The structure of this lecture. 1. Introduction (coordination vs. subordination) 2. Types of subordinate clauses 3. Functions of subordinate clauses

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2 The structure of this lecture 1. Introduction (coordination vs. subordination) 2. Types of subordinate clauses 3. Functions of subordinate clauses 2

3 1. Introduction 3

4 1.1. Intro: structure reduction vs. expansion A (modified) reminder MEANS OF STRUCTURE REDUCTION (to avoid redundancy of expression): pro-forms John will write a letter on Monday, and Mary will do so on Tuesday. ellipsis John will write a letter on Monday, but Mary won t. MEANS OF STRUCTURE EXPANSION (complex sentences consisting of more than one clause): coordination John will write a letter on Monday, and Mary will help him. John will write a letter, although Mary won t help him. subordination John hopes that Mary will help him. 4

5 1.2. Intro: coordination vs. subordination A reminder [clause vs. sentence] sentence main clause main clause S V O S V O I admire her but I hate her cat. sentence main clause A S V O subordinate clause S V O Although I admire her I hate her cat. 5

6 1.3. Intro: coordination vs. subordination S A reminder S Conj S NP VP NP VP V NP V NP I admire her but I hate her cat. S S NP VP Comp NP VP V NP V NP Although I admire her I hate her cat. 6

7 1.4. Intro: coordination vs. subordination subordinator (subordinating conjunction) = complementizer coordinator (coordinating conjunction) = conjunction subordination that, whether, if, although and, or, but subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent part of the other, cf. 1) He tried hard, but he failed. 2) Although he tried hard, he failed. He failed, although he tried hard. 7

8 1.5. Intro: subordination each subordinate clause may be superordinate to one or more other clauses: (I know (that you can do it (if you work hard (when it is necessary)))) S I know S that you can do it S if you work hard S when it is necessary 8

9 2. Types of subordinate clauses 9

10 2.1. Types of subordinate clauses Clause types in general finite clause its verb(al complex) is finite 1) John visited Paris. I know (that) John visited Paris. 2) John has visited Paris. 3) John may have visited Paris. non-finite clause its verb(al complex) is non-finite verbless clause 4) To carry heavy parcels is a challenge. 5) For John to carry a heavy parcel was a challenge. 6) Having seen the pictures, John decided to leave. it contains no verbal element 7) Although always helpful, John doesn t work too hard. 8) John, then in Paris, very often visited Mary. 10

11 2.2. Types of subordinate clauses Clause types in subordination non-finite and verbless clauses very often don t have an overt subject infinitive with to infinitive without to -ing participle -ed participle 1) The best thing would be to tell everybody. 2) The best thing would be for you to tell everybody. 3) All I did was hit him on the head. 4) Rather than John do it, I d prefer to do it myself. 5) Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. 6) Mary having left, I decided to watch a film. 7) With the tree growing tall, we get more shade. 8) Covered with confusion, I left the room. 9) The job finished, we left the room and went home. 10) With the tree grown tall, we get more shade. verbless clause 11) Dozens of people were stranded, many of them kids. 12) Whether right or wrong, he is always sure of himself. 13) With the tree now tall, we get more shade. 11

12 2.3. Types of subordinate clauses Indicators of subordination simple subordinators compound subordinators correlative subordinators wh-elements subj operator inversion that is often omitted that, if<, whether, (al)though, because, since, after, when (!), in that, so that, except that, in order that now (that), provided (that), supposing (that) as far/long/soon as, so long as if then, (al)though yet, no sooner than, whether or, the the The more I think about this, the more disappointed I am. I don t know when John left. I don t know whether John left. (!) Should you arrive late, call me immediately. Had I known about your arrival, I would have I suppose (that) you are right. 12

13 3. Functions of subordinate clauses 13

14 3.1. Functions of subordinate clauses An overview *subject That we need more equipment is obvious. *direct object (Q!) I know that she is pretty. (= object 1) subject complement The point is that we re leaving. *indirect object (Q!) I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. (= object 1) *direct object (Q!) I gave John whatever he wanted. (= object 2) object complement I imagined him overcome with grief. adjunct When we meet, I shall explain everything. disjunct To be honest, I ve never liked him. conjunct What is more, he has lost all his friends. postmodifier in NP I need a friend who always remains loyal. *complement in PP It depends on what we decide. complement in AP He is always ready to act promptly. 14

15 3.2. Functions of subordinate clauses * nominal clauses can have the same functions as NPs! S (XP) NP subj (Aux) VP (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) V (NP) obj1 (NP) obj2 XP* PP P on NP our decision 15

16 3.3. Functions of subordinate clauses finite nominal clauses that-clauses wh-interrogative clauses yes-no interrogatives nominal relative clauses That she is alive is a relief. I told him that he was wrong. The assumption is that things will improve. I m sure that things will improve. How the book will sell depends on its author. I can t imagine what made him do it. The question is who will go. I wasn t certain whose house I was in. Nobody was consulted on who should have the prize. Whether/*if it rains or not doesn t concern me. - Do you know if/whether the banks are open? What he is looking for is a wife. I want to see whoever deals with complaints. He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile. Home is where your friends and family are. You can call me what(ever) (names) you like. Vote for which(ever) candidate you like. 16

17 3.4. Functions of subordinate clauses non-finite & verbless nominal clauses to-infinitive clauses bare infinitives -ing clauses verbless clauses For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable. He likes everyone to be happy. My wish is to be a pilot. I m glad to help you. All I did was (to) turn off the gas. Turn off the gas was all I did. Telling lies is wrong. No one enjoys deceiving his own family. His favourite pastime is playing practical jokes. I m tired of being treated like a child. The children were busy building sandcastles. Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is very expensive. 17