CONTENTS. CHAPTER 1. CHAPTER II. THE PROBLEM OF DESCARTES, -

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1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM OF DESCARTES, - Aristotle and Descartes, 1. Augustine's treatment of the problem of knowledge, 4. The advance from Augustine to Descartes, 10. The influence of the mathematical sciences, 11. The Cartesian dualism, 12. The cogito ergo sum a. consequence of that dualism, 13. The dualism raises new difficulties as to sense-perception, 15. Descartes' further dualism of thought and scnse, 17. PAUB 1 CHAPTER II. THE METHOD OF DESCARTES, True knowledge is certain and indubitable, 19. Such knowledge is involved in ordinary experience, 20. Descartes' method of separating out the indubitable from the doubtful, 22. Why the problem of method is so all-important, 23. The characteristics of the mathematical method, 27. Descartes criticises the empirical method of Bacon, 27. Descartes' method though deductive is not syllogistic, 28. Deduction and 19

2 x CONTENTS intuition, 32. Intuition is the source of all our know- PAGII ledge, 33. Descartes' answer to the double question of the method and limits of knowledge, 35. The' simple natures,' 36. They are all abstract conceptions, 38. Descartes seeks to make science purely conceptual, 39. Spontaneous generation from simple conceptions a.sserted to be their peculiar characteristic, 41. Geometrical science is perceptive, not conceptual, 43. So &lso is arithmetical science, 45. The' simple natures' cannot be isolated units, 46. Conclusion, 47. CHAPTER III. THE METAPHYSICS OF DESCARTES, 48 I. INTRODUCTORY. The cogito ergo BUm, 48. Can be interpreted in two ways, 49. Is a consequence of t.he dualism from which Descartes starts, 51. The criterion of truth, 52. Descartes' proofs of God's existence, 54. He interprets the criterion of truth in the light of the scholastic doctrine of e88ence, 60. Hence his occasionalism, 62. II. THE CONCEPTIONS INVOLVED IN OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE MATERIAL. Matter and extension, 65. Figure, motion, and extension, 68. Descartes' dualism conceals a purely relative trinity of matter, motion, and mind, 70. Why Descartes yet asserts motion to be a mere mode of extension, 71. His view of time and of causation, 72. Descartes interprets motion in two ways, geometrically and mechanically, 75. And accepts occasionalism, 77.

3 CONTENTS xi The relation of soul and body in sense-perception, 80_ In bodily movement, 82. In feeling and emotion, 83. The consequences of Descartes' rationalism are emphasised by Malebranche, 85. Conclusion, 88. III. THE CONCEPTIONS INVOLVED IN OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE MENTAL. Mind is identified with consciousness or thought, 89. Descartes' two views of consciousness, 90. Malebranche's criticism, 92. Space cannot be perceived by the mind as a state of itself, 92. Sensations, feelings, and emotions, the only known modes of mind, 94. Occasionalism again the outcome of Descartes' metaphysics, 95. Descartes' contention that mind is better known than matter disproved by Malebranche, 97. Malebranche asserts the possibility of a rational deductive science of mind, 101. This is the natural extension of the rationalism of Descartes, 106. Conclusion, 107. IV. THOUGHT AND WILL. Descartes regards thought as passive, 108. The will must therefore be regarded as quite distinct from thought, Ill. His rationalism is thus undermined, 113. General conclusion, 115. ApPENDICES TO CHAPTER III. A. Arnauld's denial of the doctrine of representative perception, 115. B. Descartes' theory of perception, and account of the relation between sense and uuderstanding, 117.

4 xii CONTENTR Co Descartes' view of time and of finite existence in time, 128. D. The Cartesian views of consciousness, 133. PAGE CHAPTER IV. THE CARTESIAN PRINCIPLES IN SPINOZA AND LEIBNIZ, Spinoza-His fundamental position, 137. He denounces all explanation through general or abstract notions, 138. The conflict of tendencies in his philosophy, 141. He adopts the mathematical method of Descartes, 142. And therefore identifies causation with explanation, 143. His doctrine of method, 144. The consequences of his rationalistic view of causation, 146. His theory of the attributes, 148. He adopts and extends Des cartes' ideal of physical explanation, 149. And applies it to mind, 151. He gives no account of the causal relation proper, 152. He fails to carry out his method, 153. His concrete view of God and of the at.tributes, 156. Conclnsion, 160. Leibni:>:-The fundamental argument for his monadism is derived from his rationalism, 160. The principle of identity and the principle of sufficient reason, 165. He combines his rationalism with an equally extreme ilpiritualism, 167. As a result modifies his rationalism, 169. His treatment of the mechanical world in space, 170. His view of the relation of thought and sense, 171. His views on the innateness of knowledge, 172. He follows Descartes in regarding idea.s as the objects of mind, 174,. His introduction of the conception of the unconscious, 175. At times he indicates a different view of ideas, 176. He cannot on his principles account for ~ense experience, J7S. Conclusion, lsi). 137

5 OONTENT!:> CHAPTER V. THE OARTESIAN PRINCIPLES IN LOOKE, Why Locke regards all sensations as isolated and atomic, lsi. He adopts the Oartesian dualism, IS4. His way of regarding ideas, and his spiritualism, 185. His method, ISS. Locke on the cogito ergo sum, IS9. On the sources of experience, IS9. His analysis of the conception of substance, 191. His doctrine of sub stance partially frees him from the false rationalism of Descartes, 192. The limits of knowledge, 194. His views on the interaction of mind and body, 195. The bearing of his doctrine of substance on -Descartes' proofs of God's existence, 199. He adopts Descartes' views as to the nature of rational science, 200. He asserts a twofold method to be necessary, 201. His views on nominal and rea.l essence, 203. Oriticism of his doctrine of real essence, 206. He condemns em pirical knowledge, 2OS. The ambiguity in his views of substance and the prima.ry qualities, 210. His reasons for declaring a science of nature to be impossible, 211. His rationalism, 212. xiii PAOIC lsi CHAPTER VI. HUME'S CRITICISM OF THE CARTESIAN PRIN CIPLES,. 215 Hume's achievement, 215. The position of Berkeley, 215. That position is the outcome of a consistent de, elopment of Descartes' principles, 216. Berkeley simplifies and develops the occasionalist system, 217. His spiritualism, 21S. Hume on the principle of causality, 22"2. On the causal relation between parti

6 xiv CONTENTS cular events, 226. His criticism of the occasionalist PAGE system, 229. His analysis of the Cartesian spiritualism, 231. His criticism of the argument from design, 235. He over~hrows the occasionalist system, 241. His own views on the causal relation, 242. His criticism of the views of Descartes, 243. He raises an entirely new set of problems, 244. Criticism of Hume's theory of knowledge, 246. His true position is phenomenalism, not subjective idealism, 247. He yet practically retains the doctrine of representative perception, 249. Hence his sensationalism, 250. Conclusion, 252. CHAPTER VII. THE TRANSITION TO KANT, Kant's Copernican idea, 253. He criticises the mathe. matical method, 255. His own method, 156. His views on causation, 257. His rationalism makes very modest pretensions, 259. At first Kant takes up the Cartesian position, 260. His true position, 263. His final conclusions, INDEX, 267

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