Two Approaches to Civic Education. Kristen Hamilton. Thesis Advisor: Professor Patrick Neal

Transcription

1 Two Approaches to Civic Education Kristen Hamilton Thesis Advisor: Professor Patrick Neal One primary purpose of public education in a liberal democracy is to foster the skills and virtues necessary for democratic citizenship. However, there is deep disagreement about what those skills and virtues are. On one hand, some argue that public education should teach the importance of critical thinking and autonomous decision making, as these characteristics are vital to a functioning democracy. This will be referred to as autonomy approach. On the other hand, some argue that civic education requires that the state be as accommodating as possible to diverse belief systems, and that this diversity is compromised by an emphasis upon individual autonomy. This will be referred to as the tolerance approach. The tension between these two approaches can be seen most clearly with regard to issues of religious freedom in public education. This thesis will compare and evaluate the two approaches to democratic education by examining not only the terms of and rationale behind each approach, but also how each addresses a set of vexing cases involving religious freedom and public education.

2 Hamilton 2 Most agree that public education in America should, in part, serve the interest of maintaining our political tradition by teaching democratic ideals and civic virtue. The controversial nature of civic education exists because of different perceptions of what the fundamental democratic values are and how they are interpreted. Political theorist Amy Gutmann explains the significance of political controversies over education: We do not collectively know good educational policy when we see it; we cannot make good educational policy by avoiding political controversy; nor can we make principled educational policy without exposing our principles and investigating their implications (Democratic Education 6). As the composition of society changes, we must go back and reevaluate the efficiency of our system of civic education and its congruence with democratic standards. This turns out to mean that we have to reflect on those standards themselves, which this thesis will attempt to do. We will not be able to effectively educate democratic citizens if we do not have a clear idea of what a democratic citizen is. This thesis is designed to flesh out the current arguments about civic education and help fill the gaps that these approaches may leave behind. This thesis will examine two major contemporary schools of thought that answer this question in competing ways: the first, the autonomy approach, holding that civic education should prioritize teaching the importance of rational thought, critical analysis, and autonomous decision making; the second, the tolerance approach, holding that public schools need to tolerate and be accommodating to various comprehensive belief systems, even if those belief systems do not value individual autonomy. My purpose is to asses which, if either, approach best expresses what education in a liberal democracy should be. While both approaches claim to instill values that are congruent with democratic citizenship (autonomy and tolerance), we will see the conflict between them clearly when we examine the approaches in relation to issues of religious freedom

3 Hamilton 3 in public schools. The fundamental values stressed by each approach compromise the fundamental values stressed by the other. Those who argue for autonomy as the essence of democratic education view religious perspectives as sets of ideas that can be approved or disapproved by students through rational thought and analysis. This view holds that students should be exposed to many conceptions of the good life, but should develop the capacity to judge those conceptions through independent thought processes and choose amongst them accordingly. Those who propose the tolerance approach believe the state should show tolerance and respect for many different models of life, even those that may not value or emphasize autonomous decision making or deliberation of beliefs. To see the tension between the two theories, consider the following: a public school teaches the importance of critical thinking and individual autonomy as vital to democratic citizenship. The school presents various comprehensive belief systems as subjects to be studied, rationally deliberated, and perhaps to be chosen as believable or falsifiable by individual students. Many religious parents object to this autonomy approach to civic education because their religious doctrine does not value disengagement from one s spiritual identity. It might be argued that individual autonomy undermines the very essence of said religious doctrine, which calls upon believers to faithfully and obediently follow traditional authority. There are many religious people who view their religious identity as central to their being; this thesis will explore this idea further through the writings of Michael Sandel. The autonomy approach may be seen by devout religious people as a threat to their religious freedom, insofar as the approach encourages one to learn to stand and think outside of one s religious framework.

4 Hamilton 4 If the state supports autonomous decision making in regard to perceptions of the good life, it is, some will argue, undermining the legitimacy and inclusion of some belief systems that do not view religious identity as a choice, or as being based on fact or critical thinking. Rational analysis and evaluation of all ideas, including religious beliefs, is a way of life that runs counter to many identities. The tolerance approach to civic education does not require people to detach themselves from their religious beliefs, which may be central to their existence. In many cases, as we will explore later, the tolerance approach allows students with such beliefs to opt out of classes or lessons that are problematic for them or their religious communities. Those who advocate for the tolerance approach believe that a true democratic state should value the freedom of communities to practice their beliefs and the state should not attempt to strip citizens of their identities in an effort to establish common ground. The counterargument from the theorists who value autonomy suggests that rational analysis and autonomous decision making are necessary for a democracy to function efficiently, and the state risks undermining the development of such vital democratic skills by allowing exceptions for specific belief systems. In addition, supporters of the autonomy approach argue that all children should not be deprived of the right to develop these skills in preparation for choosing the life that they wish. Thus, the controversy centers on different conceptions of democratic ideals and how they are to be pursued in the context of public education. The presence of religion in this thesis is solely to provide the best example of the way the autonomy and tolerance approaches to civic education come into conflict with each other. The highly contested nature of this topic prevents me from having a set of given standards by which to judge each approach. The standards of civic education are themselves being argued about, and this thesis will be my attempt to enter that conversation. While I am able to apply the autonomy and tolerance approaches to religion in

5 Hamilton 5 order to gain more insight into which works best for civic education, the standards are in play simultaneously. The skills and virtues that are vital for democratic citizens are themselves up for contention, and thus it is not fitting for the approaches to civic education to be evaluated based upon rigid formulaic standards. Instead, clear, insightful and rational judgment of several theorists ideas, coupled with real examples of these approaches in action, is the soundest way to proceed. While some might be hesitant to evaluate these approaches without a given set of standards to determine which is more democratic, such standards are not plausible because democratic ideals are manifested in various ways to different people. Even more problematic, some ideals are fundamentally at odds with one another when we examine them through the context of religion in public schools, like autonomy and tolerance. In America, an increasingly diverse population of students has pushed the controversy into the spotlight. There is no absolute consensus on what should be required of democratic citizens, and in turn no shared consensus on what democratic skills should be taught and promoted in civic education. Those who value individual autonomy view the tolerance approach as fundamentally undemocratic because it places little or no imperative on critical reflection and detachment of one s personal beliefs from political decisions. On the other hand, those who believe civic education should promote tolerance of all religious beliefs view the teaching of individual autonomy as undemocratic because of its subversion of traditional identities. This thesis will analyze the findings of four renowned contemporary political theorists who address these difficult questions and attempt to evaluate them critically. This thesis will seek to enter the conversation centered on the question: Which theoretical approach, autonomy or tolerance, is the more democratic model of civic education in a liberal democracy? I hope to arrive at a rational

6 Hamilton 6 judgment through assessing the strengths and weakness of each approach by examining how they handle the issue of religion in public schooling. This thesis will present analyses and criticisms of four major contemporary theorists in the realm of civic education in liberal democratic society. For the tolerance approach, I will focus on the work of William Galston, in his articles Civic Education in the Liberal State and Two Concepts of Liberalism, and Shelley Burtt, in her articles Religious Parents, Secular Scholars: A Liberal Defense of an Illiberal Education and In Defense of Yoder: Parental Authority and The Public Schools. For the autonomy approach, I will focus on the work of Amy Gutmann, in her book Democratic Education and her article Civic Education and Social Diversity, and Stephen Macedo, in his book Diversity and Distrust and his article Liberal Civic Education and Religious Fundamentalism: The Case of God v. John Rawls?. The Tolerance Approach This section will examine the tolerance approach through the arguments of contemporary theorists William Galston and Shelley Burtt. We will consider how the proponents of the tolerance approach call for broad acceptance of comprehensive belief systems in civic education in the name of preserving religious freedom and the legitimacy of private spiritual life. In this way, the tolerance approach focuses on the democratic ideals of individual liberty and simultaneous coexistence among diverse groups. The tolerance approach favors a system of civic education that champions and preserves our differences and fights fervently to prevent the stripping of individual beliefs in the name of commonality. Galston writes, What we share, beyond all our differences, provides the basis for a civic education valid across the boundaries of

7 Hamilton 7 our differences ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 93). Galston often references the idea of a common citizenship, in which one of the only things democratic citizens in a multicultural society have in common is an understanding that we are all different, and civic education should protect these differences. In such a Diversity State, public education should afford maximum feasible space for the enactment of individual and group differences, constrained only by the requirements of liberal social unity ( Two Concepts of Liberalism 524). This idea about maximum feasible space calls upon state actors and educators to allow the widest possible acceptance of comprehensive belief system. In other words, to be as tolerant as possible in order to be inclusive of those holding views that might not be considered mainstream. That being said, Galston does not propose the acceptance of any and all comprehensive belief systems in the public sphere of the liberal state. In his description of the Diversity State, Galston sets out three constraints on religious groups entering into the public sphere: the protection of human life, the protection and promotion of normal development of basic capabilities, and the development of social rationality ( Two Concepts of Liberalism 524). We will examine these in greater depth in the Analysis and Discussion section. In return, the state should allow broad parental authority and refrain from prescribing curricula or pedagogic practices that require or strongly invite students to become skeptical or critical of their own ways of life ( Two Concepts of Liberalism 526). Galston argues that civic education should seek to protect minority groups from majority usurpation ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 94). Anything less than allowing the maximum feasible space for such groups is a violation of the spirit of democracy and forces many citizens into isolation. Citizens who feel that their beliefs are being undermined by the state may be forced to request a kind of resident alien status within their own community

8 Hamilton 8 ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 95). Without accommodation and exemption, minority groups may begin to feel that the burdens of citizenship are not worth the benefits. This could result in a withdrawal from public engagement, which is not conducive to a healthy democratic state or fulfilled democratic citizens. Even proponents of the autonomy approach agree that engaged citizens are necessary for a liberal democratic state to thrive, but they are less willing than Galston to be tolerant of certain ideologies. Galston is willing to concede that there are certain reasonable limitations on maximum feasible space for religious groups, which will be analyzed in detail in the Analysis and Discussion section of this paper. Galston s strongest argument in favor of the tolerance approach to civic education has to do with the involvement of the state. Many opponents of the tolerance approach argue that children living in a diverse democratic society must be taught to think critically and deliberatively about their inherited beliefs in order to engage in a more personal and deeper search for their truth. Galston allows that perhaps the unexamined life is not worth living, but that should not be what this discussion is about, rather it should be about whether the liberal state is justified in integrating its own beliefs about the reflective aspect of life ( Civic Education in the Liberal State ). Galston s approach to civic education puts greater emphasis on the private family life and is hesitant to allow states to, in his view, encroach on individual lifestyle choices in the name of creating common democratic citizenship. Galston answers that civic requirements do not entail a need for public authority to take an interest in how children think about different ways of life. Civic tolerance of deep differences is perfectly compatible with unswerving belief in the correctness of one s way of life ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 99). One does not need to accept that his or her beliefs might not be true in order to be a functioning citizen of a multicultural democracy. In the name of what is

9 Hamilton 9 best for democracy, education should seek to provide the greatest possible space for diverse beliefs. Galston writes, Properly understood, liberalism is about the protection of diversity, not the valorization of choice ( Two Concepts of Liberalism 523). The tolerance approach views its tenets as exemplars of democratic ideals, those of the freedom to stay true to one s inherited beliefs and the protection of diversity. We will see how this conflicts with the autonomy approach later in this paper. Galston even argues that civic deliberation is also compatible with unshakable personal commitments ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 98). In saying that civic deliberation and deeply rooted religious beliefs can coexist, Galston is in turn lowering the bar for critical thinking and deliberative skills in favor of minimal civic commitments ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 98). For example, an Evangelical Christian might not accept the physical history of Earth that her science teacher presents to her, but this does not indicate that she is incapable of being an engaged student. The state s role in civic education should be to protect the individual freedom to maintain one s own beliefs, not to inculcate a single debatable conception of how human beings should lead their lives a conception bound by rigorous critical reflection of one s deepest convictions ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 101). When a democratic state commands its citizens to abide by one way of life, despite innumerable differences and various belief systems, the state itself becomes illiberal. As Galston puts it, the democratic state betrays its own deepest and most defensible principles ( Civic Education in the Liberal State 101). Shelley Burtt also advocates for the tolerance approach in civic education. Burtt falls in line with William Galston in her defense of maximum tolerance of comprehensive belief systems in the public school setting. Burtt and Galston s similarities can be seen through their shared

10 Hamilton 10 defense of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Wisconsin v. Yoder to allow Amish students to leave public school after eighth grade, which violated the Wisconsin state law demanding compulsory school attendance until age 16. Galston notes that the Yoder decision has been attacked by many liberals on the grounds that allowing the Amish parents to prevail risks undermining the development of autonomy in Amish children, but he maintains that the state had no compelling or superseding interest in thwarting the wishes of the Older Order Amish Community ( Two Concepts of Liberalism 517). The Court in Yoder offered another rationale for its decision to exempt the Amish from Wisconsin s law. According to the Court, the evidence showed that respondents sincerely believed that high school attendance was contrary to the Amish religion and way of life, and that they would endanger their own salvation and that of their children by complying with the law (Cornell Law Wisconsin v. Yoder (No )). Galston s stance on this case echoes back to his argument that the government must not enforce the Socratic notion that the unexamined life is not worth living, because to do so would be to exercise normative, rather than political, influence over citizens lives. The Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment, cited in the Court s opinion, prevented the state from interfering with such deeply held convictions, especially since the Amish were offering an alternative form of education suited to their way of life. The Court concluded that the evidence showed that the Amish provide continuing informal education to their children designed to prepare them for life in the rural Amish community (Cornell Law Wisconsin v. Yoder (No )). Burtt agrees with Galston that Wisconsin v. Yoder was decided correctly, but she argues that the Court paid too little attention to the children at stake in their decision. She writes, by grounding its decisions entirely on the free exercise of parents, the Court too quickly foreclosed

11 Hamilton 11 the claims of children to the state s independent attention ( In Defense of Yoder: Parental Authority and the Public Schools 413). Burtt s Principle of Parental Deference calls upon the state to defer to parents in the name of their children s needs, not as a principle of adult liberties. The state s interest in developing children s critical reasoning skills and autonomous decision making excludes from consideration not only the needs of children as moral and spiritual beings, but their interests as members of distinct cultural communities ( In Defense of Yoder 425). In fact, Burtt proposes that it should be the state who works to minimize parental objections to the content of their children s education, as opposed to the parents being forced to compromise their beliefs to fit the rigid confines of public schools ( Religious Parents 53). This paper will later explore how this opposes the autonomy approach to civic education, which places the needs of the state to produce democratic citizens over the desires of religious parents. Burtt also argues that many comprehensive belief systems, such as that of the Old Order Amish Community, may not be fundamentally opposed to the development of habit and skills of critical thinking per se just to the texts and methods used to teach it in public schools ( In Defense of Yoder 416). Indeed, the state s idea of what it means to be deliberative and critical is constrained solely to the secular world, when in reality there is an entire realm of religious theological debate. Burtt writes, To reject secular standards of reasoning is not to prove oneself incapable of rational deliberation about the good life ( Religious Parents 66). Indeed, Burtt argues that religious and theological debates are often robust and diverse. Though some hold the view that religion is fundamentally unreasonable and does not encourage critical thinking, Burtt argues that this is another misunderstanding of religious teachings. To religious believers, one teaches children about God so that they can reason correctly.

12 Hamilton 12 To disrupt this process too early is not to facilitate rational deliberation, but to deprive a child of the conceptual tools necessary to make sense of the world ( In Defense of Yoder 417). This disruption led the Amish to ask for total withdrawal from the public school system at age 14 instead of 16 to avoid contamination by influences outside of the community ( Religious Parents 52). Burtt offers a compelling case for the value of religious thought in the face of a widely held Western view of religion as backwards. In the face of an aggressively materialistic culture, many parents may seek to provide their children with a sense of the transcendent in human life ( Religious Parents 63). Instead of restraining and chastising believers, religion and spirituality actually have the power to liberate people from the chaos and corruption of modern society. Burtt also notes that the Amish case is not a violation of civic education because Amish parents were not asking to control or alter public education, but rather to remove their children from the institution at a certain point altogether ( Religious Parents 52). If the state is concerned about the education of citizens who will grow up to participate daily in mainstream democratic life, the Amish should be of little or no concern. The Court puts forth, and Burtt agrees, that the state s claim that it is empowered to extend the benefit of secondary education to children regardless of the wishes of their parents cannot be sustained against a free exercise claim of the nature revealed by this [the Old Order Amish Community] record (Cornell Law Wisconsin v. Yoder (No )). The record of the Amish in this case included: [C]onvincing evidence that accommodating their religious objections by forgoing one or two additional years of compulsory education will not impair the physical or mental health of the child, or result in an inability to be self-supporting or to discharge the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, or in any other way

13 Hamilton 13 materially detract from the welfare of society. (Cornell Law Wisconsin v. Yoder (No )) These reasons for exemption are important because if the Amish had not been able to prove that the health of their children or their futures as citizens were not at risk, the outcome would have likely been different. Of course, this conclusion depends on one s views about the standards and commitments of democratic citizenship. Burtt argues that the Amish should be granted this exemption because they are not guilty of what she calls triumphalism, which occurs when parents raise their children to bring their religious beliefs into the public sphere in the form of political action, to seek legislative change not on the basis of a community consensus but in conformity to the revealed word of God ( Religious Parents 68). Burtt argues that parents who are guilty of triumphalism are doing a grave disservice to a democratic polity ( Religious Parents 68). Burtt argues that since the Amish are not attempting to infiltrate the political realm with their religious beliefs, they are responsible citizens. It is important to note this distinction because it reveals that Burtt acknowledges that there should be some sort of boundary between religion and public politics. That being said, Burtt maintains that she believes public education has the potential to be a positive experience for even the most religious children all the more reason why the government should make public education as inclusive of minorities as possible. Burtt writes: If children are truly to have the choice of a strong religious faith, their early contact with the pluralistic and secular values of a modern society must be guarded and carefully supervised we cannot make the choice for them; public

14 Hamilton 14 school is good for children and we ought to try to keep them in it. ( Religious Parents 66) In other words, the state has to choose between ostracizing religious minorities and accommodating them in the classroom. Burtt argues that the latter choice is the most conducive to both the freedom of religion and a healthy democratic state one that values tolerance of and accommodation for many different belief systems. Burtt is very hesitant to bite the bullet so quickly on the need for allegedly illiberal ideologies to be ostracized from civic education. She is very cautious not to say that there are some marginalized minority groups that simply do not fit into the liberal democratic model and therefore must bend and break until they do fit. As opposed to citizens tailoring their private beliefs to the needs of the state, Burtt suggests that it is the political system that should offer more accommodation and exemption for marginalized citizens. Burtt writes: We should see parental requests for accommodation not as unacceptable threats to the transmission of needed civic virtues but as commendable efforts to assure that their families legitimate (if not mainstream) moral and religious commitments are not directly undermined by the children s classroom experience. ( Religious Parents 55) In this way, Burtt and Galston share the conviction that the state s interest in fostering a certain model of democratic citizenship should not dictate or overshadow the individual beliefs of children and their families. Though theorists who fall under the autonomy approach umbrella might argue that accommodation of this sort may lead to the degradation of the vital democratic

15 Hamilton 15 values, Burtt stipulates that this is only true if we accept undoubtedly that autonomous decision making and critical thinking skills are required to be a good democratic citizen. Burtt grants that there must be limitations to the accommodation of allegedly illiberal ideologies in the public sphere. As stated earlier, Burtt allows that religions with a triumphalist political approach should be a concern to the state. This describes religions and comprehensive belief systems that are united by the conviction that the less distance between church and society the better ( Religious Parents 68). In addition, Burtt concedes that religions or organized comprehensive belief systems that deprive children of being educated citizens should not be welcome or accommodated in the context of civic education. This seems like a vague and ambiguous qualification at first, but Burtt attempts to specify what qualifies as such depravity: for example a religion that forbade the acquisition of basic literacy ( Religious Parents 68). Burtt goes on to clarify that a liberal state could tolerate the private practice of such a religion on the basis that religion is essential to identity, but it is neither necessary nor desirable to privilege religions that require such fundamental deprivations ( Religious Parents 68). In addition, religions that subvert constitutional principles for example by advocating the strict segregation of races ought not receive special exemption or accommodation in public schools. Burtt offers a final set of cases regarding religion in public schools that are especially problematic and complex. Burtt argues that when religious beliefs or practices set themselves against liberal democratic principles not protected by the constitution, the state should defer to parental authority ( Religious Parents 69). Burtt considers the example of the inculcation of gender roles by parents versus by the state. Burtt writes:

16 Hamilton 16 The state may wish to raise boys and girls to similar roles in society But absent a constitutional affirmation that men and women are to be treated equally in American society, the schools cannot claim a right to impose this preference on children over the religious (or purely customary) objections of their parents. ( Religious Parents 69) This argument is congruent with Galston s idea that the state should not criticize or endorse different lifestyle choices or practices in the public sector. It is not the state s role to pass judgment on beliefs if said beliefs do not directly violate the law, but as we will consider later, this case in particular is not as easily pushed aside. Burtt argues that parents should be allowed to request that their children have an opt-out option when the curriculum challenges beliefs that do not overtly contradict the constitution. Echoing back to the gender role example, Burtt concludes that Girls raised in this way will make decent, law-abiding citizens, even if, from the standpoint of liberal democratic ideals, they have not been treated entirely justly ( Religious Parents 69). This bold assertion directly contradicts the autonomy approach, as we will discuss further, because Burtt believes that children have a right to practice their inherited beliefs and remain loyal to their religious communities, even if those beliefs contradict mainstream liberal ideology. The Autonomy Approach Stephen Macedo enters the conversation about civic education and the role of religion in public schools with a concept he calls Political Liberalism - originally put forth by John Rawls. Echoing the sentiments of Rawls, Macedo s theoretical approach to comprehensive belief systems in public schools proposes that citizens ought to defend basic principles of justice by

17 Hamilton 17 relying on public reasons that we can share while disagreeing about our ultimate commitments ( Liberal Civic Education and Religious Fundamentalism: The Case of God v. John Rawls? 478). This requires that civic education instill citizens with the necessary skills for such a robust form of public debate. Such skills include critical thinking and autonomous decision making. Macedo rejects Galstons maximum feasible accommodation of diversity as not being conducive to the needs of a healthy democratic society. Macedo writes: The indiscriminate embrace of difference and diversity should be resisted. Inevitably, some groups will be marginalized and feel oppressed by even liberal public policies Unfortunate as they are, such feelings may indicate the need for adjustments not in public policy but in the group. ( Liberal Civic Education 469) Recall that this is a direct contradiction to the tolerance approach assertions that the state should bend to the needs of parents, not the other way around. Macedo settles on this concept of Political Liberalism as a sort of compromise between the demands of the public realm and the diversity of the private realm. He argues that there are basic matters of justice that are widely acceptable to reasonable people, and these shared political values are what we should focus on in the public realm ( Liberal Civic Education 471). Macedo points to values such as peace and freedom that can be shared by reasonable people ( Liberal Civic Education 480). It may be argued that these values are vague and their meanings can be understood in many different ways, but Macedo maintains that people of all religious and secular beliefs are able to access such foundational principles and appreciation of such values will assist in the implementation of public reason. He argues that these are such fundamental, uncontroversial, widely accepted

18 Hamilton 18 values of liberal society that even religious people can and should work within them in the public sphere. Macedo is quick to reassure us that he is not in favor of stifling diversity; rather, he believes it ought to be monitored and regulated to ensure the health of the liberal democratic state and to protect rights of children to explore what it means to live a good life for themselves. He writes, Diversity and difference, like all good or potentially good ideas, can be taken to an extreme or grasped in the wrong way (Diversity and Distrust 10). Macedo is in favor of maintaining a society that allows space for the expression of many different conceptions of the good life. He writes, By all means, let us celebrate a mutually respectful liberal democratic diversity, let us approach settled social and political expectations in a critical spirit (Diversity and Distrust 26). Despite these claims about maintaining inclusivity, he acknowledges that there will often be groups whose comprehensive conceptions exist in decided tension with the shared values of the political order ( Liberal Civic Education 483). It would be naïve to think that all faiths and belief systems will fit in equally to the liberal model. For example, consider ideologies that are overtly racist, sexist, homophobic, or simply preach hate and disgust of people who are noticeably the others. Macedo asks, Why should we apologize if disparate burdens fall on proponents of totalistic religious or moral views who refuse to concede the political authority of public reason? We must not forget how such people would behave if they had political power ( Liberal Civic Education 484). Macedo bites the bullet on expansive accommodation for such groups. He is against allowing space for groups that thrive on ignorance and the demonization of others (Diversity and Distrust 26). He argues that in order for peaceful groups to fully enjoy a diverse society, the groups that threaten such a society must be marginalized. As such, Macedo

19 Hamilton 19 asks all religious groups to adopt the doctrine of Political Liberalism. He grants exemption or accommodation only when two conditions apply: there are extraordinary burdens placed on a religious group by this doctrine and exemption can be granted without great damage to the basic integrity of the public order ( Liberal Civic Education 490). Absent such requirements for exemption, Macedo argues that every citizen ought to fully participate in civic education, and that the model ought to instill the values of individual autonomous decision making, critical thinking, and objective evaluation of all belief systems. Such a robust account of civic education is necessary not only to produce active, invested citizens, but to equip children with the necessary skills to face such a diverse world. Some level of awareness of alternative ways of life is a prerequisite not only of citizenship but of being able to make the most basic life choices. This ground alone might well be adequate to deny the claimed right to opt out ( Liberal Civic Education 486). Because such skills are not inherent, civic education must teach them. Because liberal democratic beliefs and dispositions are not innate, and because we cannot count on a civic invisible hand to engender them, we must consciously attend to (as Macedo puts it, plan for ) their cultivation (Galston Rev. of Diversity and Distrust 37). Macedo illustrates his argument though an analysis of Mozert v. Hawkins, which involved a 1983 complaint by born again Christian families against the local school board in Hawkins County, Tennessee ( Liberal Civic Education 470). Seven families of fundamentalist Christians in Tennessee filed suit in federal court to challenge the required use in public schools of a series of basic readers published by Holt, Rinehart & Winston (Sherman 20). Vicki Frost, a fundamentalist parent and the lead plaintiff in the case, testified that there were seventeen categories of offending material in the elementary level reading program that

20 Hamilton 20 subjugated her fundamentalist Christian beliefs (Suber Mozert v. Hawkins City Bd. of Education Part B). For example, the parents cited: [P]assages that reflected favorably on such concepts as pacifism, world society, women in nontraditional roles, and futuristic supernaturalism (as reflected, for example, in a poem called Seeing Beneath the Surface that described use of the imagination to see things not discernible through the physical senses). (Sherman 20) The fundamentalist parents argued that the reading curriculum degraded their religious beliefs by presenting an uncommitted, evenhanded nature of the presentations and exposing the children to a variety of points of view which denigrated the truth of their particular religious views ( ). It is important to note that the parents complaints were not exclusively about the substance of the conflicting ideologies. Rather, the parents were rejecting to the mere introduction or mention of ideas not present in the Bible. As Amy Gutmann notes: Their religious convictions (although not those of their entire congregations of all other fundamentalist Christians) command them not to expose their children to knowledge about other ways of life unless the exposure is accompanied by a statement that their way of life is true and all the others are false and therefore inferior. ( Civic Education and Social Diversity 571) The mere presence of such secular ideas was enough to have the fundamentalist parents up in arms. The religious parents asked for an opt-out option from the reading program for their children.

21 Hamilton 21 To many secular liberals, the demands of the fundamentalist parents seem outrageous. It is difficult for many to imagine a school curriculum that does not encourage children to use their imaginations. Let us consider a more secular example in an attempt to understand the frustration of the Vicki Frost and the rest of the fundamentalist parents. Let us imagine that we are parents and our children attend public school in Vermont. Our children come home from school one day and say they learned about the 9/11 terrorist attacks in history class. We ask them what they learned. Our children say they learned that there are many different ideas about what actually happened on September 11, 2001; some argue that upwards of 3,000 people were killed in a terrorist attack carried out on American soil, while some argue that the entire thing was a hoax or conspiracy created by the American government. Our children say that their teacher did not weigh in at all about which is true. As concerned liberal parents, many of us would be very offended by this lesson on 9/11. But what is our complaint? The school is exposing our children to ideas that we believe to be absolutely false, and it compromises the validity of what we know to be true. Even though the teacher or the reading material does not make any assertions on the truth of either of these ideas, the mere presence of ideas that we know to be false is offensive. We ought to try to understand that this is how Vicki Frost and the rest of the fundamentalist parents feel. They know that the Bible is the truth, and when their children are exposed to ideas that threaten that truth, they feel like their beliefs are under attack by the state. Perhaps we can understand the perspective of the fundamentalist parents in Mozert, but proponents of the autonomy approach argue that the very foundation of civic education is a stake here. Stephen Macedo argues that important liberal principles are at risk of being undermined by fundamentalist parents. How can tolerance be taught without exposing children to diversity and

22 Hamilton 22 asking them to forbear from asserting the truth of their own particular convictions, at least for political purposes? ( Liberal Civic Education 471). Macedo concedes that the mandatory reading program may interfere with the parents ability to teach their children their particular religious views, but he has doubts about whether such an interference is morally indefensible in the name of Political Liberalism. Though Macedo acknowledges that such vigorous liberal ideology can be alienating for some groups and should not overtake the public realm, he argues that people who disagree about their highest ideals and their conceptions of the whole truth, might nevertheless agree that public aims such as peace, prosperity and equal liberty are very important ( Liberal Civic Education 474). The health of our democratic society depends on people s ability to find and apply the most basic tenets of public reason and truth. We cannot consciously allow children to pass through the public school system and become of age to vote at 18 without being exposed to at least the existence of ideas such as equality among genders, the use of imagination, or pacifism. In essence, the nature of people s beliefs matter much less to society as a whole than the willingness of said people to put some of our (true) beliefs aside when it comes to laying the groundwork for common political institutions, such as public schools ( Liberal Civic Education 474). Given this application of Political Liberalism to public schools, Macedo concludes that the claims of the fundamentalist parents in Mozert are not strong enough to warrant an exemption from the reading program. Macedo grants that the reading program does impose disproportionate burdens on the fundamentalist parents, but the state s interest in instilling and preserving public reason prevails ( Liberal Civic Education 485). This aligns with Judge Kennedy s concurring opinion in the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals decision, which

23 Hamilton 23 revered the district court decision and subsequently upheld the required reading program set out by Hawkins County Board of Education. Judge Kennedy concluded that even if there were a burden, the state had a compelling interest in teaching students about complex and controversial social and moral issues that is essential for preparing school students for citizenship and selfgovernment (Sherman 20). Macedo writes, [W]e must remember that the source of the apparent unfairness, the cause of the disparate impact here, is a reasonable attempt to inculcate core liberal values ( Liberal CIvic Education 485). Thus, Macedo is willing to take religious concerns into account, but such concerns must not counteract or dilute the state s interest in pursuing reasonable common efforts to insure that all future citizens learn the minimal prerequisites of citizenship ( Liberal Civic Education ). In her book Democratic Education, Amy Gutmann argues similarly that the state has a profound interest in tailoring civic education to its own needs. Civic education should foster the capacities for democratic deliberation essential to conscious social reproduction (Democratic Education 288). The liberal state is a product of human collaboration and is responsible for reproducing and maintaining itself. In order to do this successfully, there must be an institution that instills citizens with common civic values, such as critical thinking and autonomous decision making. Gutmann argues that the public school system is the institution responsible for such a task. Gutmann articulates her understanding of civic education as the cornerstone for democratic life. She writes, Good laws, which are the consequence of peaceful political agitation in a democracy, are the source of good education, and good education in turn creates good citizens (Democratic Education 282). Gutmann sees deliberation and critical thinking as essential attributes of a democratic citizen because people who give careful consideration to the morality of laws can be trusted to

24 Hamilton 24 defend and to respect laws that are not in their self-interest, at the same time as they can be expected to oppose laws that violate democratic principles (Democratic Education 52). In this way, Gutmann reveals that she is wary of acquiescence, obedience, and deference to tradition, as such values have the potential to make people blind to laws that may be unjust, inefficient or unreasonable. The autonomy approach, according to Gutmann, is the avenue through which the vitality of a thriving and progressive democratic state can be preserved and passed on to subsequent generations. Gutmann echoes many of the same concerns as Macedo about the tolerance approach to civic education. Gutmann is especially wary of allowing children - who should be, in theory, learning how to be good democratic citizens - to approach conflicting ideology from an uncritical and traditionalist standpoint, or to opt out of exposure to conflicting beliefs altogether. Exposure to many competing ideologies is a critical aspect of democratic life, and it requires that students be equipped with the necessary skills to evaluate such ideologies from an objective perspective. Gutmann writes, However students have been socialized outside of school, there should be room within school for them to develop the capacity to discuss and defend their political commitments with people who do not share them (Democratic Education 107). One need not necessarily abandon her inherited beliefs, but she ought to learn how to step outside herself in order to see the bigger picture, both for her own sake and for the sake of a multicultural liberal state. Like Macedo, Gutmann acknowledges that it is naive to think that all belief systems will fit perfectly into the liberal model of civic education. She writes, Treating every moral opinion as equally worthy encourages children in the false subjectivism that I have my opinion and you have yours and who s to say who s right? (Democratic Education 56). Students ought to be

25 Hamilton 25 equipped with a critical eye and a strong sense of individual autonomy that allows them to detach themselves from their inherited beliefs. Gutmann goes on to say that false subjectivism does not take the demands of democratic justice seriously (Democratic Education 56). She makes no apologies for the fact that some religious groups may feel marginalized by the secular standards of civic education. Indeed, Gutmann does not even contend that secular standards of reasoning and reflection are neutral compared to religious standards. She writes, secular standards constitute a better basis upon which to build a common education for citizenship than any set of sectarian religious beliefs - better because secular standards are both a fairer and firmer basis for peacefully reconciling our differences (Democratic Education 103). Though Gutmann s fairer and firmer argument is a bit vague for such a divisive claim, she goes on to articulate that the bedrock of democracy rests on our collective journey and common values (Democratic Education 103). To find this common ground, we must step outside of the religious realm and reconvene from a secular point of view. This process is bound to be easier for some groups than others. Gutmann considers the Mozert and Yoder cases to illustrate her views on liberal democratic theory. Gutmann makes a point to acknowledge the value of the religious beliefs at stake in these cases. Were these ways of life without value, there would be no moral problem. Where they of absolute value, the moral problem would also disappear ( Civic Education and Social Diversity 566). The other things of value at stake, according to Gutmann, are the skills needed to participate and thrive in a liberal democratic state. Gutmann continues, The dilemma of diversity arises because the value of a conscientious way of life apparently comes into conflict with the terms of fair cooperation among citizens ( Civic Education 566). In other words,

26 Hamilton 26 those who defer to tradition over reflection and obedience over choice have trouble fitting the requirements for this particular model of civic education. According to Gutmann, the Mozert parents were requesting too much from the state when they objected to exposing their children to any ideas or information with which they disagree on religious grounds unless the ideas and information are accompanied by a statement that their religious beliefs are the only true ones ( Civic Education and Social Diversity 566 Footnote 13). Such intolerance of exposure to conflicting belief systems significantly challenges the foundation not only of civic education but of liberal democracy itself, Gutmann argues. For example, the contested curriculum in the Mozert case involved the children reading about Renaissance ideology, such as the dignity and worth of human beings ( Civic Education 566). Gutmann responds by arguing that such a concept is too central to the foundation of liberal democratic society itself that no student should be exempt from learning it. She proposes that the autonomy approach to dealing with religions and comprehensive belief systems in the public school system is not only in the best interest of the state, but of the children. To allow the fundamentalist parents to deprive their children of such a basic tenet of democratic life is not only to undermine the interest of the state, but the rights of the children. The parents desires must not overshadow the needs of the children, who have the right and responsibility to become engaged democratic citizens ( Civic Education 577). Like Gutmann, we explored how Shelley Burtt is also concerned with the rights and needs of the children in these cases. However, Gutmann argues that the fundamentalist parents are getting in the way of their children s future as democratic citizens, whereas Burtt argues that the state is obstructing the children s spiritual needs. Thus, we see that the autonomy approach is fundamentally at odds with the tolerance approach, in that the former views the state as