VIEWING PERSPECTIVES

Transcription

1 VIEWING PERSPECTIVES j. walter Viewing Perspectives - Page 1 of 6 In acting on the basis of values, people demonstrate points-of-view, or basic attitudes, about their own actions as well as the actions of other people. We call these points-of-view Perspectives. In using this term, we make a choice of definitions for the word "perspective." For instance, with another definition, perspective is an concept applied to painting that evokes vanishing-points and illusionism. To avoid confusion, we use the term Perspective to describe one of three possible points-of-view: (1) ethnocentrism, (2) relativism, and (3) tolerance. TWO PRINCIPLES FOR ANALYZING PERSPECTIVES The Attitude-about-the-Other Principle. Perspectives always involve a person's response to some "other." They provide modes for people to "look out" to the world around them. Encounters with others may lead people to act out (show the value of) their Perspectives. The basic attitudes that people hold (their Perspectives) give rise to actions (values) that display those attitudes. The Situational Principle. Just like values, Perspectives result from people's actions more than their thoughts. People tend to see themselves as holding the same perspective in every situation. This is not so, but it seems to provide a comfortable self-image. However, cultures and individuals usually have a dominant perspective that guides the way they want to respond to situations. People actually act out all three Perspectives, depending on their responses to a situation. This is normal. And even healthy! THREE PERSPECTIVES Ethnocentric Perspective. Ethnocentrism is the perspective that one's own values are true for everybody. It is grounded in the notion that one's own way of doing or looking at things is the only logical, rational way. A phrase that captures the essence of ethnocentrism is: what is true for me must be true for you. Associated terms are: close-mindedness, prejudice, bigotry, and authoritarianism. Ethnocentrism makes a basic judgment about the "other" others are wrong if they are different. Ethnocentric judgments make no critical appraisal of evidence or facts. If my way of doing or looking at things is the only logical or correct way, there is no need or desire to examine alternatives. We act in an ethnocentric fashion whenever we try to get others to conform to our standards without seriously considering alternatives, whenever we close our mind to other points-of-view, or whenever we think or act against others without evidence sufficient to justify the thought or action.

2 To some extent we are all ethnocentric. We must recognize that whenever we desire others to conform to our standards, and this desire is combined with the refusal to consider alternatives, we are ethnocentric. But our ethnocentrism often poses no particular dangers and may even be the "best" perspective to hold. Think about parents raising their young children, for instance. Still, whenever we find ourselves acting in an ethnocentric fashion, we need to ask, Are our actions truly representing the best possibility? (Think again about parents raising their young children.) When we decide the answer is "NO," then most of us usually turn to a... Relativistic Perspective. Relativism is the perspective that values are true or good only in certain cultural or social settings. For a relativist, nothing is true for everybody all the time. A phrase that captures the essence of relativism is: what is true for me may or may not be true for you. Other phrases are: live and let live; see no evil, speak no evil, hear no evil; and I'm ok, you're ok. The term most commonly associated with relativism is openmindedness, usually understood in the sense of "non-judgmental." This association is so strong that a refusal to make judgments is often mistaken for freedom from unjust prejudice that s not quite right, as we ll learn through the study of Perspectives (maybe you can already see the problem?). Much is often said in praise of Relativism. The three most commonly stated reasons for its popularity are: (1) As we know, real values are dependent on specific cultural settings. That means that any claim that there are "universal" values must take into account every human point-of-view that s ever been expressed, and that just can t be done at least, not yet. So we have to be relative in our perspective about values there s just no other choice. (2) Relativism seems to involve respect for diversity among human individuals and groups, which provides some antidote to Ethnocentrism and unjust prejudice without requiring individuals to reconsider their own values. Multiculturalism is a term that expresses this idea. (3) Relativism provides a scientific (impersonal, objective, functional) framework for moral reasoning because it replaces assumptions or generalizations about what is valuable with the affirmation that values simply reflect the interests of particular individuals or societies and therefore are open to straightforward empirical investigation. All you have to do is note the variables and conditions that is, all you have to do is note the limitations on whatever sense of truth you might find.

3 j. walter Viewing Perspectives - Page 3 of 6 In many situations Relativism is the most practical perspective, either because it helps one avoid Ethnocentrism or because there is no realistic way (or reason) to try to achieve Tolerance, the third Perspective (see below). Still, here are two question areas about the value of relativism: The term most closely associated with relativism is openmindedness. Is open-mindedness a good thing? Open- Mindedness is a synonym for Non-Judgmental. Some doubt that open-mindedness, or being non-judgmental, is even possible, in a literal sense. Why? Because it can t really happen with humans! Whenever we experience something new we have to use old categories, in our mind, to make sense of it that is, we have to use prejudicing minds closed by our own categories, built by our own experiences. We just can t handle open-mindedness, taking each new event freshly in its own right. The philosopher Bertrand Russell sums it up with the phrase, a mind perpetually open will be a mind perpetually vacant. For example, if we accept alternative lifestyles, or alternative cultures, will we accept child molesters? Let's start by saying NO to accepting child molesters. Well, when someone walks up and asks, why not? what do we answer? Remember our position as relativists: values are simply the product of particular situations. This is a matter of common knowledge unjust prejudice is dangerous and we need to strive for freedom from prejudice (that s how it s said in our culture, anyhow). Can a non-judgmental Perspective lead to genuine freedom from prejudice? If Relativism is most commonly expressed as a rejection of critical judgment, defended on the grounds that there is no support for making such judgments (I m okay, You re okay), then the issue becomes whether the refusal to make judgments is equivalent to a lack of unjust prejudice or is it simply the attitude of those who don t want to support their beliefs? Put another way (1) Freedom from prejudice depends on not making critical judgments about others (so relativism seems to work), but (2) we all have limits to what we find acceptable from others (so we need something other than relativism to set the limits), hence (3) isn t it the case that the limits we set on what is acceptable are necessarily based on ethnocentrism? As it turns out, relativism provides weak medicine against prejudice - or maybe no medicine at all! (Do you find the triumph of relativism ironic in an educational climate in which "critical thinking" is one of the most positive buzzwords?)

4 Tolerant Perspective. Tolerance is the Perspective grounded in the belief that there are universal standards for human behavior; however, there is no way to describe the standards with precision or confidence. You really should pause and think about this for a moment! These are the twin pillars of the perspective of tolerance universal standards with no universal way to understand or communicate them! j. walter Viewing Perspectives - Page 4 of 6 The phrase that captures the essence of tolerance is: what is true for everyone must be true for me. It's easy to misunderstand this phrase. IT DOES NOT MEAN going along with the crowd. The term most closely associated with tolerance is inclusiveness, but again, one must beware of misunderstanding the concept. Tolerance never means accepting other beliefs and values simply because they belong to someone else. Tolerance is trying to enlarge one's own view by examining other beliefs and values, and making critical judgments about them. From its foundational assumption about standards that are unknown, the Perspective of Tolerance goes on to ask a question: what is the acceptable amount of variation from these standards? This question provides the key to linking the idea of tolerance (as a Perspective) to the many definitions of "tolerance" in the dictionary. "Variation from a standard" is an important meaning for the word "tolerance." Now you might be thinking it's really crazy to ask about the amount of legitimate variation from standards that you can't even define! If you do entertain this thought, you have hit on both the appeal and the difficulty of the idea of tolerance. The concept of tolerance comes to us from Europe in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. (They called it "toleration" back then.) Those were exciting times for European intellectuals, as discoveries of distant lands and unimagined peoples challenged any easy assumptions about human nature and universal standards for it. Yet they retained the faith that human beings do have important values in common and that the universal standards of behavior can be known with enough investigation. This is may be the best way to understand tolerance -- a matter of faith that we ll find the standards. It's a quest; a journey related to the Latin roots of the word tolera/tio, that is a quality of consistent and patient endurance. The Perspective of TOLERANCE is a patient quest, or an enduring search, for universal standards of human behavior (remember, actions are values), the acceptable degrees of variation from those standards/values, and the successful ways to communicate those standards/values. Don Quixote dreaming the impossible dream

5 j. walter Viewing Perspectives - Page 5 of 6 To engage in this quest, you must accept some unavoidable consequences of your journey 1. The quest is an ongoing investigation of how things are, NOT an ongoing assumption about how things ought to be. Therefore, the ultimate goal of the quest to identify the standards of behavior that apply to all human beings, any time, any place is unreachable. One must settle for intermediate goals. In order to hold a perspective of tolerance, people have to practice tolerance (that is, act in a tolerant manner). 2. Acting in a tolerant manner means something special. Tolerance attempts to use reason to evaluate the merits of all values, actions, and beliefs. It attempts to establish "rules of reason" that may be used to form arguments and verify judgments. Having conversations with others is one of the rules, and having conversations takes time. So, acting with toleration means taking time to have conversations. 3. It probably will turn out, as it has most often thus far, that only individuals can practice tolerance. Cultures and countries can be ethnocentric, or they can be relativistic, but they are very hard pressed to be tolerant. Tolerance is the most personal of the three Perspectives. It does NOT involve reaching a conclusion. It has to do with making a journey. Groups and countries want conclusions. They want to have stances. Being tolerant means abandoning the idea and ideal of reaching a final point-ofview. Being tolerant means becoming involved in a process of potential change, with no ending-point and no destination in mind. (pretty scary, right?) MORE ON THE CHALLENGE OF PRACTICING TOLERANCE The practice of tolerance begins with meaningful communication between individuals. The failure to achieve meaningful communication generally rests on the inability of the persons involved to respect and trust each other. True dialogue only happens when the interlocutors share a willingness to respect each other and to share deep and controversial ideas without an attempt to minimize disagreements. If Tolerance is formed around exchanging points-of-view with the "other," it is more than exposing the differences and parting as friends. Critical judgment plays the crucial role. The starting-point of tolerance is to consider more than one point-of-view. Like Ethnocentrism, Tolerance makes judgments about the "other." The difference is that Ethnocentrism makes judgments based solely on the point-of-view of the ethnocentric person. Tolerance, on the other hand, bases its judgments on a rational consideration of all available evidence. Tolerance knows that its judgments are provisional, because all the evidence is not in. Ethnocentrism knows that its judgments are right, because they represent the only "logical" way of thinking. Tolerance uses reasoned inquiry and critical thinking to question all judgments, especially its own.

6 j. walter Viewing Perspectives - Page 6 of 6 Accepting other beliefs and values as valid for the "other" simply because they belong to the "other" is Relativism. Tolerance may accept or reject the "other," but only after a rational analysis of the "other." Tolerance is trying to enlarge one's own view by examining alternative views and making critical judgments about them. To be tolerant, people have to be willing to change if they encounter data that shows them they need to change. They also have to be willing to defend and promote their own views toward tolerantly convincing the other. We should probably refuse to make naive claims about "universal" values, but we can practice tolerance by trying to enlarge our own views about universal standards through honest, empathetic, and compassionate dialog with people who hold different views. That kind of dialogue cannot occur between strangers, or enemies. It must take place between people who have established some positive personal relationship. It must take place between friends. Because such dialogue focuses on an exploration of differences, it may be painful, and it is often avoided. Both Tolerance and Relativism imply respect for alternate viewpoints. The difference is that Tolerance requires us to ask if the beliefs and values of others might be useful in our own lives. We hear the word tolerance used all the time in our everyday, commonplace experience. But that use of the word tolerance is really a synonym for "relativism." In this we encounter a final, widespread, VERY problematic misunderstanding. How often have you heard someone say, I can tolerate that, or I have a lot of tolerance, or You should be more tolerant, or I am a very tolerant person. In all these phrases the term "tolerance" is used as a quasi-substitute for Relativism, that is, for a Perspective that avoids Ethnocentrism by assuming a non-judgmental position. DO YOU SEE THE IRONY IN THIS? Nowadays, many people have a high degree of respect for the word tolerance while at the same time rejecting true tolerance as a legitimate goal or Perspective of choice. They make tolerance into, at best, some expression of an ideal value, while refusing to enact it as a REAL value! ETHNOCENTRISM - RELATIVISM - TOLERANCE HOW DO YOU SEE IT? HOW DO YOU VIEW THE OTHER? WHAT IS YOUR PERSPECTIVE?