Chapter Focus Section 1 New Scientific Ideas Section 2 Impact of Science Section 3 Triumph of Reason Chapter Assessment.

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1 Presentation Plus! World History: The Human Experience Copyright by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Developed by FSCreations, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio Send all inquiries to: GLENCOE DIVISION Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 8787 Orion Place Columbus, Ohio Contents Chapter Focus Section 1 New Scientific Ideas Section 2 Impact of Science Section 3 Triumph of Reason Chapter Themes Chapter Focus Innovation European interest in science leads to discoveries and ideas based on reason. (Section 1) ò Conflict Changing views based on science and reason conflict with traditional beliefs. (Section 2) ò Reaction Reason and order are applied to many human endeavors. (Section 3) Click on a hyperlink to go to the corresponding content area. Press the ESC (escape) key at any time to exit the presentation. Chapter Focus Transparency The next slide is a painting of Sir Isaac Newton. Chapter Focus Chapter Focus Transparency 20 1

2 End of Chapter Focus Click the mouse button to return to the Contents. New Scientific Ideas Section 1 1 of 21 Setting the Scene Terms to Define hypothesis, ellipses, scientific method, calculus, alchemist ò People to Meet Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Isaac Newton, Andreas Vesalius, William Harvey, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, Antoine and Marie Lavoisier ò Places to Locate Poland ò How did scientific thought change during the 1600s? Additional lecture notes appear on the following slides. Introduction In the 1600s a scientific revolution spread throughout Europe. ò New technology, combined with innovative approaches to seeking knowledge, led to a breakthrough in Western thought. ò At the forefront of this scientific revolution was an astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus. 2 of 21 A 3 of 21 Copernicus started his scientific career in 1492 at the University of Kraków in Poland. ò Copernicus believed that the earth was round and that it rotated on its axis as it revolved around the sun, which stayed at the center of the universe. ò Copernicus realized that his ideas were revolutionary and even dangerous. A (cont.) 4 of 21 Disputing or questioning traditional views about the universe could mean harsh consequences. ò The Polish scientist spent more than 30 years writing his treatise in private. ò Friends who realized the significance of Copernicus s ideas helped publish his work just before his death. 5 of 21 New Theories About the Universe Other scientists took Copernicus s ideas and explored even further into a scientific understanding of the universe. ò Copernicus had based his hypotheses, or theories that attempt to explain a set of facts, on study and observations but did not have the mathematics to prove them. ò In the late 1500s, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe set up an observatory to study heavenly bodies and accumulated much data on planetary movements. 2

3 6 of 21 New Theories About the Universe (cont.) Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, later used Brahe s data with the goal of providing mathematical proof for Copernicus s hypotheses. ò Using mathematical formulas, Kepler did show that the planets revolve around the sun. 7 of 21 New Theories About the Universe (cont.) His findings also proved wrong some of Copernicus s views. ò Kepler proved that the planets move in oval paths called ellipses not circles as Copernicus had thought. Challenging the Church 8 of 21 Kepler challenged the teachings of many academic and religious leaders. ò Kepler was a Protestant and did not have to fear the Catholic Church. ò His Catholic contemporary, the Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei, did face opposition from the Church. Challenging the Church (cont.) 9 of 21 In 1609 Galileo built his own telescope, and through observations of Jupiter and its moons, he became convinced that the Copernican theory was correct. ò In 1632 Galileo published his ideas. An outraged Pope Urban VIII demanded that he come to Rome and stand trial. Challenging the Church (cont.) 10 of 21 Facing possible torture and death, Galileo publicly withdrew many of his writings but continued to work privately. ò He helped to establish the universal laws of physics such as the law of inertia, which specifies that an object remains at rest or in straight-line motion unless acted upon by an external force. New Ways of Thinking 11 of 21 Philosophers such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes incorporated scientific thought into philosophy. ò To Bacon, truth resulted only from a thorough investigation of evidence. He helped develop what is now known as the scientific method. 3

4 New Ways of Thinking (cont.) 12 of 21 Descartes, the inventor of analytical geometry, believed that truth must be reached through reason. ò He saw mathematics as the perfect model for clear and certain knowledge. ò Descartes believed he had found one selfevident truth in the statement I think, therefore I am. Newton s Universe 13 of 21 Born in 1642, the English scientist Isaac Newton would become one of the most influential figures in modern science. ò Newton used the scientific method as he studied science and mathematics. Newton s Universe (cont.) 14 of 21 In 1687 he published his theories of gravity and other scientific concepts in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, often called Principia. ò To prove his theory of gravity, Newton developed calculus, a system of mathematics that calculates changing forces or quantities. Studying the Natural World 15 of 21 As astronomy, philosophy, and mathematics advanced, so too did the sciences of anatomy and chemistry. ò Most knowledge of anatomy had come from the work of Galen, an ancient Greek. 16 of 21 Studying the Natural World (cont.) Roman law forbade the dissection of human corpses, forcing Galen to formulate theories by dissecting dogs and apes. ò While he did discover the existence of blood within the arteries, he also believed that the liver digested food and processed it into blood. Investigating the Human Body 17 of 21 French lawmakers in the 1500s also considered dissecting human bodies illegal. ò This limitation, however, did not stop Andreas Vesalius, a French medical student, from making groundbreaking discoveries in anatomy. ò In 1543 he published his work in On the Structure of the Human Body. 4

5 18 of 21 Investigating the Human Body (cont.) Almost 100 years later, English physician William Harvey concluded that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart and returning through the veins. ò English scientist Robert Hooke made a more important biological discovery the cell. 19 of 21 Experimenting With Chemistry Robert Boyle was primarily responsible for taking chemistry from its mystical and unscientific origins and establishing it as a pure science. ò In 1627 the chemistry of the day was alchemy trying to turn a base metal, such as lead, into gold. ò Boyle criticized alchemists, people who practiced alchemy, and their belief that all matter was made up of four elements: earth, fire, water, and air. 20 of 21 Experimenting With Chemistry (cont.) In Boyle s book The Skeptical Chymist, published in 1661, he proved air could not be a basic element because it was a mixture of several elements. ò He defined an element as a material that could not be broken down by chemical means. ò In 1774 English chemist and clergyman Joseph Priestley discovered the existence of oxygen. 21 of 21 Experimenting With Chemistry (cont.) His study of the properties of carbon dioxide led to his invention of carbonated drinks. ò In France, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the nature of combustion, which results from the chemical union of a flammable material with oxygen. ò Marie Lavoisier contributed significantly to her husband s work. She learned English and Latin so that she could translate scientific essays and books for him. Section 1 Assessment End of Section 1 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. What was the scientific revolution? How did it change the way Europeans viewed the universe and the workings of the human body? It was the use of reason, mathematics, and technology to understand the physical universe; they relied less on traditional authority, religion, and magic and turned to experimentation, individual experience, and the scientific method to understand the world around them. 5

6 Impact of Science Setting the Scene Terms to Define natural law, natural rights, pacifism, deism ò What effects did changes in scientific thought have on thinking in other fields? Section 2 People to Meet Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Hugo Grotius, William Penn ò Places to Locate Pennsylvania ò Additional lecture notes appear on the following slides. 1 of 14 2 of 14 Introduction Monarchs helped the new sciences by supporting scientific academies, observatories, and museums. ò In England Charles II established the Royal Society of London in ò In 1666 Louis XIV of France supported the founding of the French Academy of Science. ò These societies provided financial support to scientists and published scientific books and journals. Exploring Political Ideas 3 of 14 Scientific thought and method profoundly influenced political theory. ò Political philosophers believed in the idea of natural law, or a universal moral law that, like physical laws, could be understood by applying reason. Exploring Political Ideas (cont.) 4 of 14 Two English philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, grappled with their ideas of natural law and government during the 1600s as England struggled through a civil war. ò England was divided by people who wanted the king to have absolute power and those who thought the people have the right to govern themselves. Hobbes Explores Government 5 of 14 Thomas Hobbes used the idea of natural law to argue that absolute monarchy was the best form of government since people were violent by nature. ò In his book Leviathan, published in 1651, Hobbes wrote about a state in which people lived without government. ò The book showed how nasty, brutish, and short life in such a world would be. 6 of 14 Hobbes Explores Government (cont.) Hobbes believed that people should form a social contract, an agreement to give up their freedom and live obediently under a ruler. ò In this way, they would be governed by a monarch who would protect them and keep their world peaceful. ò According to Hobbes, people generally do not have the right to rebel against their government, no matter how unjust it might be. 6

7 Locke Offers a Different View 7 of 14 John Locke agreed with Hobbes that government was based on a social contract, but he believed that people in a state of nature are reasonable and moral. ò He also believed that people have natural rights, or rights belonging to all humans from birth, including life, liberty, and property. 8 of 14 Locke Offers a Different View (cont.) In Two Treatises of Government, Locke stated that people created a government to protect natural rights and that government functioned best when its powers were limited. ò Locke argued that if a government failed in its basic duty of protecting natural rights, people had the right to overthrow the government. 9 of 14 Locke Offers a Different View (cont.) Locke s writings were widely read throughout Europe and the Americas. ò Thomas Jefferson based much of the Declaration of Independence on Locke s ideas about the social contract and the right of people to overthrow an unjust government. Reason Influences Law 10 of 14 Incorporating scientific reason or reasoned thought in applying the law helped to end unjust trials as lawmakers placed less value on hearsay and confessions made under torture. ò In the 1600s several people made the first attempts to create a body of international law. Reason Influences Law (cont.) 11 of 14 Hugo Grotius, a Dutch jurist, called for an international code based on natural law. ò He believed that one body of rules could reduce the dealings of governments to a system of reason and order. Reason Influences Law (cont.) 12 of 14 In the American colonies, William Penn, founder of the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania, believed in pacifism, or opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes. ò Penn advocated an assembly of nations committed to world peace. 7

8 Examining Religion 13 of 14 Many upper and middle-class Europeans turned away from traditional religious views, and Europe became a more secular society. ò In the 1700s a new religious philosophy called deism swept through Europe and America. ò Deists believed in God but often denounced organized religion, declaring that it exploited people s ignorance and superstitions. Examining Religion (cont.) 14 of 14 Deism was intended to be a simpler and more natural religion based on reason and natural law. ò Its followers asserted the rightness of humanity s place in an orderly universe. Section 2 Assessment End of Section 2 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. Contrast Hobbes s views and Locke s views. Hobbes argued that people need absolute governments to prevent chaos. Locke argued that people may overthrow any government that denies them their natural rights. Triumph of Reason Setting the Scene Section 3 Terms to Define philosophe, salon, enlightened despot, classicism, metaphysics, romanticism ò People to Meet Madame de Pompadour, Denis Diderot, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, John Wesley ò Places to Locate Paris ò What factors helped Enlightenment ideas to spread throughout Europe? Additional lecture notes appear on the following slides. 1 of 24 Introduction 2 of 24 Europe s new thinkers believed that their scientific approach helped illuminate and clarify both the natural world and the study of human behavior. ò As a result, the period in Europe from the late 1600s through the 1700s came to be called the Age of Enlightenment. ò Enlightenment thinkers saw the universe as a machine governed by fixed laws, and also believed in progress that the world could be improved. 8

9 Spreading Ideas 3 of 24 The thinkers of the Enlightenment who spread these new ideas came to be called philosophes, the French word for philosopher. ò Most philosophes believed in Locke s political philosophy and Newton s scientific theories. ò They believed in both freedom of speech and the individual s right to liberty. Activity in Paris 4 of 24 France was the most active center of ideas. In Paris, the new intellectuals enjoyed gatherings called salons held in the homes of wealthy patrons. ò Wealthy and influential women such as Madame de Pompadour, perhaps the most celebrated, ran many of the popular salons. 5 of 24 Activity in Paris (cont.) In 1751 the Encyclopédie was published in 28 volumes covering everything known about the sciences, technology, and history in more than 3,000 pages with many illustrations. ò Its editor, Denis Diderot, devoted much of his life to the project and eventually ended up in prison because portions of the work criticized the Church and the government. ò The Catholic Church banned the Encyclopédie, but it was still widely read and its ideas spread all through Europe. Montesquieu 6 of 24 A contributor to the Encyclopédie and one of the most learned of the philosophes in political matters was Charles-Louis de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu. ò His masterwork, The Spirit of Laws, appeared in two volumes in 1748 and promoted the idea of separating governmental powers. Montesquieu (cont.) 7 of 24 Montesquieu believed that the powers of government should be divided equally among three branches of government: ò the legislative branch, which made the laws; ò the executive branch, which enforced laws; ò the judicial branch, which interpreted laws. ò His work influenced the writing of the constitutions in many countries, including the United States. Voltaire 8 of 24 François-Marie Arouet, who went by the pen name Voltaire, is perhaps the most celebrated of the philosophes. ò Candide, his most celebrated satire, like many of his other works, challenged the notion that everything that happens is for the best in the best of all possible worlds. 9

10 Voltaire (cont.) 9 of 24 In his youth, Voltaire twice served time in the Bastille, the notorious prison in Paris. ò He eventually was exiled to England from France for his satire mocking the Church and the royal court of France. ò Voltaire is credited with saying, I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. 10 of 24 Women and the Enlightenment Women generally did not participate in public life on an equal basis with men. Women s rights were limited to home and family during the Enlightenment. ò In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, British author Mary Wollstonecraft favored equal education for women and men so that both sexes could contribute equally to society. Some Leaders Initiate Reform 11 of 24 Some European monarchs became enlightened despots, or rulers who sought to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers. ò Prussia s Frederick II, the most famous of the enlightened despots, ruled as an absolute monarch. Yet he believed that as king, he was the first servant of the state. 12 of 24 Some Leaders Initiate Reform (cont.) Catherine II of Russia was more inclined to praise Enlightenment values than practice them. ò Empress Maria Theresa of Austria disagreed with the secularism of the Enlightenment but introduced far-reaching humanitarian reforms, including freeing the serfs. 13 of 24 Some Leaders Initiate Reform (cont.) Her son, Joseph II, carried the reforms even further, but his brother and successor, Leopold II, revoked most of the changes. ò Many monarchs backed away from Enlightenment ideals when they realized their own positions would be threatened by giving too much power to their subjects. Classical Movements 14 of 24 Writers, artists, and architects strove to achieve the ideals of Greek and Roman classicism, which to them represented the ultimate order and reason. ò Jacques-Louis David, who painted the Oath of the Horatii and other works, revealed a balance and simplicity that resulted in monumental images. 10

11 Classical Movements (cont.) 15 of 24 Music made a transition from merely supporting religious services and dance and opera companies, to being an art in its own right. ò Evolving in the 1700s, the piano and the violin were perfected at the same time, changing the sound of music. Classical Movements (cont.) 16 of 24 As composers grouped similar instruments, they laid the foundation for chamber music and the modern orchestra. ò European musicians of this era included: ò Johann Sebastian Bach ò George Frideric Handel ò Joseph Haydn ò Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Enlightenment Opponents 17 of 24 Not everyone agreed with the ideas of the Enlightenment. ò Some saw the structured and ordered view of the universe as overly rational and devoid of emotion and feeling. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 18 of 24 During the 1700s, French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized what he saw as his era s excessive reliance on reason and claimed that people should rely more on instinct and emotion. ò Rousseau believed that human beings were naturally good but that civilization and institutions were corrupting. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (cont.) 19 of 24 In 1762 Rousseau published his most famous work, The Social Contract, which argued that sovereignty, or the right to rule, rested in the people. ò Therefore, the people had the right to remove the chains of an oppressive society and to create a new government devoted to the common good. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (cont.) 20 of 24 His basis of government was a social contract through which people gave up their individual rights to the general will, the will of the majority. 11

12 Immanuel Kant 21 of 24 Another critic of the Enlightenment was the German thinker Immanuel Kant. ò Kant believed that reason could not answer the problems of metaphysics the branch of philosophy that deals with spiritual issues such as the existence of God. ò In Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781, Kant argued that reality consisted of separate physical and spiritual worlds and that the methods of knowing varied greatly in these two realms. Religious Movements 22 of 24 In Germany, Count von Zinzendorf established the Moravian Brethren, which emphasized the emotional and mystical side of Christianity. ò In England, John Wesley led a movement called Methodism, which stressed the value of personal religious experience. ò Hasidism, which promoted mysticism and religious zeal as opposed to an emphasis on external ritual spread among Jews. Religious Movements (cont.) 23 of 24 All of these religious movements rejected reason in favor of an enthusiastic faith. ò As people questioned the philosophies of the Enlightenment, classicism in the arts gave way to romanticism a cultural movement that celebrated emotion and the individual. Religious Movements (cont.) 24 of 24 Inspired by new ideas that had evolved, the lower classes began to demand more rights. ò The Enlightenment and its tranquil world faded as a new period of turmoil and revolution approached. Section 3 Assessment End of Section 3 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. How do John Locke s ideas about government compare with those of Jean- Jacques Rousseau? Both believed in a social contract and that people had a right to overthrow an unjust government; Locke stressed the natural rights of the individual that government had to protect, while Rousseau emphasized individual acceptance of the will of the majority. 12

13 1 of 10 2 of 10 How did classical art reflect the values of the Enlightenment? Give examples to support your answer. Why do you suppose a belief in witches and ghosts largely became a thing of the past in Europe after the period of the Enlightenment? It emphasized form and order. Examples of how classical art reflecting the values of the Enlightenment: classical architects' preference for squares and circles rather than elaborate swirls, or David's concern for simplicity of form. People began to rely on observation, reason, and the scientific method instead of superstition. 3 of 10 4 of 10 Were the 1700s an era of optimism or pessimism? Explain. Do scientific laws apply to human society in the way that they apply to the physical universe? Why or why not? Some may argue that it was an optimistic age because people looked favorably on new ideas and believed reason could provide the answers to many of life's problems. Some may argue that human emotions and actions vary too much to be predictable by law. 5 of 10 6 of 10 Why were the enlightened despots unable to carry out thorough reforms? Has science fulfilled the promise of progress that it seemed to hold in the 1700s? Why or why not? Many nobles felt threatened by the powers monarchs were giving common people, and so they frustrated reform efforts. Some may argue that scientific breakthroughs have enhanced the quality of life, others that new technologies have threatened environmental viability. 13

14 7 of 10 8 of 10 How did the change the ways in which Europeans investigated the natural world? The changed the ways in which Europeans investigated the natural world by relying on observation, reason, and the scientific method instead of tradition. Catholic Bishop Bossuet said that the skepticism of the philosophes was an unending error, a risk-all boldness, a deliberate dizziness, in a word, a pride that cannot accept its proper cure, which is legitimate authority. Explain the bishop's view in your own words. What does he mean by legitimate authority? The philosophes should give up their questioning and accept the views of the Church, the legitimate authority. 9 of 10 What religious movements formed as a reaction to the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers? Why? Methodism, the Moravian Brethren, and Hasidism formed. Each emphasized personal faith as opposed to emphasis on reason. Chapter Bonus Question 10 of 10 In 1611 English poet John Donne wrote that new philosophy calls all in doubt. Similarly, in our times, many people are troubled by the destabilizing effects of new scientific methods. What are three areas of scientific research today that some people find unsettling? Some possible areas of scientific research today that some people find unsettling are manipulation of human reproduction and tinkering with genetic information. End of Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. Historical Significance 1 of 2 How did the of the 1600s and 1700s transform European society? By introducing a philosophy of knowledge based on observation, experiment, and reason, the challenged faith and traditional ideas in many areas. 14

15 Historical Significance 2 of 2 What impact has the growth of science had on the world today? Chapter 20 Disc 3 Side A The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been Use the corrupted. MindJogger Restart your computer, and videoquiz then open the file again. as If a the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then preview, insert it review, again. or both. New scientific discoveries and new applications continue to challenge accepted ideas and introduce new ways of life. Click the Videodisc button to play the MindJogger video if you have a videodisc player attached to your computer. If you experience difficulties, check the Troubleshooting section in the Help system. The Click inside this box to play the preview. Side 1 Chapter 10 Click the Videodisc button anytime throughout this section to play the complete video if you have a videodisc player attached to your computer. Click the Forward button to view the discussion questions and other related slides. Side 1 Chapter 10 The Objectives Understand events that led to a scientific revolution. ò Identify developments during the Age of Enlightenment. ò Recognize the role of the scientific revolution in shaping the world as we know it today. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the next objective. Side 1 Chapter 10 The Discussion What was the scientific revolution? When did it occur? Side 1 Chapter 10 The Discussion What is scientific method? It was a new way of thinking that arose in the seventeenth century in stark contrast to traditional thinking, which was based on appeal to authority or mysticism. It is the use of empirical processes, such as observation, hypothesis, and experimentation, to test hypotheses. 15

16 Side 1 Chapter 10 The Discussion Who were some of the principal figures of the Scientific Revolution? What contributions did each make? Principal figures included Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. They were responsible respectively for: the assertion that the sun was the center of the solar system; an elaboration on Copernicus views and perfection of the telescope; and a theory of gravity and development of calculus. The Events of the Period 1607 Captain John Smith organizes the first permanent English settlement in the Americas at Jamestown. ò 1611 Shakespeare writes The Tempest. ò 1648 Taj Mahal completed in India. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the next event. The Events of the Period 1683 William Penn signs a treaty with the Delaware people and makes payment for the lands that will become Pennsylvania. ò 1692 Witchcraft trials are held at Salem, Massachusetts. The Fact Files Three Important European Thinkers (Frame 48423) What is the Scientific Method? (Frame 48428) The Telescope (Frame 48430) Galileo s Trial (Frame 48431) Inventions by Thomas Edison (Frame 48433) Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the next event. Click on a hyperlink to go to the related fact file or map. The FACT FILE: Three Important European Thinkers Italian artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci ( ) designed numerous machines, some of which were a helicopter and a parachute. Neither, however, were built in his time. Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi ( ) is credited for his pioneering role in the development of wireless telegraphy, also known as radio. Polish-born French scientist Marie Curie ( ) was awarded two Nobel Prizes for her contributions to the study of radioactivity. She was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. The FACT FILE: What is the Scientific Method? The scientific method is a series of steps taken to prove a scientific law. Careful observations are made. Theories (hypotheses) are made based on observations. Hypotheses are tested in various experiments and conditions. 16

17 The FACT FILE: The Telescope Galileo s invention of the telescope in the 1600s enhanced scientists abilities to observe the universe. The FACT FILE: Galileo s Trial With the use of his telescope, Galileo discovered moons that revolved around a planet other than the earth. His observations were contrary to the beliefs of the Catholic Church. Galileo published his ideas, but his book was banned shortly after. He was charged with heresy. The FACT FILE: Inventions by Thomas Edison Among some of Thomas Edison s inventions are the record player, a machine for making motion pictures, and the lightbulb. End of ABCNews InterActive Click the mouse button to return to the presentation. Explore online information about the topics introduced in this chapter. Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the Presentation Plus! Web site. At this site, you will find a complete list of Web sites correlated with the chapters in the Glencoe World History: The Human Experience textbook. When you finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web site, manually launch your Web browser and go to

18 1. observation 2. change it, discard it, or let it stand as is 3. an unproved theory Section Focus Transparency 20-1 Section Focus Transparency that he might have taken scientific experimentation and/or theory to another level 2. that he built upon the work of other scientists, and that without them, he would not have been able to develop his work 3. gravity Section Focus Transparency 20-2 Section Focus Transparency Corinthian 2. Ionic 3. Answers will vary. Section Focus Transparency 20-3 Section Focus Transparency

19 Chapter Time Line Section 1 Time Line 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus presents a new view of the universe. ò 1628 William Harvey discovers the circulation of blood. ò 1690 John Locke advocates government by social contract. ò 1751 Denis Diderot publishes the Encyclopédie Galileo Galilei stands trial for his ideas Isaac Newton publishes the Principia. ò 1774 Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen. ò Section 2 Time Line Section 3 Time Line 1651 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan. ò 1662 Charles II establishes the Royal Society of London. ò 1700s Deism becomes popular in Europe and America. c John Wesley promotes religious revival in Great Britain. ò 1748 Baron de Montesquieu publishes The Spirit of Laws. ò 1780s Joseph II of Austria introduces Enlightenment reforms. End of the Slide Show Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. 19