTERS Besides Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, there are some important characters, who are an integral part of the play. These serve to: 0 further the action of the plot, 0 comment on the main characters, add depth to the main issues and widen them, and function as 'choric' characters. Each character will usually fulfil more than one of these functions; for example, the hired murderers both further the plot as well as serve to underline some of the issues that concern Macbeth, himself. On the other hand, characters like Duncan are more important for the issues that are raised through them than for their place in the plot. Duncan, as you know, is dispensed with very early on in the play. His contribution to the plot is minimal, since he merely provides the 'king' who is to be killed. Let us try, therefore, to discuss each of the miiior characters, identifying the areas of the play to which they contribute Duncan As has been mentioned above, Duncan's importance to the play cannot be restricted to his role as the 'murdered king'. What, then, are the issues that are raised through him? Primarily, the idea of the divine king is being explored through the figure of Duncan. If you remember, the Elizabethan age was deeply interested in the divine right of Kingship and much effort and scholarship was spent on deciding whether a bad ruler should be king merely because he was 'divine', and what exactly this 'divinity' amounted to. In the case of Duncan, although Shakespeare does not commit himself to any one view, we are given a choice between tkro ideas. One, that the king is divine, whether he is good or bad, and his murder is the highest form of sin. Two, that the question of kingship is one that is decided by the law of the 'survival of the fittest', and the most able person should be king. As for the question of what exactly does the divinity of a king amount to, the answer is to be found in a character who never turns up on stage at all: 'holy' king Edward of England. In the figure of this king, Shakespeare has presented a king who is divine, not because he has the sanction of God, but because he is a saintyperson, with the qualities of a good, upright, God-fearing man. To emphasise this point, we are told that Edwdrd actually has miraculous healing powers - a gift granted by God only to the most saintly of peoqle. Thus, we are encouraged to put Duncan in perspective, to compare and contrast him with king Edwxd and with Macbeth - both kings - and to come to odr own conclusions.

7 Banquo Like Duncan, Banquo, too, has only a minimal role to play in terms of the plot; he, too, is killed fairly early in the play. However, ~ an~uo functions as a foil to Macbeth, and their actions and thoughts are always being compared and contrasted. Very early, the witches prophesy greatness for both of them, leaving us to note the difference in their reactions. Later, also, as the witches' words sink into the imaginations of both men, we are given the chance to see howeach of them deal with their latent ambition. If Banquo had been depicted as a noblemen who rejects the chance to rise to power out of loyalty to his king, we would have been presented with a straight-forward study in contrasts. However, Banquo is a much more complex figure than that. We are left undecided as to his real feelings and intentions uptill his death. By doing this, Shakespeare has seen to it that no easy moral judgements or solutions are possible Macduff In the character of Macduff, we find the picture of loyalty and devotion to the king that we are denied in Banquo. It is possible to say that, after the death of Duncan, and Banquo, Macduff has only to do away with Macbeth in order for him to seize the throne fbr himself. However, Macduff never once wavers from his purpose, which is to restore the throne to Malcolm - Duncan's son, and, according to Macduff, the 'rightful' heir. ' Macduff s other motive in fighting Macbeth is revenge; Macbeth is responsible for killing his wife, son and entire household, besides taking over all his property. In this capacity, Macduff serves to indicate to us the depth of evil, cruelty, and senseless violence that Macbeth has sunk to. In the scene where we are shown Macduff lamenting and then stoicially bearing the grief caused by Mgcbeth, our sympathies are shifted away from Macbeth. This shift is necessary in order to prepare us for the violent death to which Macbeth is doomed. Maduffs final impression at the end of the play is one of the average human being. Through him, we are given a picture of the 'normalcy' that has been restored to the shattered world of Macbeth Malcolm and Donalbain. Duncan's sons are largely plot fixtures; that is, their importance to the play can be assessed in the simple terms of their role in getting the action going. We see them only twice: once when their father is killed, and again when they come to recapture the throne. Of the two, Malcolm is clearly more important, because we hwe to be able to see whether he *ll make a good king or not. As it is, we are shca that he is a callow and inexperienced youth whose only claim to the throne is by blood. Hence, when Shakespeare has him pronounce the last - rather insensitive and arrogant - words of the play, we are lei3 to wonder whether Scotland is actually in better hands. Thus, the two sons serve as an important focal point for all those who wish to restore Duncan's heirs to the throne. For the purpose of the play, this is equally important, because if there were no heirs, the question of the divine right of kingship - which was, by definition, heriditary - could not be discussed at all. Finally, in deliberately not building up the two sons to any worthwhile stature, Shakespeare produces a sense of anti-climax at the end of the play. We are left with a strong sense of the power and magnitude of Macbeth's personality when it is contrasted with these two light-weight characters Choric Characters Choric characters are those characters who do not fulfil any major function in the plot, but are importatit because they offer comments and perspectives on what is happening in the play. These characters include Ross and Angus, the porter, the Doctor and lady-in-waiting for Ladf Macbeth, the old man, qnd Macbeth's valet. Ross and Angus comment on Macbeth's reactions to their news that he has been made Thane of Cawdor; later they comment on his state at seeing the ghost of

8 Banquo; and finally, it is Ross in whom the old man confides his observations and fears. Macbeth The porter, while providing sqme comic relief, also neatly encapsulates many of the major themes of the play in his speech. Symbolically, he represents the porter of the gates of Hell, and in this capacity, sets the tone for the ensuing scene (the discovery of the death of Duncan). The Doctor and maid to Lady Macbeth, whom we see only once in the sleep-walking scene, offer a perspective on the state of Lady Macbeth's mind. Their human sympathy and understanding are touching in the context of the estrangement between Macbeth and his wife. Moreover, they give us an insight into the suffering of Lady Macbeth, something which the rest of the play does not do. Finally, the old man; the figure of the elderly, nameless man who comes at a time when evil has got the upper hand in the world is a familiar one in English drama. It originated in fhe old morality plays of early English drama, when good and evil influences were personified in the forms of a 'good angel' and a 'bad angel'. When the good angel had failed to persuade the hero to leave the path of evil, the hero's last chance to repent and be forgiven was offered by the figure of the old man. 'Traditionally, the old man's pleas were rejected by the hero, and he was left to warn the hero as to the dire consequences of his course of action, and leave. Thus, the,old man who surfaces in Macbeth represents Macbeth's last chance. However, since he does not strictly conform to the traditional mould, he merely expresses his despair at the course of events, the evil in the world, and leaves. He speaks for 'the people' or the general opinion of Macbeth and the turn that events, are taking. Thechoric character, then, each comment on a particular aspect of the play, adding depth and enhancing its meanings. Check Your Progress 4 a) Who are choric characters? (20 words) - 4 b) Give the import~nce of any two of the following? (30 words each) i) Ross and Angus ii) the old man iii) the doctor and maid iv) the porter c) Do you think Banquo would have been more effective if he had been less ambiguous? Give reasons. (50 words)...

9 d) What is the difference between king Edward and Duncan? (50 words) e) What do you think is the importance of Macduff? (50 words) 11.7 TECHNIQUES This section is not an exhaustive one; that is, we cannot discuss al/ the techniques of playwrighting that exist and that Shakespeare may have used. What it will serve to do, is to alert you to the way in which ideas and characters are put across to you in' the course of the play. Hopefully, this will sensitize you to many other techniques which will not be dealt with here, and enable you to read the play with a more critical and analytical mind Imagery One of the major contributions to the field of Shakespeare criticism is the study of the imagery used in his plays. Normally, an image is used to emphasise an idea by creating a comparison, or indicate an idea indirectly through a comparison. In Shakespeare's plays, images play a very important part in telling us more about characters and issues without actually saying it in words. What an image cluster is, has been explained in the first unit. Here, we will consider the different kinds of image clusters to be found in Macbeth and try and understand why these are used. Let us take an example: just as imagery taken from nature surrounds Duncan, Macbeth's speeches are full of images taken from the animal kingdom. You might recall his image of overriding ambition being like a horse that vaults over itself; that his mind, as he tells his wife, is "full of scorpions"; that he is tied "bear-like to the stake"; his observation that the murderers are like man insofar as all dogs are dogs; that Banquo is like a snake whom he has only "scotched" not killed, etc. What is the point of attaching animal imagery to Macbeth? Many interpretations are possible. One, it can be said that the use of these images gives us a picture of Macbeth as a 'natural animal' who chaffs under the yoke of civilised laws. Two, since many of the images are of fierce or powerful and dangerous animals, we understand that Macbeth's world is one of the 'social wilderness' in which the laws of the jungle prevail. Three, such imagery adds to our sense of the elemental and fundamental nature of the conflicts and issues and people in this play. It does not matter which interpretation you agree with, or even if you agree with all or none of them. What it is important to note, here, is that such an image cluster exists and that it influences our reading of the play. Other image clusters in the play are: food and feasting images; clothes imagery; images of geological disruptions (earthquakes, fires etc.); and nature imagery. You will notice that all these clusters are taken from the natural world; unlike many of his contemporaries, Shakespeare rarely took his images from the world of science, medicine, law, exploration etc. While some images may be taken from any of these areas, there are no clusters of images - in this play, none at all - which are not

10 There is a reason for this: If you remember, Nature and Order were the two great Elizabethan positives. All that was natural and orderly was good, while all that was unnatural and chaotic was evil. By using images from nature, Shakespeare offers a commentary on this basic notion of the Elizabethan mind. He does not always uphold it - sometimes it is subverted, modified or denied altogether. What is important is that one of the fundamental tenets of existence in the Elizabethan age is, through these image clusters, examined and explored Dramatic Irony You know that when one thing is said when something else is meant, it is called ironic. In such cases, the person who speaks is aware that he or she is being ironic. In the case of dramatic irony, the playwright ensures that the reader is aware of the reality, while the person speaking is usually unaware that what is being said is not true. Let us take an example. When Duncan arrives at Inverness, he praises the beauty of its natural surroundings, its seeming goodness and its air of health and good fortune. As he speaks, he is not aware of the irony of his words. We, who know that the castle is to be his grave, that Inverness will bring death and confusion, are aware of the irony of his words. This is known as dramatic irony. Macbeth is shot through with many such instances, some of which we have discussed. Much of the power of the play derives from the use of dramatic irony. The audience has the confidence of the playwright, having full knowledge of what has happened or is going to happen, while the awareness of the characters on stage is limited. In a play like Macbeth, where one of the main issues is that of fate, the play gains added power 'if a sense of the inevitability of things is brought home to the audience. This sense is given by granting the audience prior knowledge of what is going to happen (for instance, we know that Duncan is going to be killed). Once the audience knows, it regards the event as inevitable. Clearly, this knowledge on the part of the audience helps in generating dramatic irony. Finally, in a play like Macbeth, the story of which is a popular legend known to the audience, the focus is not on what happens, but on how it happens. That is, not the story, but the issues that it raises and expertise with which the dramatist presents them is of paramount importance. In this context, dramatic irony plays an important role. check Your Progress 5 a) What is an image cluster? Give two examples from the play. (70 words) b) How do images help in developing a theme? Explain with the help of an example from the play. (100 words)

11 c) What is dramatic irony? Give an example. (70 'words) LET US SLM UP In this Unit, we have tried to sum up the various aspects of the play under easily understood headings. Major points of views have been summed up here, including a recapitulation of the readings offered in the course of the preceding four Units. It must be stressed that these summaries are sufficient or complete in themselves, and it is hoped that you will go back to the previous Units after you have read this one in order to gain some kind of perspective on the play as a whole. Needless to say, you. must eventually make up your own mind on the basis of what you have read in these Units, your own reading of the play and whatever secondary readings you will do ANSWERS TO EXERCISES Check Your Progress 1 a) Refer for hints to sections and b) Vitality; Self-awareness; courage. Check Your Progress 2 a) Refer for hints to section b) Refer for hints to section Check Your Progress 3 a) Refer for hints to section b) Refer for hints to section Check Your Progress 4 a) Refer for hints to section b) Refer for hints to section c) Refer for hints to section d) Refer for hints to section e) Refer for hints to section Check Your Progress 5 a) Refer for definition to section ; two examples are food and animal imagery. b) Refer for hints to section c) Refer for definition to section