Proper names, beliefs, and definite descriptions.

Transcription

1 University of Massachusetts Amherst Amherst Doctoral Dissertations February 2014 Dissertations and Theses Proper names, beliefs, and definite descriptions. Thomas C. Ryckman University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Ryckman, Thomas C., "Proper names, beliefs, and definite descriptions." (1984). Doctoral Dissertations February This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Dissertations and Theses at ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact scholarworks@library.umass.edu.

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3 PROPER NAMES, BELIEFS, AND DEFINITE DESCRIPTIONS A Dissertation Presented By THOMAS CHARLES RYCKMAN Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY September Department of Philosophy

4 Thomas Charles Ryckman All Rights Reserved 11

5 PROPER NAMES, BELIEFS, AND DEFINITE DESCRIPTIONS A Dissertation Presented By THOMAS CHARLES RYCKMAN Approved as to style and content by: Edmund L. Gettier, III, Chairperson of Committee Barbara Partee, Member obison, Member Michael Jubien, Department Head Department of Philosophy

6 Dedicated, with love, to Susanne Burgess Ryckman IV

7 . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I Wish to acknowledge my debt and gratitude to certain persons and institutions Edmund L. Gettier, III, has read and commented on three prior drafts of this dissertation, and on additional versions of some of its parts. He has patiently and -ski Hfu!!y guided me to more fully appreciate the complexity and subtlety of the issues I have considered. It has sometimes seemed to me that he understood better than me my own views on these issues. Time and again he has made careful and penetrating comments and criticisms of the style and content of my work. He has shown me that an imprecise and obscure style can lead to serious defects in content. Despite the frustrations my errors and false starts must have caused him, he has always been encouraging and kind. As a teacher and philosopher, he has my deepest admiration and respect. Herbert Heidelberger and I discussed my dissertation as late as a month before his untimely death. I have no doubt that I would be a better philosopher had he lived. More than any single person, he made me understand how important it is to ask and try to clearly answer two questions about a given thesis. First, exactly what is the thesis? Second, what arguments are given to support it? Once, after I told him that I thought a particular guest lecture was "great," he proceeded repeatedly, and in a variety of ways to ask me those two questions. I was surprised to discover that I did not know the answers. It is a lesson I have never forgotten. v

8 Barbara Partee read and commented extensively on the first draft of this dissertation. Her remarks helped me to better understand many of its weaknesses. In spite of her objections, she was very encouraging, and led me to think that my work would be a worthwhile contribution to the philosophical discussion I was entering into. I would also like to thank Bruce Aune and John Robison for their comments on the final draft. Two of the three summers I have worked on this dissertation were spent at Whitehall, where George Berkeley lived, near Newport, Rhode Island. I am grateful to the Rhode Island Colonial Dames-especially to the members of the Whitehall Committee for giving Susanne and I the chance to enjoy the many benefits of our summers at Whitehall. It is a beautiful, peaceful, and especial 1 y for a philosopher inspiring place to work. For the past two years, I have been a temporary member of the faculty of the Department of Philosophy at Iowa State University. I am indebted to my friends and colleagues there, especially to John Elrod and William S. Robinson. In his capacity as department head, John encouraged me to devote a reasonable amount of time to my dissertation and to present parts of it at department lectures and seminars. Bill and I discussed the issues I was working on almost every working day. His own standards were a close and constant reminder of those Professor Gettier would require me to meet. Bonney Deres typed the final copy. She accepted the job on fairly short notice, and has met every schedule with time to spare. With her, I have benefited from working with someone who is well-acquainted with the vi

9 University's dissertation guideiines. She has helped me to correct or avoid making several format errors. Finally, I wish to acknowledge that I would not have completed this dissertation without the love, care, and understanding of my wife, Susanne B. Ryckman. I am sure that she has helped me in more ways than either of us could ever recount. By her own everyday behavior she sets standards of fairness, honesty, and the pursuit of excellence that I have tried to emulate in my work. Throughout this process our shared love and faith in one another has been my greatest resource and my ultimate sanctuary.

10 ABSTRACT Proper Names, Beliefs, and Definite Descriptions September 1984 Thomas Charles Ryekman, B.A., University of Michigan at Flint M.A., University of Massachusetts, Ph.D., University of Massachusetts Directed by: Professor Edmund L. Gettier, III This dissertation investigates issues raised by these two questions: (i) what kinds of propositions are ordinarily expressed by uses of sentences that contain proper names; and (ii) what kinds of beliefs are ordinarily on the minds of speakers when they use sentences that contain proper names? It develops a new view about the connections between beliefs, linguistic behavior, and propositional content, one that explicitly denies that the kinds of propositions typically expressed by uses of such sentences are the objects of the beliefs typically on the minds of the speakers who use them. Chapter I presents both the Mi Ilian and the the description theories of proper names, and reviews the advantages and disadvantages of each. Chapter II critically evaluates Dummett s defense of the description theory against the Modal Objection. Chapter III introduces Kripke's puzzle about beliefs and proper names, it shows that Kripke s puzzle is not solved by the theory of proper names recently presented by Devitt. It critically evaluates the "consistency solutions" proposed by Chisholm, Harrison, Noonan, and Over. Chapter IV continues the discussion of Kripke's puzzle. It critically evaluates the "inconsistency solution" proposed by Marcus. It viii

11 examines a con^entary on the puzzle by Lewis. Finally, it presents an "inconsistency solution" based on views suggested by the Lewis commentary. Chapter V compares my view about the connections between beliefs, linguistic behavior, and propositional content to the "naive view" and the "Russel lean view. It applies my view to solve two major problems for the Millian theor-y of proper names. IX

12 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements TWO THEORIES OF PROPER NAMES: THE MILLIAN THEORY AND THE DESCRIPTION THEORY **** Section One Section Two 1 Section Three 5 Section Four Notes 24 DUMMETT S DEFENSE OF THE DESCRIPTION THEORY AGAINST THE MODAL OBJECTION v Section One.. Section Two.. Section Three. Section Four. Notes KRIPKE'S PUZZLE ABOUT BELIEF: CONSISTENCY SOLUTIONS. Section One.. Section Two.. Section Three. Section Four. Section Five. Section Six.. Notes KRIPKE S PUZZLE ABOUT BELIEF: INCONSISTENCY SOLUTIONS. Section One.. Section Two.. Section Three. Notes BELIEF, LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR, AND PROPOSITIONAL CONTENT.. Section One Section Two Section Three Notes 184 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. 185

13 ^ CHAPTER I TWO THEORIES OF PROPER NAMES* THE MILLIAN THEORY AND THE DESCRIPTION THEORY Our uses of proper names and the sentences in which they occur give rise to at least two philosophically significant questions. First, what kind of proposition, singular or general, is expressed by an ordinary use of a sentence that contains a proper name? 1 Second, what kind of belief is ordinarily on the mind of a speaker when he uses a sentence that contains a proper name? A theory of the meaning of proper names will attempt to answer the first question; that is, will attempt to say what kinds of propositions are ordinarily expressed by uses of sentences that contain proper names. A central thesis of this dissertation is that we have been ill-served by our failure to observe the distinction between these two questions and misled by the assumption that when we answer the first question we have, thereby, also answered the second question. Section One There are two major kinds of theories of the meaning of proper names. A given theory is a Millian theory if it entails that ordinary uses of name sentences express singular propositions. 2 A given theory is a description theory if it entails that ordinary uses of name sentences express general, or qualitative, propositions. According to the Millian theory, a proper name means what it refers 4 to. Whatever it means to say that a name means what it refers to, there is widespread agreement that it entails two significant theses. First, 1

14 . 2 that a name means what it refers to, is held to entail that names which co-refer are everywhere substituable both salva veritate and salva lisnmcatiose. After all, if names mean what they refer to, then names that refer to the same thing mean the same thing. Second, that a name means hat U refers to ' ls to entail that when an apparent proper name lacks a referent, uses of sentences in which it occurs do not express propositions,. lack propositional content, and do not say anything either true or false. After all, if the meaning of a proper name is its referent, then a name with no referent is a name with no meaning. These two theses of the Mi Ilian theory are the source of its three major problems. These problems have led philosophers to seek alternatives to the Millian theory. This, in turn, led to the development of the description theory. The first of these problems is the problem of significant (or nontrivial), true, identity sentences. Sentences and (1) Hesperus is Hesperus, (2) Hesperus is Phosphorus, differ in cognitive significance. A speaker who is disposed to assent to (1) need not be disposed to assent to (2). According to Gottlob Frege (1975), (1) is not cognitively significant, whereas (2) is cognitively significant This raises a problem for the Millian. For, according to the Millian theory, since 'Hesperus and 'Phosphorus' codesignate, sentences (1) and (2) express the same proposition, have the same propositional content, and say the same thing. In cases where the sentences involved express

15 3 different propositions, the Million could always account for differences in cognitive significance by means of differences in propositional content. However, when, as in the case of (,) and (2), the sentences involved (purportedly) express the same proposition, such an account is unavailable. In fact, one could argue from the standard explanationfrom a divergence in cognitive significance, to a divergence in propositional contenw-to the conclusion that (1) and (2) do not express the same proposition, despite the fact that -Hesperus and -Phosphorusoodesignate. The Millian theory leaves us in need of an explanation of how sentences like (2) can be both true and cognitively significant. It is useful to regard the problem of significant, true, identity sentences as a species of the more general problem of the apparent failure of the substitute ity of codesignating proper names. This general problem derives from evidence which is usually taken to show that, contrary to the Millian theory of meaning, codesignating proper names are not everywhere interchangeable both salva veritate and salva significations. Such evidence is of two kinds, and one of the two is parasitic on the other. The first kind of evidence is that a speaker who is disposed to assent to such as sentence as (3) Hesperus is visible may not be disposed to assent to, indeed may be disposed to dissent from, such a sentence as (4) Phosphorus is visible, in spite of the fact that 'Hesperus* and 'Phosphorus' codesignate. Arguing from the usual explanation of such phenomena, philosophers have

16 The second hind of evidence Is that speakers sometimes report on the Hesperus is visible and does not believe that Phosphorus is visible.' If such reports are ever true, then, according to a very natural analysis of belief ascription sentences-namely: r S believes that f is true if and 14 concluded that (3) and (4) do not express the same proposition. doxastlc state of others by saying such things as 'S believe that ly if the belief relation relates the designatum of 'S' to the proposition expressed by then one and the same person may believe the proposition expressed by (3) but not believe the proposition expressed by (4). Again, such evidence would seem to prove that (3) and (4) do not express the same proposition. The second kind of evidence is parasitic on the first kind of evidence in as much as one's evidence that such reports are true is that speakers who are disposed to assent to sentences like (3) need not be disposed to assent to, indeed are often disposed to dissent from, sentences like (4). The third major problem for the Millian theory is the problem of apparently true, negative existential sentences. Sentence (5) Pegasus does not exist certainly seems true; nevertheless, if the Millian theory is true, (5) does not express any proposition. This is because 'Pegasus' lacks a referent and the Millian theory entails that sentences containing nonreferring names do not express propositions. Therefore, unless the Millian is prepared to say that a sentence like (5) can be true even though it fails to express a (true) proposition, he must hold that (5) is not true.

17 Another problem for the Hilllan theory is raise* h y sucb sentences as Hill ian theory, however, since -Pegasus' lacks a referent, neither (6) 5 (6) Pegasus has wings, and (7) Pegasus does not have wings. It is reasonable to think of (7, as the denial of (6). and to maintain that one of the two is true and the other false. According to the nor (7) expresses a proposition; and, therefore, unless the Millian is willing to say that sentences like (6) and (7) can have truth-values without expressing propositions, he must concede the counter-intuitive result that neither (6) nor (7) is either true or false. Section Two The description theory was developed to solve these three problems. According to a "standard version" of the description theory, when a speaker uses a proper name, he associates it with some definite description. 5 According to the standard version of the description theory of the reference of proper names, the referent, if any, of a given use of a proper name is the object, if any, designated by its associated definite description. 5 According to the standard version of the description theory, the proposition, if any, expressed by a given use of a sentence that contains a proper name is the proposition, if any, its user would express were he to use the sentence that results from the sentence he in fact used when the name it contains is everywhere (therein) replaced by its associated definite description. This standard

18 6 version of the description theory admits problems described above. solutions to each of the three According to the description theory, a speaker who assents to but not to (1) Hesperus is Hesperus (2) Hesperus is Phosphorus does so because he associates -Hesperus and -Phosphorus- with different definite descriptions. Suppose, for example that he associates the name -Hesperus- with the definite description -the celestial body called the Evening Star- and the name -Phosphorus' with the definite description -the celestial body called the Morning Star.- Then, according to the description theory, if he were to use (1) he would use it to express the proposition expressed by (1 ) The celestial body called the Evening Star is the celestial body called the Evening Star, and if he were to use (2) he would use it to express the proposition expressed by (2 ) The celestial body called the Evening Star is the celestial body called the Morning Star. For such a speaker, (1) and (2) do not express the same proposition. This allows the description theorist to give the standard account of why such a speaker assents to (1) but not to (2): he assents to (1) because he believes the proposition he would use it to express and he does not assent to (2) because he does not believe the proposition he would use it to express. In this way the description theory explains the difference in cognitive significance between (1) and (2).

19 7 The description theory also explains apparent failures of substitutiv (3) ity. As in the case of (1) k ; and (?) a Q speaker * i who assents to but not to (4) Hesperus is visible Phosphorus is visible does so, according to the description theory, because he associates 'Hesperus' and 'Phosphorus' with different definite descriptions. Such a speaker may use (3) to express the proposition he would express were he to use (3 ) The celestial body called the Evening Star is visible, but use (4) to express the proposition he would express were he to use (4 ) The celestial body called the Morning Star is visible. Thus, according to the description theory, such a speaker may assent to (3) be cause he believes the proposition he would express were he to use (5) (3), but not assent to (4) because he does not believe the proposition he would express were he to use (4). Apparently, the description theory explains why coref erential proper names are not interchangeable both sal va veritate and sal va signif icatione. According to the description theory,"^ when a speaker uses sentence Pegasus does not exist, he associates the proper name Pegasus' with some definite description, say, the winged horse of greek mythology,' and he thereby expresses the proposition he would have expressed had he used (5 ) The winged horse of greek mythology does not exist. One need then only refer to a theory of definite descriptions, such as O Bertrand Russell's, for an account of how sentence (5) can express a

20 8 proposition, and a true proposition at that, even though its grammatical subject, 'the winged horse of greek mythology, does not designate anything. In this way, while it may not completely eliminate the problems caused by negative existential name sentences, the description theory at least subsumes them under problems we already have quite independent of our theory of proper names. The description theory offers a similar solution the the problems raised by sentences which contain so-called "non-referring names." According to the description theory, a speaker who says (6) Pegasus has wings associates 'Pegasus with some definite description, say, 'the winged horse of greek mythology,' and thereby expresses the proposition he would express were he to say (6') The winged horse of greek mythology has wings. Similarly, if such a speaker were to say (7) Pegasus does not have wings, he would express the proposition he would express were he to say (7 ) The winged horse of greek mythology does not have wings. Again, the description theorist then refers to his theory of definite descriptions for an explanation of how (6') and (7') can express propositions even though 'the winged horse of greek mythology' does not designate anything.

21 . 9 Section Three The major problems confronting the description theory have been stated in articles by Saul Kripke? and Keith Donnellan, 1 among others." The objections involve theses common to most description theories of proper names. First, there is the thesis that speakers who use proper names associate them with definite descriptions. Foilowing Donnellan. we will say that such a description backs the speaker's use of the name he used, and I shall refer to this thesis as the "Backing Description Thesis." Second, there is the thesis that the proposition a speaker expresses by his use of a given name sentence is the proposition he would express were he to use the sentence that results from substituting the name's backing description for the name everywhere the name occurs in the original name sentence. I will call this the "Synonymy Thesis." The No Description Objection to the description theory is directed at the Backing Description Thesis. Kripke, Donnellan, and David Kaplan, among others, have claimed the speakers often use proper names without being able to supply definite descriptions to serve as backing descriptions. In fact, it seems possible to construct cases where the speaker does not have enough information to be in a position to supply a backing description. Such a case would refute the Backing Description Thesis The second major objection is the Wrong Description Objection. It takes one of two forms. One form involves cases where a speaker associates the name he uses with a definite description that fails to designate anything this despite the intuition that his use of the name

22 if any, designated by the description -the author of The Principia.' 10 did refer to seething. The other for l volves oases where a speaker associates the name he uses with a definite description that designates a certain object-this despite the intuition that his use of the name referred to a certain other obiect wp w-i i ouj i. ect. We will ^ consider one version of each form of the Wrong Description Objection. Suppose that our speaker says (8) Russell authored "On Denoting," and that he associates the name -Russell' with the definite description 'the author of The Pri ncipia.' According to the description theory of reference, the referent, if any, of his use of -Russell- is the person, According to the description theory of meaning, when he said (8), our speaker meant what he would mean were he to say (8 ) The author of The Principia authored "On Denoting." Of course, such a speaker s backing description does not designate anything; The Principia had two authors. Therefore, if the description theory of reference is true, our speaker s use of 'Russell' lacked a referent. Kripke and Donnellan have maintained that such a speaker does succeed in referring to something. On a standard analysis of definite descriptions, sentence (8') is false; it asserts, among other things, that The Pri ncipia had but one author. Therefore, if the description theory of meaning is true, our speaker expressed a false proposition when he used (8). Kripke and Donnellan would argue that such a speaker expressed a true proposition when he used (8). If Kripke and Donnellan are right, then this form of the Wrong Description Objection refutes the description theory.

23 11 To consider the other form taken by the Wrong Description Objection, we will suppose that our speaker uses (8) while associating the name ussell with the definite description 'the author of The Tractatus. 1 According to the description theory of reference, our speaker referred to Wittgenstein and, according to the description theory of meaning, our speaker meant what he would mean were he to say (8 ) The author of The Tractatus authored "On Denoting," and, so, spoke falsely. Kripke and Donnellan would say that each result is counterintuitive. If they are right, this form of the Wrong Description Objection apparently refutes the description theory. The third objection is the Modal Objection. There are two kinds of modal objection: alethic and epistemic. We shall consider both kinds through a single example. Suppose that our speaker says, (9) If Aristotle existed, then Aristotle was a philosopher, and that he associates the name 'Aristotle with the definite description 'the last great philosopher of antiquity.' Our intuitions inform us that what our speaker says is both contingently true (here is the alethic notion) and true a posteriori (here is the epistemic notion). According to the Synonymy Thesis, however, when our speaker used (9), he expressed the proposition he would express were he to use (9') If the last great philosopher of antiquity existed, then the last great philosopher of antiquity was a philosopher. In contrast with (9), (9') is both necessarily true and true a priori. 12 Therefore, contrary to the Synonymy Thesis, when our speaker used (9) he did not express the proposition he would have expressed had he used (9'). The final objection is the Attitude-Context Objection. It trades on a feature of the description theory discussed by Russell in this passage

24 12 from his lectures on logical atomism: thing as anothar person mems by Tate" ^ ^ f"' the word 'Piccad i 1 i v uq». attach quite a could be attached to it by a person who had London: neveryeen and, supposing tt^ that you travel to foreign parts and * * * lake» for example, different mea^i^g^to Th^w^d* f^ Piccadill y 100 entire! ^' '' y U WU1 00nvey to y ur v^dtff hearers propositions from those in your mind. P ) 0 956, According to Russell, unless they agreed to do so in advance, it would be a coincidence for two speakers to associate the same backing descriptions with the names they use. If Russell is right about this, and there is little reason to think he is not, then, if the Synonymy Thesis is true, it would be a coincidence for two speakers to express the same propositions with the name sentences they use. Now, suppose that Jones has been to London and seen Piccadilly. To Smith, Jones says (10) Piccadilly is very busy. Later, recalling this incident, Smith says to a third party (11) Jones believes that Piccadilly is very busy. Smith has never been to London. He associates the name Piccadilly' with the definite description the place represented by these [his] mental images. The images in question were originally acquired many years past, while watching a travelogue, and episode Smith has long since forgotten. According to the Synonymy Thesis, when Smith said (11), he expressed the proposition he would have expressed had he said (11 ) Jones believes that the place represented by these [Smith's] mental images is very busy. It would certainly be a coincidence if (IT) were true, and we may safely assume that it is false. Still, (11) is true. Furthermore,

25 1 13 Jones-s utterance of ( 10 ) is good evidence for the claim Smith makes when he says ( 11 ); however, Jones's utterance of ( 10 ) is not good evidence for the claim Smith would make were he to say (IT). Such results seem incompatible with the Synonymy Thesis. Faced with such results, one might try to reformulate the Synonymy Thesis. A natural refomulation is: when a speaker uses a name sentence, he expresses the proposition he would express were he to use the sentence that results when: (i) every name in his sentence that does not occur in the that-c lause of an attitude ascription sentence embedded in his sentence is replaced by the definite description he associates with it; and (ii) every other name in his sentence is replaced by the definite description associated with it by the subject of the immediate attitude ascription sentence in which it occurs. According to this formulation of the Synonymy Thesis, when Smith says (11) Jones believes that Piccadilly is very busy, he expresses the proposition he would express were he to say (11 1 ) Jones believes that the-f is very busy, where 'the F' is the definite description Jones associates with Piccadilly.' Like ( 11 ), ( 11 ") will be true. This formulation of the Synonymy Thesis might seem to avoid the Attitude-Context Objection. However, it raises a myriad of problems. Suppose that Smith says (12) Plato believed that Socrates was wise. One problem for the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis is raised by the possibility that Socrates was not called 'Socrates' by Plato or any of their contemporaries, and that either no one was called 'Socrates'

26 14 or that Plato used.socrates' as a name for s«eo e he yarded as rather slow wlttedj 3 If the secon(j formulat. on of the Syno^ y ^ then in the case where no one, not even Socrates, was called 'Socrates, Smith falls to express any proposition by his use of (12). If the Synonymy Thesis as presently formulated Is true, then in the case where Plato used 'Socrates' as a name for someone he had little regard for. Smith succeeds in expressing a proposition by his use of (12); however, the proposition he expresses is false. Either result is unacceptable. Another problem for the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis involves the apparent presupposition that there is a definite description which is the definite description to be substituted for a name that occurs in an attitude context. Suppose, for example, that Plato really did use 'Socrates' as a name for Socrates. At various times in his life Plato probably associated a variety of different definite descriptions with the name -Socrates, Furthermore, let us assume that just once in his life Plato was misinformed about Socrates, and, as a result, just once associated the name 'Socrates' with a definite description that does not designate Socrates. Now, which of the many definite descriptions that Plato associated with the name Socrates' is the definite description that Plato associated with the name 'Socrates'? The answer, of course, is that none of the many is, strictly speaking, the one. Apparently, then, we need some way of choosing one from among the many, and it is difficult to think of a non-arbitrar y way of making the choice. We could decide to regard the definite description Plato associated with 'Socrates' in the majority of cases as "the right one." But maybe no single one of the many fills the bill. Perhaps one was associated more

27 than any of the others, although not in the majority of cases. We could regard the most associated as.'the right one..' But there could be ties 15 or an extremely close second or even third. Perhaps number of times associated is too crude a measure, and we should look for the one definite description Plato regarded as the most significant one. Of there could still be ties, or, failing that, a close second or third. One could resort to Searle's strategy (perhaps conceived for other purposes) of using the disjunction of all associated definite descriptions. 1 ^ This might work in the case of (12); however, suppose that, rather than (12), Smith says (13) Plato believed that Socrates was a fool, and that the one definite description which Plato associated with Socrates* that did not designate Socrates designated someone who Plato thought was a fool. In such a case, under the present proposal, Smith s use of (13) would express a true proposition. That seems wrong. Finally, we might try to solve the problem with (12), and avoid the problem with (13), by appealing to the conjunction of all associated definite descriptions. This strategy would fail, however, if, as we are assuming, Plato just once associated a definite description with 'Socrates' that does not designate Socrates. For then, the conjunction of all associated definite descriptions would not designate anything. Unless we can decide which of the many definite descriptions is "the right one," the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis leaves us at a loss when it comes to saying what Smith means when he uses sentence (12). The second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis also runs into problems with regard to the evidence a speaker has for the claims he makes when he

28 uses an attitude ascription sentence whose that-clause contains a proper he uses sentence (12). First, Smith could have evidence that Plato said 16 name * C nslder the ««* might have for the claim he makes when or otherwise produced a token of something that translates either as 'Soorates was wise- or as something that entails that Socrates was wise. he regarded as this kind of evidence. Second, Smith could have evidence from a third party, for example Aristotle, that Plato believed that Socrates is wise. We regard this as good evidence because we assume that it is ultimately grounded in the first kind of evidence. For our present purposes, let us assume that Plato really said or wrote (something that translates as) -Socrates was wise and that Smith has good evidence that this is so. Now, unless Smith knows what definite description Plato associated with -Socrates' when Plato said -Socrates was wise,' and we will assume that he does not, there is no general proposition, q, such that q is expressed by a sentence of the form -The-F was wise- and because Smith has good evidence that Plato said -Socrates was wise Smith has good evidence that Plato believed q. Really, given his evidence that Plato said -Socrates was wise," all Smith has evidence for is the claim that there is a general proposition, q, such that q is expressed by a sentence of the form -The-F was wise- and Plato believed q. So, when Smith says (12) Plato believed that Socrates was wise, if he means what he would mean were he to say (12') Plato believed that the-f was wise (where the-f is the definite description, if any, that Plato associated with the name Socrates'), then Smith is making a claim that he is not

29 . entitled to make. Nevertheless, when Smith uses 02) he is making a claim that his evidence entitles him to make. Apparently, then, when he 17 uses 02), Smith does not express the proposition he would express were he to use 02'). This shows that the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis does not succeed in avoiding all of the problems that the first formulation has with attitude ascription sentences. A final problem with the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis is generated by sentences like (13) Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle believed that Zeno was wise Our intuitions inform us that when Smith uses sentence (13) he expresses a true proposition, and one that attributes a common belief to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. But, unless Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle associated the same definite description with the name 'Zeno,' the second formulation is unable to specify the propositional content of Smith s use of sentence (13). It is implausible that all three philosophers associated the same definite description with the name 'Zeno,' and we will assume that they did not. As an alternative to reformulating the Synonymy Thesis still another time, let us consider the strategy of treating (13) as short for the following conjunction: (13') Socrates believed that Zeno was wise, Plato believed that Zeno was wise, and Aristotle believed that Zeno was wise. If (13) is just a truncated version of (13'), then, if the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis is true, when Smith used sentence (13) he meant what he would mean were he to use ( 1 3 T * ) Socrates believed that the-f was wise, Plato believed that the-g was wise, and Aristotle believed that the-h was wise,

30 . the Synonymy Thesis and has the additional disadvantage of not preserving 18 where 'the-f,' 'the-g,' and 'the-h' descriptions Socrates, Plato, and name Zeno. are the respective definite Aristotle associated with the proper This strategy carries all the burdens of the second formation of our intuition that Smith s use of (13) expresses a proposition that attributes a shared belief to Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The preceding discussion clearly indicates that the second formulation of the Synonymy Thesis is no better suited to handle attitude ascription sentences than is the first formulation of the Synonymy Thesis Section Four Each of the rival theories of proper names faces serious challenges. The Millian theory faces the problems generated by significant, true, identity sentences; apparent failures of the substitutivity of codesignating names; negative existential sentences; and non-referring proper names. The description theory is confronted by the No Description, Wrong Description, Modal, and Attitude-Context objections. In this dissertation neither the No Description Objection nor the Wrong Description Objection receive the attention that is given to the Modal Objection. (The Attitude-Context Objection is discussed in Chapter V.) The No Description Objection purports to show that there are cases where, contrary to our pre-theoretic intuitions, but according to the description theory, no proposition is expressed by a speaker's use of

31 a name sentence. The Wrong Description Objection purports to show that there are cases where our intuitions info us that a speaker's use of a name sentence expresses a proposition which is not about the object the 19 description theory says the proposition he expressed is about. There are a variety of strategies that a detenmined description theorist might combine in an attempt to show that these "deviant" cases-cases where the speaker either lacks a description or has a wrong description-are very rare, so rare as to suggest that we should consider retaining any apparent intuition they deviate from. 16 In this regard, the Modal Objection is quite different. It purports to show that the description theory is always at odds with certain of our pre-theoretio intuitions. For, according to the Modal Objection, the description theory never correctly identifies the (kind of) propositions we express by our ordinary uses of name sentences. This holds, according to the Modal Objection, even when the speaker backs his use of a name by a correct definite description. Another reason for giving the Modal Objection more attention is that attempts to rebut it have generated considerably more literature than the combined literature generated by attempts to rebut either the No Description Objection or the Wrong Description Objection. Many philosophers explicitly endorse some form of Michael Dummett's defense against the Modal Objection 16. In contrast, there is no single, widely held, and clearly stated defense against either the No Description Objection or the Wrong Description Objection. In Chapter II of this dissertation, defenses of the description theory against the Modal Objection are stated, explained, and critically

32 evaluated. Considerable attention is devoted to Du^ett's? defense. 20 The conclusion is reached that none of the various defenses. Duett's included, is acceptable. Having considered, and rejected, an attempt to defend the description theory against the Modal Objection. e shift our attention to objections to the Millian theory. The Million theory faces two Minds of problems. One kind of problem facing the Millian theory involves the theory's apparent mis-identification of the propositions expressed by uses of certain sentences. This kind of trouble is generated by the problem of significant, true, identity sentences and by the more general problem of the apparent failure of the substitute ity of coreferential n^es. For, according to the Millian theory of meaning, uses of sentences and (1) Hesperus is Hesperus (2) Hesperus is Phosphorus express the same proposition. Many philosophers maintain that there is overwhelming evidence that this is not so. The second kind of problem facing the Millian theory involves the theory s apparent inability to specify propositions (7) to be the propositions expressed by uses of certain kinds of sentences. This is the trouble raised by negative existential sentences and by sentences that contain non-referring names. For, according to the Millian theory of meaning, uses of sentences (5) Pegasus does not exist, and (6) Pegasus has wings, Pegasus does not have wings,

33 21 fail to express propositions. Many philosophers hold that there 1, abundance of evidence to the contrary. We will concentrate on the first ls an kind of problem for the Millian theory. Recently, Krlpke'8 po Sed, pu22le about belief and proper According to Kripke, a solution to his puzzle will abed light on the general problem of the apparent failure of substitutiv ity of coreferential names. The problem of significant, true, identity sentences is a species of the general problem of the apparent failure of substitutivity of coreferential names. If Kripke is right, and a solution to his puzzle does shed light on these problems, then his puzzl< is germane to our concerns. For, if e discover a solution to Kripke's puzzle, we may thereby discover a solution to one of the two major problems confronting the Millian theory. In Chapter III Kripke's puzzle about belief and proper names is stated and explained. In addition, several proposed solutions to Kripke's puzzle are presented and critically evaluated. The conclusion is reached that none of the proposed solutions is acceptable. In Chapter IV the outline of a solution to Kripke's puzzle is presented. The solution is based on a view about the connection between belief, linguistic behavior, and propositional content that is suggested by certain remarks David Lewis 1 ^ makes in his corrmentary on Kripke's puzzle. In Chapter V, solutions consistent with the Millian theory are presented to the problem of significant, true, identity sentences and to the problem of the apparent failure of the substitutivity of codesignating names. They are based on the view used to solve Kripke's

34 22 puzzle. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of the relative merits of that view and its rival (from Chapter IV). To conclude this introductory chapter, let us consider certain other assumptions and restrictions that will guide this inquiry. I will assume that there are basically two kinds of propositions: singular and general. I will assume that normal assertive utterances (or uses) of declarative sentences (of English) express propositions and are either true or false in virtue of the truth or falsity of the propositions they express. I will assume that belief is a 2-place relation, one that holds between persons and propositions. I will assume that sentences of the form r S believes that f are true (at possible world w) if and only if (at w) the object (actually) designated by 'S' stands in the belief-relation to the proposition (actually) expressed by I will assume that there are possible worlds and that it makes sense to talk about the truth or falsity of propositions (and, deriv itively, of uses of sentences that express them) relative to, or at, possible worlds. Finally, I will assume that if objects x and y are distinct and F is a uniquely identifying set of properties such that (i) it is possible that x exemplifies every member of F, and (ii) it is possible that y exemplifies every member of F, then, if w is a world wherein x exemplifies every member of F and w' is a world wherein y exemplifies every member of F, then w and w' are distinct. This inquiry is restricted by the following methodological principle: accept no view that entails that there are essences and that we are acquainted with, or express, essences when we use proper names to refer to things. Some philosophers, Roderick Chisholm 20 and Lewis, 21 come to

35 ind irrmediatel y. Have expressed stro g rese ations about any suoh 1 ^ inter6sted ln ho mu=h of what needs to be done In this area 23 can be done without resort to such entities.

36 general propositions do not, have individual s-for example, rocks, trees, 2 Keith Donnellan, Saul Kripke, and Ruth Baroan Marcus, among others, 4 The following characterization of the Millian theory borrows from help of David Kaplan (1975), we shall speak of proper names as referring, 24 Notes I WU1 assume that there are at least two Kinds of propositions: general, or qualitative, propositions and singular, or particular, propositions. I win also assunle that slngular ^ ^ ^ Planets, and people-as constituents. The general/singular distinction, as applied to propositions, is widely used and reasonably clear. I wu1 assume that it is clear enough for me to appeal to it in what follows. favor the Millian theory of meaning. ^Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Peter Strawson, John Searle, Diana Ackerman, Roderick Chisholm, Michael Dummett, and Alvin Plantinga, among others, favor, or favored, the description theory of meaning. many other characterizations, but, most notably, from the one given in Kripke (1979). 5 Like the preceding characterization of the Millian theory of meaning, this characterization of the description theory of meaning draws on many sources. One of the clearest is that given in Kripke (1980). In a departure from terminology handed down from Russell, with the of definite descriptions as denoting, and of both proper names and definite descriptions as designating.

37 0 treatment described here. For Frege, 'exists,' like 'believes' and 25 In this respect, Frege's treatment differs from the Russel lean quotation marks, induces an oblique context. In this regard, Leonard Linsky wrote: ex Pli=itly deal the with matter Of!S the of matter negative [ie existential name-sentences ] we oan ' "struct the : Fregean account of negative lan chanter 1 V" e ua 8 es which was presented in ob 1 i qu e n(mvp''m esasus denotes what 13 ^iitit P.^r.. d8 As given in Russell (191 0, 1975). 9 In Kripke (1 979, 1980). 1 In Donnellan (1966, 1972) Interesting reviews of some of the basic objections to the description theory may be found in Salmon (1981, p ) and in Devitt (1981, p ). 12 At least it is both necessarily true and true a priori on one of two interpretations offered by a standard theory of definite descriptions: its so-called "small scope" reading. It also has a "large scope" reading which is neither necessarily true nor true a priori. Michael Dummett (1973, 1981) has fashioned a defense of the description theory that exploits this fact. That defense is considered in detail in Chapter II. 13 This is suggested by a version of the Wrong Description Objection in Kripke (1980, p ). 14. This is similar to the "cluster of descriptions" view presented in Searle (1967).

38 5 Two strategies come to mind. One, hloh has reoeived S urprlsln gly by the theory of descriptions presented by Harrison (1982), which is 17 In Dummett (1973, 1981 ) tention, ls briefly discussed by Castaneda (1979, p. 155 ). He tries to explain wby speakers *o do have backing descriptions tunable to specify them on demand. Another is to rely on descriptions which mention the name-type of the name-token used. This approach is suggested discussed in Chapter II. and again in Chapter III. For example: Leonard Linsky (1977), Brian Loar (1981), Harold Noonan (1981), and Steven Schiffer (1 977). 18 In Kripke (1979). 19 In Lewis (1981 ). PO In Chisholm (1981). 21 In Lewis (1981 ).

39 DUMMETT 'S DEFENSE OF THE DESCRIPTION THEORY AGAINST THE MODAL OBJECTION In this chapter we will consider responses to the Modal Objection to the description theory-responses that try to preserve sane version of the description theory of the meaning of proper names.' The greater part CHAPTER I I of the chapter is devoted to developing and evaluating Dummett's 2 response; however, four other responses are briefly considered. Section One Before we consider the responses to the Modal Objection, we review both that part of the description theory it purportedly refutes and the basic strategy behind it. The Modal Objection purportedly refutes the description theory of meaning. The description theory of the meaning of proper names consists of two theses. First, there is the Backing Description Thesis: when a speaker uses a proper name, he associates it with a definite description. Second, there is the Synonymy Thesis: when a speaker uses a sentence that contains a proper name, he expresses the proposition he would express were he to use the sentence that results when the name is replaced by its associated definite description everywhere it occurs in his sentence. ^ By way of an illustration, suppose that our speaker associates the proper name Aristotle with the definite description the last greater philosopher of antiquity when he says 'Aristotle was a philosopher.' According to the description theory, when he used 27

40 'Aristotle was a philosopher,, he expressed the proposition he would have expressed had he used 'The last great philosopher of antiquity was a 28 philosopher. ' The various versions of the Modal Objection typically involve such modal properties as: being true at w, being false at w, being SSarUy - and ^ 22iibly true (where is a specific possible world). The strategy is to show, by appeal to our pre-theoretic intuitions, that the name sentence under consideration and the description sentence it is allegedly synonymous with do not share all of the same modal properties. It is reasonable to hold that two sentences are synonymous only if they share all of the same modal properties. Thus, if the name sentence and its associated description sentence do not share all of the same modal properties, they are not synonymous. By way of illustration, let w, be a possible world where both Aristotle and Plato exist; where Plato was the last great philosopher of antiquity; and where Aristotle was not a philosopher. It is reasonable to maintain that as we use them 'Aristotle was a philosopher' is false at W 1 and 'the last great philosopher of antiquity was a philosopher' is true at w,. So it follows that 'Aristotle was a philosopher' is not synonymous with The last great philosopher of antiquity was a philosopher,' even when the person using the former associates 'Aristotle' with 'the last great philosopher of antiquity.' 4

41 There are several ways to respond to the Modal Objection that do not 29 Section Two require the respondent to abandon the description theory of meaning. One way is to deny that 'Aristotle was a philosopher' and 'The last great philosopher of antiquity was a philosopher' do not share all of the same modal properties. -Since 'The last great philosopher of antiquity was a philosopher is true at w,, this response requires its proponent to maintain that 'Aristotle was a philosopher is true at w,. Part of Dummett's response to the Modal Objection includes this response. However, Dummett does not maintain that this reply is generally applicable. He seems to hold that it works only for certain names and their associated definite descriptions; the balance of what he says suggests that he regards such name-description pairs as rare exceptions. To say that they are the rule, rather than the exception, flies in the face of contemporary philosophical opinion and wide-spread, pre-theoretic intuitions. Therefore, although we shall consider it in more detail when we take up Dummett's response, until then, we will assume that this response is unacceptable. A second way to respond is to maintain that speakers do not associate proper names with definite descriptions (which express properties) that involve (the properties expressed by) the predicates of the sentences they use when they use names. According to this response, the preceding version of the Modal Objection rests on the faulty assumption that our speaker associated Aristotle' with 'the last great philosopher of antiquity' when he said 'Aristotle was a philosopher.' Necessarily,