Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate

Transcription

1 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate Dahua Cui In the Analects, benevolence 仁 (ren), rituals 禮 (li), and destiny 命 (ming) are the three most important philosophical concepts holding their own places within the complete theoretical structure of Confucius thought. These concepts separately correspond to different categorical levels: mind and human nature for the first, social ethics for the second, and transcendence for the third. For many years now, theoretical explanations of benevolence and rituals have been continuing apace, while interpretations of the concept of destiny have not made much progress in Confucian studies; in fact, such interpretations have often been based on a consistent misunderstanding that tends to end up showing Confucianism as simply fatalist. Confucius understanding of destiny, however, requires a serious reconsideration as referring to the ultimate in human life; it is a key concept that occupies the most profound position within the total structure of his thought, and it is a concept that ultimately distinguishes it from all other religious systems. The Confucian concept of destiny had been variously interpreted by Confucian scholars beginning already in the Qin Dynasty. Since the many generations of Confucian thinkers from then to now all lived in different eras each with their own different theoretical, philosophical, and religious inclinations and perspectives, it is only to be expected that their interpretations of destiny would also greatly differ. 1 1 For example, we can look at four famous essays that are directed to the notion of destiny written during the periods of the Han and the Northern and Southern Dynasties: Wang ming lun 王命论 ( On the destiny of kings ) by Ban Biao 班彪, Yun ming lun 运命论 ( On fortune and destiny ) by Li Kang 李康, Ding ming lun 定命论 ( On doubtless destiny ) by Gu Jizhi 顾觊之 and Gu Yuan 顾愿, and Bian ming lun 辩命论 ( On the argument about destiny ) by Liu Jun 刘峻. While each of these essays equally assert that both failure and success rest in destiny, they greatly vary in terms of their acceptance of non-confucian ideas and their understandings of Confucian thought itself. D. Cui (&) Institute of Philosophy, Henan Academy of Social Sciences, Zhengzhou , China Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2017 X. Yao (ed.), Reconceptualizing Confucian Philosophy in the 21st Century, DOI / _12 153

2 154 D. Cui In this paper, I first discuss the evolving connotations of Confucian understandings of, and attitudes towards, destiny. I then examine the rational character that pervades the Confucian concept of destiny in my attempt to demonstrate that it is fundamentally different from superstitions about, and beliefs in, irrational or super-rational fatalism. I also analyze the interpretations of destiny given by Confucius and Mencius, two major representatives of the early Confucianism of the Warring States period, and Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi, two major representatives of the Neo-Confucianism of the Song Dynasty. In my mind, the work of these four thinkers represents the highest achievements of Confucian thought. The Historical Development of the Confucian Concept of Destiny The fundamental meanings of the specifically Confucian concept of destiny were originally determined by Confucius and Mencius, and they both understood it to imply a certain kind of transcendence. In their writings, destiny is often referred to as the destiny of Heaven 天命 (tian ming), or even more simply as Heaven 天 (tian). 2 According to the Analects, Gongbo Liao, a man from the state of Lu, once maligned Confucius and his disciples before Jisun, a powerful minister of Lu. Hearing of this, Confucius said, If my principles are to prevail, it is up to destiny. If they are to be abandoned, it is up to destiny. What can Gongbo Liao do about such destiny? 道之將行也與命也道之將廢也與命也公伯寮其如命何 (dao zhi 2 The Confucian concept of Heaven has two meanings. First, it means the sky as opposed to the earth, in the natural sense. The Analects says, Our Master cannot be matched, just as the sky cannot be reached by the steps of a stair (LY 19.25), and the Mencius says, In the sky clouds naturally appear and it naturally rains (MZ 1A6). Besides its natural character, this heaven (also mentioned in the grouping of Heaven, Earth, ghosts, and gods ) has been endowed by Confucianism with a moral character. Together with monarchs, parents, teachers, and friends, whose essence is social and ethical, heaven is fused into the ethical relationships that belong to rituals. Second, Heaven has a transcendental sense as in the way of Heaven or destiny of Heaven. The way of Heaven is somewhat different from the destiny of Heaven, and the Neo-Confucians made distinctions between them. For example, where the Analects says that the Master spoke about human nature and the way of Heaven (LY 5.13), Zhu Xi commented, The way of Heaven is the reality of heavenly principles and nature (Zhu 1983, Gongye Chang ), and when Confucius said that he knew the destiny of Heaven in his fifties (LY 2.4), Zhu commented, The destiny of Heaven is the representation of the way of Heaven in things, the cause that determines things to be what they should (Zhu 1983, Weizheng ). In addition to its metaphysical meanings, the way of Heaven also referred to the orbits of celestial bodies in its natural sense, and Confuciansat times used it like this. For example, in the Hou Han shu, Zheng Xuan said, The way of Heaven is the fortune of movements of the qizheng 七政, referring to the seven celestial bodies consisting of the sun, the moon, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn. For Confucianism, destiny means the same thing the destiny of Heaven in a transcendental sense, and the Analects records that when Confucius visited his disciple Ran Geng who was dying of an illness, he said, It is killing him. It is destiny, alas! (LY). Zhu Xi commented, Destiny refers to the destiny of Heaven (Zhu 1983, Yongye ).

3 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate 155 jiang xing ye yu ming ye dao zhi jiang fei ye yu ming ye Gongbo Liao qi ru ming he) (LY 14.36). Another time, a disciple of Confucius, Zixia, apparently repeating something that Confucius had said, told Sima Niu that Death and life rest in destiny, and wealth and honor depend upon Heaven 死生有命富貴在天 (si sheng you ming fu gui zai tian) (LY 12.5). In these two passages, destiny appears as a kind of necessity that is above and beyond the normal human experience of time, space, and human control. Commenting on Confucius understanding of destiny, Mencius said that he advanced according to rituals, and withdrew according to righteousness. As to his attaining or not attaining (office), he said it was destiny 進以禮退以義得之不得曰有命 (jin yi li tui yi yi de zhi bu de zhi yue ming) (MZ 5A8). Taking the sons of Shun and of Yu as examples to illustrate that strictly distinguishing between good and evil is beyond human ability, Mencius goes on to give a general definition of destiny; he says, That which is done without man s doing is from Heaven. That which happens without man s causing is from the destiny 莫之為而為者天也莫之致而至者命也 (mo zhi wei er wei zhe tian ye mo zhi zhi er zhi zhe ming ye) (MZ 5A6). For Mencius as for Confucius, destiny is transcendent, lying above and outside human beings. 3 On this topic, Cheng Yi wrote, If a noble person inevitably falls into difficulties or failures after he has taken all preventive measures into consideration, that is called destiny 君子當困窮之時既盡其防慮之道而不得免則命也 (junzi dang kun qiong zhi shi ji jin qi fang lu zhi dao er bu de mian ze ming ye) ( Kun, Cheng 1981a). Cheng Yi emphasizes a definite implication of necessity in his understanding of destiny and, as the entire history of Confucianism shows, only destiny is thought to possess a necessary existence in reality that is externally transcendent. While gods and other types of spiritual beings that are found in some religions are typically thought of as having a certain kind of transcendent existence, Confucianism explains them as a certain kind of alienating form or natural quality not possessing any properties that are truly transcendent or beyond time and space. 4 The Confucian concept of destiny has mainly been shaped by dissolving any alienating qualities associated with it and replacing them with a separate kind of transcendence and necessity external to and above human beings. As we see in the history of world culture, the things that ancient people perceived as possessing objective, certain, external, and transcendent reality in their 3 Noting this, Zhu Xi wrote, All this is done on its own without man s doing, and is caused on its own without man s causing. In general, it is known as Heaven from the perspective of principles, and known as destiny from the perspective of human beings. These two things are identical in essence (Zhu 1983, Wanzhang shang ). 4 Usually, Confucianism explains ghosts and divinity as the state and quality of qi,which keeps existing after the death of a person. For example, Jiyi in the Liji states, All lives are mortal and are destined to return to the earth after death. Theseare known as ghosts. Bones and flesh decay underground and become soil. Their qi rises upwards and becomes light. Weeds look desolate and sorrowful because they are the spirits of things and representations of divinity. The Neo-Confucian Zhang Zai wrote that ghosts and divinity suggest the coming-and-going and the shrinking-and-extending of qi ( Shenhua, Zhang 2006).

4 156 D. Cui lives were often further actualized, substantialized, and personalized as the objects of their religious worships. Confucianism is a system of thought that continued the ancient Chinese spiritual tradition which had transformed throughout the course of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties from primitive religious ideas to more sophisticated moral ones. The notion of Heaven or destiny transformed from an external, transcendent object with personal qualities in which people put their religious belief, 5 to an objective necessity that could be perceived through the functions of their intelligence formed by their moral practices whereby it became a component of man s moral nature itself. The evolution of the Confucian understanding of destiny in which its alienating qualities were dissolved is very clear even in the Analects. Confucius said that he himself came to know the destiny of Heaven in his fifties 五十而知天命 (wu shi er zhi tian ming) (LY 2.4), and this shows that for him, the destiny of Heaven was no longer an object of faith, but something to be known through the accumulation of life experiences and rational thought. Confucius also said, Without recognizing destiny, it is impossible to be a superior man 不知命無以為君子也 (bu zhi ming wu yi wei junzi ye) (LY 20.3), which indicates that he thought such recognitions were something that everyone could and should be capable of. Following after the Analects, the Zhongyong 中庸 further develops these ideas where it states, The mandate of Heaven is called nature, respect for nature is called the Dao, and the practices of the Dao are called teaching 天命之謂性率性之謂道修道之謂教 (tian ming zhi wei xing shuai xing zhi wei dao xiu dao zhi wei jiao) (ZY 1). Mencius also explained, Those who know their minds well know their nature. Knowing their nature, they thus know Heaven. So their minds are kept and their nature is cultivated, and they are able to serve Heaven 盡其心者知其性也知其性則知天矣存其心養其性所以事天也 (jin qi xin zhe zhi qi xing ye zhi qi xing ze zhi tian yi cun qi xin yang qi xing suo yi shi tian ye) (MZ 7A1). This passage can also be read as a kind of affirmation that knowing Heaven (zhi tian) represents the greatest achievement, both cognitive and spiritual, for all of Confucianism, since it was an achievement that could only be realized after the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, rituals, and intelligence had already been mastered and put into practice in other words, to be capable of knowing Heaven was itself the proof of a person s correct practice of these central Confucian virtues. Finally, Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi explained and defined the destiny of Heaven in ways that were in complete accord with Confucius and Mencius. Cheng Yi wrote about it, saying, It is called destiny in regard to Heaven, reason in regard to righteousness, nature in regard to humans, and mind in regard to the control of the body. They are all the same in essence 在天為命在義為理在人為性主於身為心其實一也 (zai tian wei ming zai yi wei li zai ren wei xing zhu yu shen wei xin qi shi yi ye) (Zhu 1935, Vol. 18). Zhu Xi also wrote, What Heaven gives humans and 5 The Kanggao chapter of the Shangshu states, Heaven thus earnestly appointed King Wen to kill the barbarian Shang people, and the Junshi chapter states, I dare not slack in my appointment by Heaven, and I will keep in mind the prowess of Heaven forever. This represents the early Zhou idea of Heaven and destiny,which is imbued with religious beliefs.

5 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate 157 living things is called destiny, and what enables humans and living things to accept destiny is called nature 天之賦於人物者謂之命人與物受之者謂之性 (tian zhi fu yu ren wu zhe wei zhi ming ren yu wu shou zhi zhe wei zhi xing) (ZZYL, Vol. 14). Keeping step with the early Confucians before them, Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi also observed respect for nature (shuai xing) and the practices of the Dao (xiu dao), and they sought to know the mind well (jin qi xin), to know their nature (zhi qi xing), and to know Heaven (zhi tian) and they finally interpreted the destiny of Heaven as moral nature itself, internalized in man. Internalizing external destiny to dissolve its externality and alienating qualities marks the most outstanding feature and the greatest success of Confucianism s theories about transcendence. Endowed Disposition: Accident or Necessity? Another significant development for the Confucian concept destiny was its interpretation in terms of necessity, and this was a necessity that was positioned in clear separation from fatalism. As a philosophical category, Hegel defined necessity as actual possibility, 6 where necessity refers to a possible yet exclusionary tendency determined by various primary factors to inevitably actualize. In a somewhat similar way, fatalism holds that the courses or results of human life and social development are all destined. While this too is a theoretical form related to necessity, its defining characteristic is that it recognizes the source of such necessity in a pre-determined arrangement settled by an agent external and superior to humans (God, for example). This, however, has little or nothing in common with the Confucian notion of destiny. In Confucian theories of transcendence, destiny is interpreted from a very different point of view, one that reads it through the various expressions of human nature and not through the arrangements of an agent superior to man. This has the immediate consequence of dissolving the alienating quality of destiny while not at the same time denying its inevitable necessity. This does not, however, reduce Confucian theories of transcendence to an irrational or trans-rational fatalism; instead, it orients them towards a view of destiny as internalized within humans. The fundamental source of the necessity of destiny is recognized in the disposition 氣 (qi) of human nature received at birth, as demonstrated in the writings of Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi. It was Zhu Xi in particular who provided the clearest articulations of these views; he wrote, There are two sorts of destiny. On one hand, it is spoken about from the point of view of dispositions that vary in terms of heaviness and thinness or cleanness and turbidity. In this sense, (Confucius said that) Whether my principles are to prevail or be abandoned, it is up to destiny. (Mencius also said that) Attaining or not 6 Hegel further explored this in writing, Possibility and contingency are two links in reality (1980, p. 300), and Developed reality is just necessity (1980, p. 305).

6 158 D. Cui attaining is up to destiny. On the other hand, it is also spoken about from the point of view of reason that sees that the way of Heaven, which is pervasive in the world, is also present inside humans and functions in human nature through the performance of benevolence, righteousness, rituals, and intelligence. In this sense, (Confucius said that) I knew the destiny of Heaven in my fifties, and (he also said that) the destiny of Heaven is called nature. Both sorts of destiny aregiven by Heaven, and are thus known as destiny. (ZZYL, Vol. 61) For Zhu Xi, it was the heaviness and thinness or cleanness and turbidity of a person s endowed disposition that determined his allotment of life and fortune, and which also determined the inevitabilities belonging to the wider course of human life more generally. In Zhu Xi s explanation of the necessity that lies at the heart of destiny, all of the alienating qualities that can easily surround it were thoroughly dissolved; it was not due to some external, transcendent agent or cause, but it was rather imputed to an inherent factor within human beings themselves. This factor, namely one s in-born disposition, determined the necessity at play in one s destiny, where the specific qualities of one s disposition were entirely non-determined by an outside agent; they were accidental. When a student asked him whether endowed disposition is accidental 氣稟是偶然否 (qi bing shi ou ran fou), Zhu Xi replied, It is an accidental encounter rather than a predestined arrangement 是偶然相值著非是有安排等待 (shi ou ran xiang zhi zhe fei shi you an pai deng dai) (ZZYL, Vol. 55). The Confucian idea about the necessity of destiny can be interpreted and expressed more precisely in these terms: the endoweddisposition is formed accidentally and incidentally at the beginning of life and it forges the most inevitable encounters throughout its course long life or early death, and failure or success. In his reply, Zhu Xi rejected any recourse to interventions of a religious or any other mysterious sort as an explanation for the necessity in his understanding of destiny. But still there was an issue to be solved: how could the accidentalness at the beginning of life ultimately become necessity at its end? Remarking on Confucius statement that death and life rest in destiny, and wealth and honor depend upon Heaven, Zhu Xi said, Endowed destiny was born at the very beginning of life, and cannot be removed or changed later. Heaven works though its doing nothing and it is yet done, and this is something that I cannot command 命稟於有生之初非今所能移天莫之為而為非我所能必 (ming bing yu you sheng zhi chu fei jin suo neng yi tian mo zhi wei er wei fei wo suo neng bi) ( Yan Yuan, Zhu 1983). As this remark shows, the necessity of destiny is in essence what can be called a linear irreversibility in the activities and course of human life lived in an environment populated with many and diverse factors all related to one another in very complicated ways. Due to this linear irreversibility, the incidental establishment of endowed disposition at the beginning of life is unchangeable, and the result at its end is the only one possible; thus, it appears inevitable. This necessity is not the sign of a predetermined arrangement at the hands of an external and transcendent agent; instead, it is nothing more than, but also nothing less than, the result of the linear course of a human being s life, incidentally driven by an endowed disposition and proceeding through various unrepeatable situations and circumstances. This

7 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate 159 was Zhu Xi s complete explanation of the necessity of destiny, and it resolves the issue about how destiny begins accidentally but ends in necessity. Zhu Xi s philosophical observations and conclusions regarding the necessity of destiny bear the mark of his own brilliance, but they were also entirely in keeping with the basic currents of the Neo-Confucian School of Principle. While their discussions were still based on experience, they also took account of the factual preconditions inherent in human nature, manifesting in the processes of rational, logical thinking. Confucian Responses to Destiny The Confucian theory of transcendence holds that destiny rests in the endowed disposition of man himself, and this dissolved its externality and alienating quality. At the same time, Confucianism does not deny the necessity of destiny; rather, it simply gives it a rational explanation, and concludes that it is a sign of the human individual s contingency witnessed in the linear irreversibility of events throughout the course of life. In this way, the possible ways in which one responds to necessity of destiny itself became a very significant aspect of this theory, where this necessity was seen as the result of a linear yet still creative course of life rather than the predestined arrangement of an external agent. These possible ways of responding to destiny were thus situated within a broad space of personal autonomy and freedom in which many kinds of responses were possible. As a hard and fast principle, a Confucian strives never to change or modify his rational and moral principles nor his intended direction and efforts, despite the inevitability of destiny. This principle, with its concomitant attitude of determination in the face of necessity, had already been many times firmly demonstrated by Confucius, who had committed himself to ceaselessly maintaining his devotion to the principles of the Dao, particularly with respect to the values of rituals (li) and benevolence (ren). While he is recorded as saying that The Dao does not prevail; this is well known 道之不行已知之矣 (dao zhi bu xing yi zhi zhi yi) (LY 18.8), he did not complain about or regret this, even though the Analects shows there were people aplenty who mocked him for trying to do things that he knew they were impossible 知其不可而為之 (zhi qi bu ke er wei zhi) (LY 14.38). Along these very same lines, Mencius said, The noble person follows principle and awaits destiny, and that is all 君子行法以俟命而已矣 (junzi xing fa yi hou ming er yi yi) (MZ 7B33), and Cheng Yi said, Knowing the propriety of destiny, one will not hesitate in spite of failure, difficulty, disasters, or mishaps; he simply continues to exercise his righteousness 知命之當然也則窮塞禍患不以動其心行吾義而已 (zhi ming zhi dang ran ye ze qiong sai huo huan bu yi dong qi xin xing wu yi er yi) ( Kun, Cheng 1981a). For his part, Zhu Xi said, Those who accept their destiny of Heaven conduct themselves in light of principles and the times, not daring to act on behalf of themselves 聽天命者循理而行順時而動不敢用私心 (ting tian ming zhe xun li er xing shun shi er dong bug an yong si xin) ( Da Huoren, Vol. 64, Zhu 1989).

8 160 D. Cui Each of these thinkers shared the same Confucian attitude with which they responded to the necessity of destiny in accordance with their inherent codes of conduct and proper practices of morality, and there are many other typical examples of such Confucian attitudes in the Confucian classics. Mencius, for example, states, Nothing is not destined, so follow only what is proper. Therefore, he who knows destiny does not stand below a high wall about to collapse 莫非命也順受其正是故知命者不立乎巖牆之下 (mo fei ming ye shun shou qi zheng shi gu zhi ming zhe bu li yu yan qiang zhi xia) (MZ 7A2). Both life experience and common sense about physics tell us that a tall wall about to collapse can fall down at any moment, and therefore one should not stand beneath. In this passage, Mencius took a trivial circumstance to precisely explain a main aspect of the fundamental Confucian attitudes or principles regarding destiny that one should live in accord with the physical rules of reality to preserve one s safety and avoid unwarranted injuries; this is following only what is proper (shun shou qi zheng), and this too is knowing destiny (zhi ming). But sometimes knowing destiny can have the opposite effect, leading a person to act in ways that will directly lead to personal injury and even death, as the following story from the Zuo zhuan narrates: Duke Wengong performed a divination to determine if he should move his capital to Yi. The diviner said, It would benefit the people but it would not benefit the Lord. The ruler of Zhu said, If it benefits the people, it benefits me. Heaven gave birth to the people and set up a ruler in order to benefit them. If the people enjoy the benefit, I am bound to share in it. Those around him said, If by taking warning from the divination you can prolong your destiny, why not do so? The ruler of Zhu replied, My destiny lies in nourishing the people. Whether death comes to me early or late is merely a matter of time. If the people will benefit thereby, then nothing could be more auspicious than to move the capital. In the end he moved the capital to Yi. In the fifth month Duke Wengong of Zhu died. The noble person 7 commented, He knew destiny. (CQZZ, 13th Year of Duke Wengong) Duke Wengong desired to move his capital to Yi, but did not know whether such a move would be auspicious or ominous and he therefore resorted to a divination. Informed that the move would be beneficial to his subjects but harmful to himself, he was nonplussed and moved the capital anyway. The Duke thought that as a ruler, his destiny was to protect and support his subjects, and since it could benefit his people, he move decided on the move without hesitation, though it would cost him his life. And, as the noble person (junzi) remarked, the Duke certainly knew destiny, even as he sacrificed his life for his principles. 8 7 The words, The noble person commented 君子曰 (junzi yue) appear more than 40 times in the Zuo zhuan,with most instances being judgments about historical events from a Confucian perspective. 8 These values are stated in many early writings but nowhere more clearly than in the Liji 礼记 (Book of Rituals). It variously states, A monarch dies for his state, a minister for his people, and a noble person for institutions ( Quli xia ); It is viewed as righteousness if a monarch dies for his country when the state is in danger ( Liyun ); Princes (lords and monarchs) value their states, therefore they love their people ( Dazhuan ); and If a monarch loves his people as a father does his son, the people will love him as sons do a father ( Ziyi ). Confucianism in all ages takes

9 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate 161 The Two Propositions of Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi The Confucian attitudes that serve to direct the proper responses to destiny were most clearly articulated in two propositions, the first by Cheng Yi, the second by Zhu Xi. Cheng Yi s proposition is that there is no destiny but righteousness 唯義無命 (wei yi wu ming), and he explores this in the following, A noble person must respect both righteousness and destiny. My efforts lead to obtainment, while my giving up leads to loss; thus efforts facilitate obtainment, and what is sought for is dependent on me. This is talking about righteousness. My efforts comply with principles, yet the obtainment is dependent upon destiny; thus efforts do not facilitate obtainment, and what is sought for stays outside me. These words are about destiny. Sages have no regard for destiny, but only regard for righteousness. He is unwilling to do one single wrong or kill one innocent person, even if this may enthrone him. This is talking about righteousness, not destiny. (Cheng 1981, Vol. 3) Cheng Yi took his starting point for these ideas from Mencius, who thought that the acquisition or avoidance of external things such as longevity and success or early death and failure was dependent on destiny, not on oneself, whereas the practice of righteousness and the achievement of morality was dependent on oneself and obtainable through effort, not destiny. According to both thinkers, people should have no regard for destiny but should plunge themselves into the practice of righteousness. Cheng Yi s proposition did not deny destiny; rather, it prioritized righteousness over destiny with respect to the deepest human values of life. Here, the stateliness and sublimity of the Confucian system of thought and the Confucian way of life are most powerfully represented; such an approach to life shows the rational dignity and autonomy of human beings and demonstrates the sublime enlightenment of the Confucian spirit the achievement of sages. Zhu Xi s proposition is that destiny appears at the end of human efforts 人事盡外便是命 (ren shi jin wai bian shi ming). Answering the question of one of his disciples, Zhu Xi clearly explained its meaning: Question: In the discussion of destiny in the Posthumous Writings of the Cheng Brothers, a commentary states, A sage knows his destiny, but he spares no energy in making human efforts. What does this mean exactly? Answer: A man indeed has his destiny, but he follows only what is proper, and one example of this is that he who knows his destiny does not stand below a high wall about to collapse. If one thinks that he has his own destiny and insists on standing below a high wall about to collapse, he will not be able to talk about destiny once he is buried under the collapsed wall. Destiny appears at the end of human efforts. (ZZYL, Vol. 97). In another place, Zhu Xi said, A sage cares nothing about destiny; what he is concerned with is only righteousness; poverty or wealth, honor or humility, so long (Footnote 8 continued) protecting the country and supporting its subjects as a ruler s primary ethical responsibility and moral duty.

10 162 D. Cui as they are the results of being righteous, he will accept them in peace 聖人更不問命只看義如何貧冨貴賤惟義所在謂安於所遇也 (shengren geng bu wen ming zhi kan yi ru he pin fu gui jian wei yi suo zai wei an yu suo yu ye) (ZZYL, Vol. 34). Building on Cheng Yi s proposition ( there is no destiny but righteousness ), Zhu Xi saw ethical practices as the most sensible and rational response to destiny. His own proposition ( destiny appears at the end of human efforts ) similarly invoked Mencius ideas about knowing destiny, but he laid out more expansive responses to destiny that include all behaviors and attitudes that respectfully conform to ethical principles and physical rules. Even following the most common and trivial rules, such as do not stand below a high wall about to collapse or with shoes on in sunny days, and with feet bare in rainy times, is still viewed as rational responses to destiny. 9 For Zhu Xi, all rational and sensible responses to destiny require a commitment to human efforts in any particular situation, and this is to realize destiny. In a less formal sense, to live with a mind that takes account of ethical principles and physical rules is to lead a healthy and whole life. The transcendent destiny recognized by Confucianism is suspended in the proposition that there is no destiny but righteousness, but it is dissolved into the practices of human life in the proposition that destiny appears at the end of human efforts. Conclusion: Confucian Destiny Trumps Fate Every Time Destiny is manifested in the ethical principles and physical rules of daily life. Zhu Xi s proposition represents the most positive Confucian attitude toward the necessity of destiny, because it fused destiny into the activities of everyday human life from where it could be realized in practice. Zhu Xi also clearly separated the general Confucian attitude of knowing destiny from fatalism (which only talks about destiny). Fatalists think that results are predetermined and this is how they understand destiny, and that therefore they can do whatever they like (for example, standing below a high wall about to collapse). As such, fatalism cannot logically produce any principles to guide human life, or any feelings that cherish human life and that would encourage human beings to work hard. The Neo-Confucians thus had already acquired a theoretical stance that was in opposition to the fatalism of traditional Chinese numerologists. 10 Cheng Yi said, 9 According to the Analects, The Master said to Yan Yuan, When called to office, advance; when not so called, retire. It is only you and I who have this attainment! (LY 7.11). Zhu Xi explained to his disciples: The Sage did not care much about being called or not being called. When called, he undertookhis duties; when not called, he retired. It is just like one puts his shoes on when it is a fine day, and keeps his feet bare when it is raining. (ZZYL, Vol. 34). 10 Yiwenzhi 艺文志 in Hanshu 汉书 states, All numerology is related to the offices of mingtang 明堂 (an official in charge of sacrifice to ancestors), xihe 羲和 (an official who practices divination in connection with the sun) and shipu 史卜 (a historian serving as a prophet). It classifies

11 Confucian Viewpoints on Destiny, Necessity, and Fate 163 Confucians are supposed to talk only about human efforts, not about the matter of numerology, and it would be acceptable to attribute things to destiny only when there is no hope of redemption 儒者只合言人事不合言有數直到不得已處然後歸之於命可也 (ru zhe zhi he yan ren shi bu he yan you shu zhi dao bu de yi chu ran hou gui zhi yu ming ke ye) (Cheng 1981b, Vol. 5). He also said, Ancient people engaged with divination only when they had real doubts. Today, people attempt to calculate the failure and success of their destiny, and check if they have good fortune or not. Alas, how stupid they are 古者蔔筮將以決疑也令之蔔筮則不然計其命之窮通校其身之達否而已噫亦惑矣 (gu zhe bus hi jiang yi jue yi ye jin zhi bus hi bu ran she qi ming zhi qiong tong jiao qi shen zhi da fou er yi yi yi huo yi) (Zhu 1935, Vol. 25). Numerologists believe that destiny is the result of determined numbers, but for Confucianism, human life remains an autonomous project formed through one s commitment to human effort, and the final result, even if it is unique, it is not destined. In the words of Wang Fuzhi, a Qing Dynasty Confucian, human beings should stay the course of human life in which destiny renews daily and human nature abounds daily 命日新, 性日富 (Ming ri xin, xing ri fu), at least until the end of life. Confucianism may not have found a strong theoretical weapon to completely defeat fatalism, but it demonstrates an extraordinary spirit of scientific rationality. Stephen Hawking once discussed certain paradoxes that follow from the belief in destiny, fate, and predetermination, and he concluded with this remark: Is everything determined? The answer is, Yes, it is. But it might as well not be because we can never know what is determined. We do not know what is determined, so we cannot base our behaviors on the idea that everything is determined. Instead, people have to adopt an effective theory; that is, man has freewill and he has to be responsible for his own behaviors (Hawking 1995, p. 137). A sufficient answer to the problem of destiny might be that one cannot be sure whether destiny has the character of destiny, but one can be sure of the appropriate attitude towards destiny one should live reasonably. The Confucian response to destiny is very similar to this spirit. (Footnote 10 continued) literature into 6 types: astrology, calendars, wuxing 五行 (five phases), qi 蓍 (a kind of grass used to divine) and gui 龟 (bones of tortoises for divination), mischievous divination, and xing fa (forms and laws), and states that seven people who almost acquired some superficial knowledge about it were Zi Shen 梓慎, Bi Zao 裨灶, Bu Yan 卜偃 and Zi Wei 子韦 who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period; Gan Gong 甘公 and Shi Shenfu 石申夫 who lived during the Warring States Period; and Tang Du during Han Dynasty. According to the records of Han Dynasty, ancient numerology in China (which, it should be admitted, became more prevalent after the Qin and Han dynasties) organized a variety of knowledge on topics such as astronomy, geography, and history into a certain logical framework andclaimed to be able to predict the predestined fates, such as the failure or success and disasters or auspices in human life,as well as the prosperity or decline of society. Different numerological schools had different logical frameworks, knowledge, and experiences, and the logical order and rules for calculation in each logical frame can be called numbers 数 (shu).

12 164 D. Cui Zhu Xi s proposition that destiny appears at the end of human efforts expresses a major conceptual element of Confucianism, namely that its ultimate concerns are not dissociated from everyday life. Destiny represents the supreme, transcendent concern in the Confucian system, and as the firmest support for the Confucian spiritual life, destiny rested in, and was only realized through, ethical principles and physical rules. Confucianism can thus answer the question about the meaning of human life as a commitment to human efforts, which brings the mind peace and order. Such a rational awareness of the ultimate in human life was an important spiritual factor that makes the Confucian lifestyle eternally vigorous. References Cheng, Y. (1981). Er Cheng Ji 二程集 (Collections of the Cheng Brothers). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Cheng, H., & Cheng, Y. (1981a). Zhouyi Cheng shi zhuan 周易程氏傳 (Annotations of the Book of Changes by the Cheng brothers). In E. Cheng (Ed.), ji 二程集 (Collection of the Works of the Cheng Brothers). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Cheng, H., & Cheng, Y. (1981b). Henan Cheng Shi Waishu 河南程氏外書 (Additional Works of the Cheng Brothers from Henan). In E. Cheng (Ed.), ji 二程集 (Collection of the Works of the Cheng brothers). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. Hawking, S. W. (1995). Black holes and baby universes and other essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zhu, X. (1935). Henan Cheng shi yishu 河南程氏遺書 (Posthumous Writings of the Cheng Brothers from Henan). Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan. Zhu, X. (1983). Sishu zhangju jizhu 四書章句集注 (Collected Annotations on the Four Books ). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Zhu, X. (1989). Hui an xiansheng Zhu Wengong wenji 晦庵先生朱文公文集 (Collected Works of Zhu Xi). Shanghai: Shanghai shudian. Zhang, Z. (2006). Zheng meng 正蒙. In Zhang Zai (Ed.), ji 張載集 (Collected Works of Zhang Zai). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.