WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS. Dissertation. Presented to the. Graduate Faculty of the

Transcription

1 WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the California School of Professional Psychology Alliant International University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology by Anne-Marisa Stinson Irvine, 2007

2 Abstract of Dissertation WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS by Anne-Marisa Stinson Alliant International University Committee Chairperson: Darryl Freeland, Ph.D. This theoretical study examines the current literature on the self from a psychological and a spiritual perspective, using the theory of Psychosynthesis as a bridge for Western and Eastern theories. The theory of this dissertation is built upon systemic principles that see the self as a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics with the emphasis on interpersonal dynamics. This study includes an examination of the nature of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self and is based on three principles: (a) the self is comprised of two levels: the lower self or personality and the Higher Self or Soul; (b) the lower self and the Higher Self are experienced through mindfully balancing the pairs of opposites; and (c) the loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results from identification, caused by attachment, with one of the pairs of opposites. Since many of the concepts in this study are highly complex and even esoteric to some extent, in order to show the practical usage of this study, there will be a confessional statement in chapter 3. This will serve as a defense to the practical application and practice of this theory in the life of this researcher. This confessional

3 statement addresses such questions as the following: the nature of self, the experience of the self, and the loss of self. This study seeks to provide a new integrative perspective of the self and the loss of self. The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the current understanding of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this theory of the self will potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the practice of therapy as well.

4 WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the California School of Professional Psychology Alliant International University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology by Anne-Marisa Stinson Irvine, 2007

5 ! 2007 ANNE-MARISA STINSON

6 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of California School of Professional Psychology Alliant International University by Anne-Marisa Stinson Approved by: Darryl Freeland, Ph.D. Chairperson Robin Bullette, Psy.D. Date Scott R. Woolley Program Director Matthew McCann, Ph.D.

7 DEDICATION To my husband Andrew who lovingly endured my dissertation process during the first year of our marriage. Your love and support have been and continue to be a source of inspiration in my life. 7

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to convey my deep sense of gratitude to my committee chair Dr. Darryl Freeland who encouraged and supported me to follow my own path through out my years in graduate school and with out whom I would not have had the courage to write this dissertation. I would also like to extend a special thanks to my other committee members Dr. Robin Bullette and Dr. Matt McCann who offered their time, support, and consult through out this process. To my family, Mom, Dad, and Lizzie thank you for all of your love and support through out the years as I struggled to find my way. Finally, to Uta Hoehne words cannot express my gratitude to you for your endless support, guidance, and presence. I would not be where I am today had our paths not crossed. 8

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1. INTRODUCTION... 1 An Integrative Theory of Self... 2 Lower Self and Higher Self... 3 Balancing the Pairs of Opposites... 5 Identification and Repression... 6 Background of the Problem... 7 Concept of Self... 8 Experience of Self... 9 Loss of self Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Importance of the Study Theoretical Foundation Conceptual Framework Limitations of the Study Definition of Key Terms Summary REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The Concept of Self

10 Chapter Page Western Psychological Concept of Self Murray Bowen William James Psychoanalysis Carl Jung Self-Psychology Humanistic Psychology Psychosynthesis Eastern Spiritual Concept of Self Psychosynthesis Alice Bailey Bhagavad Gita Summary REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Experience of the Self Mirroring and the Role of the Therapist Mindfulness Balancing the Pairs of Opposites Background Horizontal and Vertical Polarities Four-Step Process for Balancing the Pairs of Opposites

11 Chapter Page Meditation The Loss of Self Western Psychological Concept Identification Subpersonalities Repression Defense Mechanisms Shadow Projection/Projective Identification Fusional Complex Eastern Spiritual Perspective Glamour/Illusion Summary CONFESSIONAL STATEMENT Background Personal Origins With Loss of Self Systemic Interactions (Interpersonal Influences) Repression and Identification (Intrapersonal Influences) Spiritual Bypass (Transpersonal Influences) Finding Myself in Therapy/Balancing the Pairs of Opposites Defining Loss of Self in Personal Terms What Happens

12 Chapter Page Why Loss of Self Occurs Regaining a Sense of Self Practical Example DISCUSSION Conclusions Implication of Findings Therapist s Role Further Research REFERENCES CITED

13 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Few ideas are both as weighty and as slippery as the notion of the self. By self we commonly mean the particular being any person is, whatever it is about each of us that distinguishes you and me from others, draws the parts of our existence together, persists through changes, or opens the way to knowing who we might or should be. From knowledge of what the self truly is people have hoped to gain greater happiness, deeper fulfillment... Selfhood thus matters to us both as individuals and as social creatures, shaping our personal existence and our relations with those whose lives we somehow share. (Seigel, 2005, p. 3) The self, which is influenced by individual (intrapersonal), relational (interpersonal), as well as spiritual (transpersonal) dynamics, is an elusive concept that has been written about extensively from both the Western psychological perspective and the Eastern spiritual perspective (Blackman, 1996; Dennett, 1974; Mruk, 2006). The Western concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the lower self, which emphasizes the intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics of the self, with little or no recognition of the Eastern concept of self as Higher Self or soul (these terms are used interchangeably), which emphasizes the transpersonal dynamic of the self. The Eastern concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the Higher Self with little understanding of the lower self (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The perspectives of West and East, and the ideas of lower self and Higher Self have for the most part remained distinct (Watts, 1961). Although attempts to integrate Western and Eastern perspectives occur in various theories, this paper focuses on the integration of both perspectives as seen in the works of Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973) in his theory of Psychosynthesis. 13

14 This model of the self is based on the premise that to understand an individual, including his or her sense of self, experience of self, and loss of self, one must look through a broader lens than simply the individual s experience to include the context of his or her environment and interactions with others. This theory is founded on a phenomenological systemic view based on ecosystemic principles that view the self as a subsystem of the larger interpersonal system: The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is, for the individual, reality.... The organism reacts as an organized whole of this phenomenal field (Rogers, 1951, p. 484). An individual s behavior and sense of self is thus influenced by his or her inner conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to what is happening) and outer evaluation (Tyler, 1994). The processing of this information forms a feedback loop that informs the individual of how he or she is to behave. This loop is both recursive in that it is ever-repeating and reciprocal in that one part acts in response to another, which then acts in response (Jackson, 1959). Thus the formation, experience, and loss of self are all the result of interactions within the system, which is consistent with the relational emphasis in Marriage and Family therapy (MFT) and family systems thought and practice (Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Nichols & Schwartz, 2004; Satir, 1991). An Integrative Theory of Self This study seeks to formulate an integrative theory of the self in order to answer the following questions: What is the self? How is the self experienced? Why is the self lost? Using the theory of Psychosynthesis to blend Western and Eastern perspectives, the theory of this study is based on three premises, which are the products of the integration of ideas from various Western and Eastern theories: (a) The self is comprised of two 14

15 levels: the lower self and the Higher Self, which are both influenced by dynamics occurring on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1960, 1965; Bailey, 1951; Firman, 1991). (b) The lower self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1972, 1973; Bailey, 1951). (c) The loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Lower Self and Higher Self This theory is based on the assumption that there is a self, which is composed of two parts, the lower self and the Higher Self. The lower self and Higher Self are not two different entities. They are parts of the same continuum with the I or lower self merely reflecting the essence of the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Crampton, 1977; Firman & Russell, 1992). This model of the self is based on the belief that the integration of the lower self and the Higher Self is the goal of psychotherapy as found in Psychosynthesis, which has included Eastern theory (Assagioli, 1965, 1969, 1976; Crampton, 1977). The lower self, represented by Western psychology, is seen as an internal construct influenced by both intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics (Bowen, 1985; Buber, 1970; Freud, 1936; Jung, 1933; Kohut, 1977; Meade, 1934) that encompass all feelings and thoughts (Assagioli, 1973; James, 1910). 15

16 In Western and Eastern literature, the lower self is referred to in many ways, depending on the theory, which can be confusing. For example, in the Western theory of Psychosynthesis there is a clear differentiation between the lower self and the personality, with the personality being organized around a center of the lower self (Assagioli, 1973). Whereas, in Eastern literature the concepts of lower self and personality are used interchangeably (Bailey, 1950, 1951). For purposes of clarity, this study uses the terms lower self, center, I, or integrated personality interchangeably to refer to the Western concept of self and the terms lower self and personality are used interchangeably to refer to the Eastern concept of lower self. The lower self is influenced by intrapersonal, meaning intrapsychic, and interpersonal, meaning between the individual and society, dynamics (Mruk, 2006). This results in the self being constantly shaped by the feedback loop created through the interplay between the polarity of inner and outer (Jackson, 1959; Tyler, 1994). For example, inner thoughts, feelings, and sensations, which manifest as intrapersonal polarities, are constantly influenced by outer reactions, evaluations, and expectations, which manifest as interpersonal polarities. An individual s behavior and sense of self is thus influenced by his or her inner conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to what is happening) and outer evaluation (Tyler, 1994). This lower self, consisting of the physical, emotional, and mental levels must be integrated into a harmonious personality through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of the levels (Assagioli, 1958, 1973). Once the lower self is integrated, using this newly integrated center as his or her foundation, the individual can then consciously seek to fuse with the Higher Self or soul 16

17 through a specific five-step process of meditation (see chapter 3) (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Hodgson, 2004). The Higher Self, also known as soul or the Transpersonal Self, is thought to be the all-knowing vibrating center of energy inherent within every individual (Abraham, 1993). It is from this experience of connection with the Higher Self that one realizes that they are not only the individual self, but that they are also a part of a larger interconnected Transpersonal Self (transpersonal dynamics) (Bailey, 1944, 1951, 1962; Firman & Russell, 1992; Strohl, n.d.). Figure 1.1 depicts the relationship of the three levels of the lower self to the higher self. Higher Self Lower Integrated Self 3. Mental Level 2. Emotional Level 1. Physical Level Using the lower self as a foundation, the Higher Self can be contacted. Figure 1. Lower self and Higher Self (researcher generated). All three levels of the lower self must be balanced starting with the physical, then the emotional, and finally the mental. Once all three levels are balanced, they will automatically begin to integrate themselves into the lower self. Balancing the Pairs of Opposites The lower self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels. Pairs of opposites manifest as elements of nonself, a concept found in Psychosynthesis, which refers to anything that is not one s essence, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings existing on the physical, emotional, 17

18 mental, personality, interindividual, and soul levels (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933). Pairs of opposites, which manifest as the relationship between two elements that are in reality two sides of the same coin or differing degrees of the same element, exist within all of creation (Hawkins, 2006). In order to balance or hold the tension between the polarities, the individual must first be able recognize each of the polarities by bringing them into conscious awareness. Bringing polarities to consciousness is greatly aided by a relationship with another, whereby the individual receives empathy, understanding, and accurate mirroring. Although this relationship can occur with anyone, this study addresses the impact of the therapeutic relationship on identifying the pairs of opposites within the individual. Once both polarities are identified, the individual can disidentify from each of them through mindfully shifting his or her awareness from the polarities to the conscious observer through a process of disidentification. When the individual is able to disidentify from both of the polarities and observe them, he or she can hold the tension between the two contradictory elements, such as fusion/distance and order/chaos without repressing or identifying with either (Schwartz-Salant, 2007). Assagioli (1972, 1973) outlined a technique for balancing the pairs of opposites that is described in chapter 3. Balancing the pairs of opposites is an ongoing process of intention, meaning the balancing of the two poles is a goal toward which one strives and is a never-ending process. Identification and Repression The loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal 18

19 levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Identification results from an attachment to one of the poles, which is often prompted by desires or expectations about a certain external situation. For example, one might become identified with the intrapersonal mental polarities of good/bad or favorable/unfavorable; the intrapersonal emotional polarities of like/dislike or chaos/order; or the interpersonal polarities of fusion/distance or victim/victimizer. Identification can be in response to some outer circumstance as in a business venture, for example, thinking that the closure of a certain business deal would be good for the company and becoming happy at the thought of it closing and sad at the thought of it not closing (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1965, 1972). The act of identification is not a pathological occurrence, rather identification refers to taking on the perspective of that with which one identifies, in effect becoming that other, as in identifying with a subpersonality, a feeling, or a mode of thinking (Firman, 1996, p. 18). As the individual becomes identified/attached with one of the poles, the lower self becomes disintegrated, and one loses touch with his or her center or I. As one identifies with the personality on the physical, emotional, or mental levels, in addition to losing connection with the lower self, the connection with the Higher Self is lost as well, if there was a connection, as the attention is shifted back to the lower self (Assagioli, 1965; Bailey, 1950). It is the identification or attachment with one of the pairs of opposites and not the polarities themselves that causes the loss of self (Taylor, 1989). 19

20 Background of the Problem The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the self results from a lack of integration of Western and Eastern theories. This lack of understanding manifests in three areas of contention: the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self. Concept of Self Theories about what the self is are as diverse as the words that have been created to describe the self (Kanter, Parker, & Kohlenberg, 2001). Although the complexities resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self are undeniable, this study proposes that the self is a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics, which are all represented in Western and Eastern literature. Much of psychology in particular (with the exception of systems theory), focuses largely on the individual, intrapsychic developmental processes, the role of the individual in the creation of the self through decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those that involve success, mastery, and achievement (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). Contrary to psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors in the creation of the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological emphasis on intrapersonal factors and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors are correct and are needed in the search for a definition of the self. He also added that in addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, transpersonal factors need to be taken into account in the search for a definition of the self. Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in Eastern thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, also emphasizes them (Assagioli, 1973; Campbell, 1999; Wilber, 2000). According to Psychosynthesis, 20

21 the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects of the personality, such as body, feelings, and mind (Russell, 1982, p. 2). The self is recognized on two levels: the personal self or lower self, similar to the self recognized in other psychological theories; and the Transpersonal Self or Higher Self, which is analogous to the Eastern concept of self as soul. Originating from Hindu thought, the Eastern concept of self as soul or Higher Self is almost universal, with very little variation compared to the Western psychological perspective. The self as soul, seen as transcending the individual, has emerged as one of the main tenets of Eastern thought and has been written about extensively for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003). Experience of Self Western psychology has focused primarily on the concept of lower self, which serves to define the self rather than to shed light on the actual experience of the self. The self is often described as an entity rather than as an experience (Mahoney, 1994). Contrary to Western theory, in Eastern theory there is much written on the experience of self as the Higher Self. Contacting and maintaining a connection with the Higher Self is considered to be the goal of existence according to the Hindu scripture the Bhagavad Gita (Besant, 1947). The self is experienced on two levels--first the lower self and then the Higher Self. According to Eastern theory, the Higher Self or soul is experienced as the personality is integrated through balancing the pairs of opposites on the physical, emotional, and mental levels (intrapersonal polarities) and then between the personality and soul (transpersonal polarities) (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1951). According to Western theory, the lower self is experienced as the personality is integrated through balancing 21

22 and harmonizing the physical, emotional, and mental levels. This can be accomplished through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of these levels as well as balancing polarities on the interpersonal level that affect the physical, emotional, and mental levels (Assagioli, 1965, 1972, 1973). Therefore, this study is based on the principle that the lower self and Higher Self are experienced by balancing or holding the tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels. Pairs of opposites are balanced by shifting the point of attention away from each of the poles to the conscious observer, through the process of mindful disidentification. As the pairs of opposites are balanced on the physical, emotional, and mental levels, the personality is integrated around a conscious center or I--the lower self (Assagioli, 1972; Bailey, 1951). When the lower self is experienced and maintained, the Higher Self can then be contacted through a five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation, contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal communication, June 5, 2006). The Higher Self is then maintained by holding the tension between the Higher Self and the integrated personality or lower self (Bailey, 1951). Balancing the pairs of opposites on all levels is an ongoing, moment-to-moment activity that requires mindfulness and persistence. Loss of Self The loss of self results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Loss of self as it is referred to in this study is not a pathological occurrence, rather it is an everyday 22

23 occurrence experienced by all individuals and is considered problematic only when it affects an individual s sense of identity and functioning. Loss of self is an indication that one or more polarities have become unbalanced on one of the various levels. Both Western and Eastern perspectives state that the loss of self results from identification with something that is non-self, which refers to anything that is not one s essence, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933). Loss of self resulting from a failure to balance the pairs of opposites, can be seen in the dynamics of identification, repression, projection, projective identification, and the fusional complex, all of which contribute to the development of defense mechanisms, false selves, and shadow sides (Freud, 1934; Horney, 1984; Jung, 1933; Winnicott, 1958). Eastern spiritual teachings emphasize that attachment or identification with anything that is not the self, whether it is on the physical, emotional, or mental level, is the cause of all suffering or loss of self, as seen in the first and second noble truths of Buddha, which state that (a) life is suffering, and (b) all suffering is caused by attachment (Bahm, 1958). According to Alice Bailey, whose writings merge the teachings of Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, the loss of self results from identifying with the personality, which is caused by a failure to balance the pairs of opposites. According to Bailey, identification manifests differently on the various levels of the personality. On the mental level identification manifests as illusion and is the misunderstanding of ideas or thoughtforms (Bailey, 1950, p. 21). When desire is added to illusion, it then becomes glamour, which manifests on the emotional level, and according to Bailey, is much more prevalent today than is illusion because of the emotional polarization of most people. 23

24 This study focuses on the concept of glamour and how this concept affects an individual s sense of self and loss of self. Statement of the Problem The literature on the topic of the self is divided into two distinct branches of thought: the Western psychological view and the Eastern philosophical, spiritual view (Miovic, 2004; Page & Berkow, 1991). The problem is that among these perspectives there is little integration of theories, which results in a comprehensive lack of understanding of the self, including what the self is, how the self is experienced, and why the self is lost. Many individuals who find the theoretical understanding of the self to be lacking turn to personal therapy to explain their questions surrounding their experience of self and loss of self. Although this may provide some answers, unfortunately, the same inadequacies exist, as therapy is led by theory. The lack of understanding, seemingly emanating from all angles indicating a therapy not led by sufficient theory, points to the need for a new theoretical explanation for the perplexities of the self. Clues to the questions and problems of the self lay dispersed throughout Western psychological theory and Eastern spiritual doctrines. The problem of this study is whether one can extract the elements of Western psychological theory and Eastern spiritual theory from their origins and bring them together through the bridge of Psychosynthesis to form an integrative theory of the self. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to provide an expanded examination of the self in order to gain an understanding of what the self is, how the self is experienced, and how the self is lost. As evidenced by the lack of literature on the subject, there needs to be a 24

25 more in-depth understanding of the self. This study seeks to integrate Western psychological and Eastern spiritual theories through Psychosynthesis to provide an integrative and comprehensive theory of the self. Through the integration of psychological and spiritual perspectives, the goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the current understanding of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this theory of the self will potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the practice of therapy as well. This study is theoretical in nature and intends to build upon existing literature on the topic in order to create a theory base for future research that affects practice. Importance of the Study The importance of this study is the building of a theory, which has both personal and clinical applications. A primary function of research is theory building. Theory then gives rise to additional theory, which should then inform practice. Therefore, the question must be asked: Of what practical use is this study? Since many of the concepts in this study are highly complex and to some extent even esoteric, in order to show the practical usage of this study, a confessional statement is included in chapter 4. Confessional statements in psychology and philosophy date back to the work of St. Augustine s Confessions ( A.D.), which may provide the most penetrating spiritual and psychological self-analysis of any work ever written (Samples, 2001). Consistent with the apologetics in philosophy and theology, which serve to give an intellectual defense of one's faith (Depoe, 2006), the confessional statement in chapter 4 serves as a defense to the practical application and practice of this theory as experienced in the life of this researcher. 25

26 Theoretical Foundation The purpose of a theoretical dissertation is to review the current theories on a specific topic in the existing literature in order to build upon the current theories and develop a new perspective. The topic of self, including the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self from Western and Eastern perspectives, is too broad to include a review of all the existing literature on the topic. For this reason, specific literature from Western psychology and Eastern spiritual teachings has been selected to support and bring substance to the central principle that the concept of self, the experience self, and the loss of self are the products of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics and the polarities manifesting on these levels. From the Western perspective, this study begins with the systemic perspective of the self and then follows the theoretical progression of the self through the field of psychology from (a) defining the self as the result of unconscious drives (psychoanalysis); (b) emphasizing the internalization of self objects (self psychology); (c) valuing the self (humanistic psychology); and (d) realizing the potential to transcend the self (transpersonal psychology). It is as if psychology s progression through successive stages emphasizing instincts and unconscious drives (psychoanalysis), environmental influences (behaviorism), self-determination and free choice (humanism), and transcendence and spirituality (transpersonalism) resembles the stages of psychological growth and development a healthy person encounters. The study of the self has progressed from concentrating on controlling and regulating the self (psychoanalysis and behaviorism), to valuing the self (humanism), and ultimately to knowing the full possibilities and transcendence of the self through direct experiencing. (Strohl, n.d., p. 12) Western psychology provides the full progression of the self, beginning with psychoanalysis and the examination of unconscious drives, and ending with 26

27 transpersonalism and the transcendence of the self. Transpersonal psychology, specifically Psychosynthesis, bridges the gap between Western psychology and the integration of the lower self, and the fusion with the Eastern concept of the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1964; Besmer, 1973; Crampton, 1977). Similar to the abundance of literature on the lower self in Western psychology, Eastern spiritual teachings abound with literature on the Higher Self. In this dissertation, Eastern spiritual literature on the self focuses on the teachings of Hinduism, represented in the Bhagavad Gita, and the writings of Alice Bailey, who has written numerous books on Eastern spirituality. Both of these resources have been chosen based on the emphasis they lend to the organizing principle of this study--balancing the pairs of opposites. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework in a theoretical study states the conceptual variables, referring to those concepts discussed in chapters 2 and 3. Those variables include but are not limited to the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self as found in select Western and Eastern literature. The variable of the concept of self is based on the concepts of the lower self and Higher Self, as they are the products of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. These concepts are found in Western literature in the theories of psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, self-psychology, humanistic psychology, and Psychosynthesis and include the works of William James (1890, 1910), Sigmund Freud (1934), Heinz Hartman (1944), Carl Jung (1933, 1955), Heinz Kohut (1971, 1977), Carl Rogers (1980, 1989), Virginia Satir (1972, 1975), Murray Bowen (1985), and Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973). In Eastern literature the concepts are found in the teachings of Hinduism, represented by the Bhagavad Gita, and 27

28 the works of Alice Bailey (1932, 1944). The variable of the experience of self is based on the concepts of mirroring, mindfulness, balancing the pairs of opposites, the conscious observer, and meditation. The variable of the loss of self is based on the concepts of identification, repression, projection, projective identification, shadow side, fusional complex, glamour, and illusion. The conceptual framework in this study goes beyond conceptual variables that occur in the literature. This study also goes beyond those concepts to ways that the theory has been experienced by the writer of this dissertation as found in the confessional statement in chapter 4. Limitations of the Study This study is a theoretical review of the current literature on the nature of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self. Therefore, it is limited in that it is not an empirical study nor is it based on quantitative measures. Although this may be interpreted as a weakness, it is also a strength. Theoretical studies provide deeper, more comprehensive background examinations of the material, allowing for greater integration and new-theory formulation. As Walsh (1988) noted all psychologies, including Western ones, are dependent on, and are subsets of, philosophies and cosmologies. Indeed psychology always presupposes cosmology (p. 544). All of psychology is based on prior ideas pertaining to the nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. Thus theory builds upon theory to produce new theory, which should then inform practice. Definitions of Key Terms Many of the following terms have multiple definitions, depending on the source. The following definitions are the result of an integrative process to formulate a working definition, which serves the context of this study. 28

29 Detachment. Considered to be the result of mindful disidentification. It is an active process where one consciously holds the tension between the pairs of opposites by acknowledging each pole and yet not identifying with either (Abraham, 1993). Glamour. A concept originated from Alice Bailey in her book Glamour: A World Problem, where she states that the problem of glamour is found when the mental illusion is intensified with desire. Being emotional in nature, a glamour refers to anything which one has an emotional reaction to and which pulls him or her away from his or her center, or self, due to identification with one of the polar opposites (Bailey, 1950). Higher Self or Soul. A vibrating center of energy found within appearance or form. From its very nature, the Soul is conscious or aware in three directions: it is Godconscious; it is group conscious; and it is self-conscious (Bailey, 1944). Holding the tension. Refers to the process whereby the pairs of opposites are balanced. Jung (1954) stated that inherent in all things and all situations are pairs of opposites, which must be balanced in order that they may be transcended to something higher. The self is maintained through holding the tension between the pairs of opposites. Integrated personality. Derived from transpersonal psychology and refers to the physical, emotional, and mental levels of the personality all functioning together as a whole. This is achieved through holding the tension between the pairs of opposites, which leads to maintaining the horizontal point of tension (Assagioli, 1973). Loss of self. Occurs when an individual is no longer connected to the self. This loss is experienced as feelings of confusion, numbness, chaos, and turmoil, and is caused by identification with either the physical, emotional, or mental levels. 29

30 Mindfulness. A state of consciousness which involves consciously attending to one s moment-to-moment experiences (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006). Non-self. Refers to anything that is not the self or the essence of an individual. This includes all thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations (Jung, 1933; Crampton, 1977). Pairs of opposites. Inherent in nature, everything has its shadow or opposite. These pairs of opposites represent two poles, which must be held together by tension. In holding the tension between the two poles, the two will merge into one (Abraham, 1993). Self. Referred to in terms of the lower self or personality and Higher Self or Soul (see those definitions). Although self is regarded on these two levels, they are not two separate entities. Rather the lower self is a reflection of the essence of the Higher Self (Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1991). Spiritual. Used by Psychosynthesis to include many religious experiences as well as a range of ethical, aesthetic, and humanistic values (Clinebell, 1981). Will. Regarded in Psychosynthesis as the capacity for decision, planning, and purpose, and is regarded as a key resource in all phases (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). Like a muscle it can be developed by specific exercises (Assagioli, 1973). Summary This chapter has presented the introduction, background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, theoretical foundation and conceptual framework of the study, limitations of the study, importance of the study, and definitions of key terms. Chapter 2 presents a review of select literature on the concept of self, thus defining the self from Western and Eastern perspectives and establishing the theoretical 30

31 foundation from which concepts and ideas are elaborated on in the remaining chapters. Chapter 3 is a continuation of the literature review as it applies specifically to the organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites. This concept is found in the theories presented in chapter 2 and applies to the experience of self and the loss of self. Chapter 4 consists of a personal confessional statement and serves as a defense for the practical application of this theory. This study ends with the discussion in chapter 5, which includes conclusions, implications of the findings, therapist s role, and further research. 31

32 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This literature review consists of an examination of the concept of self found in select Western and Eastern literature. This review also examines the similarities and differences of Western and Eastern perspectives of the self and outlines the integration of the two as seen in the literature of Psychosynthesis. Psychosynthesis serves as a bridge between the first, second, third, and fourth forces of psychology and Eastern spiritual traditions, all of which are assumable in a family systems orientation. Concept of Self The origins of the concept of self can be traced back to Eastern literature with the Upanishads in India in as early as 600 B.C.E, the Tao to Ching in China (circa 500 B.C.E.), and the writings of Buddha (circa B.C.E.). Much of what has been written about in these Eastern writings on the self, referred to as Higher Self or soul, including ideas on identity, consciousness, and reflection, is very alive in the modern debate on the self. It is surprising that it was only until relatively recently that psychology began to introduce and discuss such ideas that have been around for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 4). The concept of self has been explored from a Western psychological perspective as well as an Eastern spiritual perspective (Mahoney, 1991). Among these two perspectives are differences and similarities. Both concepts of self are necessary, and it is the integration of the two that will provide the ultimate understanding of the self. 32

33 Western Psychological Concept of Self The nature and meaning of selfhood have been recurring questions, implicitly or explicitly, in practically every known human time and place. Nowhere has the debate been more full-blown or more intense than in the modern West (Seigel, 2005, p. 3). The Western concept of self, referenced in general terms as the lower self, has evolved over time. Tracing the psychological concept of self through history shows that it is an evolving construct, which continues to have many definitions, depending on who is defining it. As a result, anyone approaching a psychology of the self with some seriousness immediately encounters a perplexing multitude of issues (Mahoney, 1991). Although the complexities resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self are undeniable, this study proposes that the self is shaped by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. Webster s Dictionary (2003) defines self as a person's essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action; a person's particular nature or personality; the qualities that make a person individual or unique; and one's own interests or pleasure. This mainstream definition of the self as the essence of one s being found primarily through introspection complements the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy s definition of the self as the elusive I that shows alarming tendency to disappear when we try to introspect it (Blackman, 1996, p. 344). Both the mainstream and the philosophical definitions view the self from the perspective of the individual/intrapersonal experience with less acknowledgment of the influences of others or the interpersonal influences in the formation of the self. 33

34 Much of psychology in particular focuses largely on the individual, intrapsychic developmental processes, the role of the individual in the creation of the self through decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those that involve success, mastery, and achievement (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). According to this view, the self has been defined as a construct of the ego (Freud, 1923); I or me (Freud, A., 1936; James, 1910; Winnicott, 1958); a composite of one s subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them (Hartman, 1944); and according to Jung, the unifying principle within the human psyche (Samuels, Shorter, & Plaut, 1986, p. 135) or an archetype which is an inborn form of the intuition (Jung, 1976). Although much of psychology has been criticized for its seemingly myopic concentration on intrapersonal influences, most of the theories do acknowledge interpersonal influences as well. Interpersonal influences in the creation of the self are specifically focused on in the systemic and relational theories found in MFT (Bowen, 1985). Contrary to psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors in the creation of the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). The self is viewed as the product of how others react to us, how we react to their reactions, and how those processes lead to the development of self and one s worth or value in a social context (Mruk, 2006, p. 33). This notion of the self maintains that the self is a product of imitation, internalization, and inferences prompted by (what we believe are) other people s perceptions and evaluations of us (Mahoney, 1991, p. 217). Sociology s view has encountered criticism as well for the belief that the self is the product of mainly interpersonal dynamics and does not adequately account for the I (or intrapersonal elements) in personal experience (Broughton, 1986). 34

35 Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological emphasis on intrapersonal factors and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors are correct and are needed in the search for a definition of the self. Many psychological theories have integrated interpersonal influences into their definitions of the self. Kohut believed that the self is a psychological configuration, resulting from both intrapersonal and interpersonal influences around which the personality is formed (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982). Similarly, according to Rogers (1959), the self is an organized, consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the I or me and the perceptions of the relationship of the I or me to others and to various aspects of life (p. 200). Mruk later added that in addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences, he believed that the creation of the self is also influenced by transpersonal influences. Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in Eastern thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, strongly emphasizes them (Assagioli, 1973; Firman & Russell, 1992; Russell, 1981). In Western psychology there are many definitions of the self, all of which are composed of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics. Multiple definitions result mainly from the diversity of theories within the field. This review of the Western literature on the self focuses on select theories, which view the self as a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics, including family systems theory, psychoanalysis, self-psychology, humanistic psychology, and Psychosynthesis. This includes but is not limited to the works of Murray Bowen (1985), Virginia Satir (1982), William James (1890), Sigmund Freud (1934), 35

36 Donald Winnicott (1958), Heinz Hartman (1944), Heinz Kohut (1978, 1984), Carl Jung (1953), Carl Rogers (1942, 1957, 1961) and Roberto Assagioli (1964, 1973). This study is based on systemic principles, which state that in order to observe and understand the self, one must look past the individual to include the system of which one is a part. This literature review begins with the systemic theory of Murray Bowen. Following his theory are theories and theorists who follow a theoretical progression of the self through the field of psychology. Finally, the theory of Psychosynthesis is presented, serving as a bridge to the Eastern concept of self. Murray Bowen According to Bowen, the self is not a concept, rather the self is a dynamic reality capable of maturation (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 144). Bowen stated: The self is composed of constitutional, physical, physiological, biological, genetic and cellular reactivity factors, as they move in unison with psychological factors. On a simple level, it is composed of the confluence of more fixed personality factors as they move in unison with rapidly moving psychological states. Each factor influences the other and is influenced by the others. The psychological is the easiest to be influenced by the individual. (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 342) Bowen (1985) believed that the individual s self is influenced by the emotional system, formally referred to as the undifferentiated ego mass in which the individual is located. The emotional system refers to the nuclear family, which includes processes shaped by evolution that form an innate or instinctive guidance system for an organism (Papero, 1990, p. 11). The idea of the emotional system suggests that the way constituent particles function is not necessarily according to their own nature alone, but often is due to their position within force fields that encompass them (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 146). 36

37 Functioning as a system, members of a family are encouraged to give up self and to fuse with the family unit (Bowen, 1985; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Gilbert, 2004). Bowen believed that there are two parts of the self: (a) the basic or solid self, and (b) the pseudo-self or functioning self. Although the basic self may be changed from within on the basis of experience or new knowledge, the basic self is not negotiable in the relationship system. The basic self is not changed by coercion or pressure, or to gain approval, or enhance one s stand with others (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). In contrast to the stability of the basic or solid self, the pseudo-self is made up of a mass of heterogeneous facts, beliefs, and principles acquired through the relationship system in the prevailing emotion... and is negotiable in the relationship system (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). It is the pseudo-self that is susceptible to fusing with the emotional family system. Bowen referred to the self in terms of levels of differentiation from the emotional system. Differentiation refers to the individual s ability to distinguish between his or her feeling and intellectual processes, rather than having his or her behavior driven by automatic emotions (Papero, 1990; Goldenberg, I. & Goldenberg, H., 2000). In addition to the emotional system, Bowen believed that there exists a feelings system and an intellectual system. He thought that the feelings system acts as a bridge from the emotional system, which is not usually felt by the intellectual system. Differentiation refers to a process rather than an ultimate destination and requires that one learn how to lower anxiety when confronted with the anxiety of others. For example, to say I when others are requiring we; to take responsibility for one s own emotional well-being; to exist as both an individual and as part of a group; and to avoid becoming polarized. 37

38 Differentiation does not refer to the process of individuation and is not concerned with an individual s behavior, as is the latter, but rather with an individual s emotional being. Bowen s differentiation of self-scale positions people on a scale of 1 to100, depending on their level of differentiation or undifferentiation. People low on the scale live in a feeling-controlled world where they are continually flooded by emotion in which there is little or no objective reasoning. Low-scale people have little sense of themselves, are highly susceptible to fusion with others, and are more susceptible to developing symptoms. The primary goals of undifferentiated individuals are oriented around love, happiness, comfort, and security; these goals come closest to fulfillment when relationships with others are in equilibrium (Bowen, 1985, p. 474). Low-scale people either have to avoid relationships lest they slip automatically into an uncomfortable fusion, or have no choice but continued pursuit of a close relationship for gratification of emotional needs (Bowen, 1985, p. 475). In contrast to low-scale people, high-scale people are able to distinguish between their emotional and intellectual functioning. They give less energy to relationships and thus have more energy for self-directed activities. These individuals are able to tolerate both closeness and distance in relationships, and thus their relationships are characterized by a high degree of flexibility. They are responsible for themselves and are able to remain an I in stressful situations which demand a we focus. In order to differentiate from the field, one must first make himself or herself aware of the field and the effect that the field has. Not only does the field affect the individual, but the individual also affects the field. An individual s sense of self is influenced by layers of multi-generational transmissions in which past thoughts, feelings, emotions, and associations of family 38

39 members press down upon him or her. Individuals are consistently faced with the opposing forces of individuality or self and togetherness or group/family. Anxiety, which Bowen believed is present in all individual s and is passed down from generation to generation, plays a part in the individual s sense of self. When there is little anxiety present, individuals are able differentiate themselves from others, but as their anxiety rises, individuals are more susceptible to lose their sense of self and become reactive to the world around them (Gilbert, 1992). William James Around the turn of the century, William James (1890, 1910), who is considered by many to have pioneered certain concepts on the self from the Western psychological perspective, began examining the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal nature of the self. James specifically distinguished between two different aspects of the self: the I-self (subject) and the me-self (object) (Burns, 1979; Redfearn, 1983; Leary & Tangney, 2003). James observed the unique capacity of the self to be reflexive; the self has the ability to somehow turn around and take itself as the object of its own view. Thus the self has both a process aspect--the self as the knower of things--and a content aspect-- the self as that which is known (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 179). The self as I is the knower, the active subject engaged in human experience and is thought to have four components as outlined by Leary and Tangney (2003): (1) selfawareness of one s inner states, feelings, and emotions; (2) self-agency experienced as a sense of being the creator of one s thoughts and actions; (3) self-continuity experienced as a feeling of security that one remains the same person over time (p. 612); and (4) self-coherence evidenced by a feeling of stability with in the self. The self as subject or I 39

40 brings to awareness that one is a unique individual, existing distinctly from others (Ross, 1992). This I is thought to remain constant and unchanging over time and is the center from which one perceives the world (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The I encompasses personal identity, cohesiveness and stability (Lovlie, 1982). James found the self as I to be very illusive and thus focused most of his attention on the self as me (Leary & Tangney, 2003). James considered the me-self to be an empirical aggregate of all things, which are objectively known (Meade, 1934). The self as object or me is the object of one s own experience and is influenced by the I-self. When individuals are operating from the self as object, they are aware of themselves as they appear to be. This knowledge is gained over time through interactions with others (interpersonal dynamics) (Ross, 1992). James believed that there are three parts to the me-self (Burns, 1979; Lovlie, 1982; Redfearn, 1983; Mahoney, 1991). (a) The material self, includes the body, family, and personal property; (b) The social self consists of interpersonal interactions. The social self is the me that is reflected back to the individual by others. A person has many social selves, some of which may be in conflict with one another. (c) The spiritual self consists of one s psychic faculties, one s inner subjective experiences, and one s sense of being. The spiritual self encompasses all thoughts and feelings and is the centre around which all other aspects of the empirical self cluster; it is the source of interest, effort, attention, will and choice, a composite of all one s intellectual, religious, and moral aspirations (Burns, 1979, p. 7). The I-self must precede the me-self, as one must know that they exist before they can know who they are (Ross, 1992). 40

41 James defined the self in terms of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. The four components of the I-self (self-awareness, self-agency, selfcontinuity, and self-coherence) are all intrapersonal dynamics. The construct of the meself is defined by interpersonal dynamics on the material and social levels, and transpersonal dynamics on the spiritual level (Burns, 1979; Mahoney, 1991). Psychoanalysis Whereas James view of the self was focused in the conscious, Freud brought to light the unconscious aspect of the self, which is primarily the product of intrapersonal dynamics (Levin, 1992). Freud s great contribution to the understanding of the self lies in his unparalleled depiction of the self as a house divided, torn by conflict, the sources of which are largely unconscious--or outside of our awareness. Bringing them into consciousness is beyond our ordinary ability. For Freud, that which we experience as self, or better, as ourself, is but the tip of the iceberg, the vast bulk of which lies out of sight and beneath the waterline. (p. 85) There is little mention of the self in Freud s work, as he did not think that an independent construct of the self was necessary (Gammelgaard, 2003, p. 96). The self is seen as a structure existing in the mind and is thought to be a by-product of ego development and not an agency in and of itself (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). Freud used the terms ego and self interchangeably as his term for ego, das Ich, translates to self or I, although this is debatable among psychoanalytic theorists (Mahoney, 1991). In his work, Freud focused primarily on intrapersonal dynamics, mainly the ego, and paid less attention to the interpersonal dynamics between individuals (Friedman, 1985). Freud s concept of the ego, the closest concept to the self, progressed through time and still remains somewhat ambiguous (Gammelgaard, 2003). Freud placed the 41

42 ego, which consists of all that is rational and sane, in the center of the system and believed the ego to be the core of the personality that controls impulses and drives from the id and superego in conformity with the requirements of reality (Burns, 1979, p. 18). Freud (1923) introduced his three-part model of the mind, which he believed is composed of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud saw the id as the unconscious part of the mind, which he believed to be the impulsive and irrational part that houses instinctual energy. Above the id, he placed the ego at the center as the conductor of the conflicting impulses of the id (Levin, 1992; Burns, 1979). At the top, he placed the super-ego or ego ideal, which he believed is the witnessing and evaluating component comprised of the conscious and ego ideal (Mahoney, 1991, p. 220). Many believe that Freud put too much emphasis on the id at the expense of the ego, which led to the self-concept never being fully explained (Burns, 1979). Although there is much debate among theorists about what Freud meant by his term ego as it applies to the concept of self, many theorists use the terms ego and self interchangeably with the ego/self being a set of processes such as perceiving, and thinking; it determines the content of the consciousness, and distinguishes between reality and imagination... the totality of psychological processes which control the speed and direction of the flow of consciousness (Burns, 1979, p. 18). Following Freud s development of the concept of the ego, others that have continued to adapt its definition and apply the concept of ego to the concept of self include Hartman (1944). The concept of self on a theoretical level was introduced to psychoanalysis in 1950 by Hartman. Moving away from Freud s model of the self with its emphasis on the ego and continuing with the intrapersonal focus of the self, Hartman 42

43 distinguished the self from the ego, believing that the self is a composite of one s subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them, which in turn makes the self the object of one s self-esteem, self-awareness, self-value, etc. (Gammelgaard, 2003). The self is distinguished from the ego, which he believed is a system of adaptive and integrative functions hierarchically arranged with no experience of I or subjective references (Redfearn, 1983, p. 97). Carl Jung Jung departed from Freud on his ideas of the inner world of an individual. Whereas Freud was concerned with the contents of the mind as they were derived from experiences, Jung believed that the mind is endowed with archetypes, which transcend experience (Urban, 1992). According to Jung, archetypes, which are inborn forms of the intuition are the essence of the psyche and form the self (Jung, 1976). Jung believed the self to be the primary structure from which the ego develops, which is the reverse of Freud s belief. Jung also believed that the self is a process of the psyche and is thought of as an agency rather than a thing (Coleman, 2000). Jung referred to the self as the totality of the psyche altogether, i.e., conscious and unconscious, (Jung, 1955, p. 389) which embraces the bodily sphere as well as the psyche (Jung 1963, p. 503). Jung referred to two parts of the self: the familiar self or ego personality and the self or Greater Personality. The latter he believed is ultimately unknowable and can be compared to cosmic consciousness or God. Jung emphasized the importance of keeping the union between the two parts of the self, the ego and the self (Schmidt, 2005). According to Edinger (1972) we are born in a state of union between the self and the ego. However, as time goes by, the ego becomes inflated and separates from the self. To 43

44 maintain the personality s integrity, the ego and the self must come together, with the ego eventually surrendering to the self. Although the inflated ego must at some point surrender to the self, it does not disappear and is still integrated in the overall structure. The merging and separating of the ego and the self is an ongoing, life-long process of blending and fusing the pairs of opposites (Schmidt, 2005). These two parts of the self are similar to the two levels of self found in Psychosynthesis, which is described later. Jung s concept of the self embodies the idea of individuation, a process of self realization, the discovery and experience of meaning and purpose in life; the means by which one finds oneself and becomes who one really is (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). This process can be seen as the drive of the Self to consciousness (Schmidt, 2005, p. 604). Individuation, Jung believed, depends on blending the tensions of the opposite poles, such as the conscious and unconscious; divine and human; personal and collective; and self and ego. Jung paid particular attention to the interplay between the personal and collective in the formation of self. The aim of individuation is nothing less than to divest the self of the false wrappings of the persona on the one hand, and the suggestive power of primordial images on the other (Jung 1976, para. 269). A balance must be struck between the individual (introversion), and the collective (extroversion) so that one maintains the self while remaining relational, which is the essence of the self. Jung stated, The self is relatedness... The self only exists inasmuch as you appear. Not that you are, but that you do the self. The self appears in your deeds and deeds always mean relationship (Jung, 1976, p. 73). From this process of individuation comes what Jung termed the ultimate. Jung s idea of the ultimate is defined as that a class of images, expressing totality, symbolizes the self, defined as the 44

45 total personality, conscious and unconscious (Fordham, 1976, p. 11) and the individuated self experienced as a unity that transcends the multiplicity of object relationships (Urban, 2005, p. 582). Jung s belief that the self has two parts, the familiar self and the Self, continues the Western psychological definition of the lower self and to it adds his concept Self, analogous to the Eastern concept of Higher Self. These two parts of the self are similar to the two levels of the self found in Psychosynthesis. Self Psychology Similar to Jung, Kohut believed that the self is separate from the ego. According to Kohut, the self is separate from the ego and should not be conceived of as an agency of the mind like the ego, id, or super ego. Instead, the self is a structure in the mind, similar to an object representation, containing differing and even contradictory qualities (Siegel, 1996, p. 65). Kohut (1978) believed that the self is a psychological configuration, which is influenced by intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics around which the personality is formed (Patton & Robbins, 1982; Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982). Kohut s primary goal in therapy was to strengthen the structure of the self by bringing the constituents of the self to maturity through a process of transmuting internalization. Kohut proposed that the self has three constituents, which when brought to maturity, constitute healthy development. These constituents or sectors are (a) the grandiose exhibitionistic sector; (b) the idealizing sector; and (c) the twinship or alterego sector. These constituents are brought to maturity through the process of transmuting internalization, which is a growth-producing interpersonal process whereby individuals are able to reinternalize the missing parts of themselves from other self-objects 45

46 (Kohut, 1971, 1978, 1984). Kohut considered self-objects to be empathetic others who mirror and validate the individual s self. According to Kohut, a self-object is another person who is able to shore up the individual s sense of self and hold it for them until they are ready to reinternalize it (Kahn, 1985; Kohut, 1977, 1984). Similar to early development when the other is indistinguishable from the self, in adulthood, a self-object holds similar control over the mind of another (Kohut, 1971). These feelings for the self-object are reawakened feelings toward the parents in infancy when there is no differentiation between the parents and the child (Kahn, 1985). Kohut thought that when the adult experiences the self-sustaining effects of a maturely chosen self-object, the self-object experiences of all the preceding stages of his life reverberate unconsciously (Kohut, 1984, pp ). Self-objects exist from childhood into adulthood and are a necessary ingredient for the development of a secure self. Each encounter with an empathetic self-object produces gradual increments of selfstructuralization (Kahn, 1985, p. 897) as they mirror and validate, through the process of transmuting internalization, whichever constituent of the individual s self needs support in order for it to become more mature. In this process of transmuting internalization, the self-object is incorporated into the self s internal structure (Susske, n.d., p. 3) through a two-step process (Kohut, 1984). (a) Empathy is developed between the individual and the self-object. (b) Non-traumatic empathetic failures occur between the individual and the self-object whereby the individual is frustrated. These phase-appropriate frustrations of the needs for mirroring and idealization promote for the growing child a manageable breakup of the infantile self and it s self-objects, and a gradual build-up of new conceptions that include increasingly 46

47 realistic representations of self and other (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982, p. 270). These empathetic failures require that the self internalize and take over the functions that had been relegated to the self-object. The process of transmuting internalization seeks to bring to maturity the three self constituents or sectors. Kohut believed that at the age of two, the self is unified around the nucleus of the bipolar self, which is composed of the constituents of the infantile grandiose self and the idealized parental image. Kohut proposed that the constituent of the grandiose self, which functions to maintain the child s sense of cohesion in space and time and its grandiose form of self-esteem, is the first stage of development (Kohut, 1978; Patton & Wampold, 1982, p. 269). At this stage, the child s self has ageappropriate exhibitionistic tendencies and seeks merger with its parents. Parental empathy, admiration, and mirroring encourage the cohesion of the self. As the grandiose self is validated by the self-objects, the child s parents, the child begins to internalize this praise and validation, which causes an increase in self-esteem, self-assertion, and ambition. As time passes, if there is accurate and sufficient empathy on the part of the parents, the constituent of the grandiose exhibitionist will be brought to maturity. The narcissism of the child will transform into the ambitions of the adult, who is no longer dependent on the need for the constant mirroring from others and is the independent center of initiative (Kohut, 1984; Patton & Robbins, 1982). The second constituent forming the nuclear self and subsequent parallel line of development is the idealized parental imago. During this stage of development the individual will admire, idealize, and seek comfort from the self-object, the parents, as the individual seeks to become one with them. As parents empathize and validate this 47

48 idealization and desire for merger, the child begins to internalize this sense of comfort and provide it for himself or herself, which leads to the development of admiration and acceptance for his or her parents. According to Kohut, the development of admiration and acceptance leads to the formation of ideals, values, and goals (Siegel, 1996; Patton & Wampold, 1982). Kohut (1984) added the third constituent in his last book, which involved the alter-ego. Although less has been written about this constituent, he classified the twinship or alter-ego sector as the part of the self that needs to be like everyone else. Kohut believed that when the child is able to gain this human closeness with self-objects, he or she will develop talents and skills (see Figure 2.1). Cohesive Self Mirroring, Empathetic self-object gleam in the mothers eye Strong, soothing self-object who allows idealization Grandiose and exhibitionistic needs Alter-ego or twinship needs Idealizing needs Maturation of the self Human closeness Maturation of the self Healthy self-esteem, ambitions, and assertiveness Talents and skills optimally utilized Healthy ideals, values and principles, self-soothing capacity Figure 2.1. A Diagrammatical Representation of Healthy Development (Kahn, 1985, p. 898). 48

49 If these three constituents are met by an empathetic self-object, the projections of each of the constituents will be reinternalized over time and the structure of the self strengthened. When these three constituents are brought to maturity, through the process of transmuting internalization whereby the individual reinternalizes parts of himself or herself, healthy development of the self will result. This newly formed self will then be the center around which the personality is formed (Kohut, 1978, 1984; Siegel, 1996). Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychology is built on a foundation that supports the concept that individuals have within themselves all that is necessary for growth and change. Humans are born with an innate self-enhancing, self-actualizing quality that emerges when the environment has certain conditions. Rogers believed that the conditions necessary to provide this optimum environment are empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard for the client (Rogers, 1942, 1951, 1989). When these conditions are present, a safe space can be created for clients, where they can work to identify their inner resources and regain their sense of self (Rogers, 1961, 1980). The basis of Rogers theory of the self is founded on a phenomenological approach based on intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics, which are centered on the idea that man lives essentially in his own personal subjective world (Rogers, 1959, p. 194). Rogers concept of self, which progressed through the years, began by conceptualizing the self as a basic factor in the formation of personality and in the determination of behavior (Burns, 1979, p. 37). This definition evolved into Rogers most detailed formulation of the self, where he stated that the self is an organized, consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the I or 49

50 me and the perceptions of the relationship of the I or me to others and to various aspects of life, together with the value attached to these perceptions (Rogers, 1959, p. 200). This definition of the self as a conceptual gestalt suggests that the self is a pattern of related perceptions, rather than an aggregate of unrelated parts. Despite its fluid and changing character it retains its coherent, integrated, and organized qualities (Burns, 1979, p. 39). The self is thus created from the individual s inner perceptions (intrapersonal factors) and the outer reactions of others (interpersonal factors). To this definition Rogers added the ideal self, which is the self-concept which the individual would most like to possess, upon which he places the highest value for himself (Rogers, 1959, p. 200). Rogers goal in therapy was to integrate the different parts of the self that had become fragmented over the years in order to create greater congruence within the individual. Similar to the psychoanalytic approach, Rogers believed that part of the process of reintegration includes making the individual aware of parts of himself or herself that he or she is unaware of by creating a supportive environment where the individual feels safe to explore all parts of himself or herself (Rogers, 1963, 1980, 1986, 1992). Psychosynthesis Psychosynthesis is a growth-oriented model, which is spiritual in nature. Drawing heavily from psychoanalytic, behavioral, and humanistic psychologies, transpersonal psychology blends these three theories, with the emphasis on intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics, and adds the additional element of transpersonalism, the transcending of consciousness beyond the self, to include the Higher Self and an 50

51 interconnection with all living things (Strohl, n.d.; Russell, 1981). According to Psychosynthesis, the self is recognized on two levels: the personal self, centered self, or I, which corresponds to the lower self (these terms are used interchangeably); and the Transpersonal Self, which corresponds to the Higher Self (these terms are used interchangeably) (Assagioli, 1965; Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1981). In order to understand Assagioli s concept of the self, it is helpful to examine his model of the human consciousness, which includes the lower self and Higher Self (Assagioli, 1964, Taylor, 1967). Assagioli divided the unconscious into four levels: the lower, middle, higher, and collective (Clinebell, 1981; Assagioli, 1965; Firman & Russell, 1992). He believed that the lower unconscious is comprised of material that is actively held out of awareness. He also believed, similar to Freud, that this information is held out of awareness by a repression barrier, which serves to protect individuals from painful or overwhelming experiences or feelings in which they experience themselves not as intrinsically valuable human persons, but instead as non-persons or objects (Firman & Russell, 1992). The middle unconscious, similar to Freud s preconscious, contains contents the individual is currently unaware of but can be made easily aware of. Assagioli believed that subpersonalities, the roles an individual plays, for example, mother, victim, comic, martyr, etc., exist in the middle unconscious (Russell, 1982). These subpersonalities, or contents of the middle unconscious, are simple discrete patterns of feeling, thought, and behavior which often operate out of awareness--in the middle unconscious--and break into awareness when triggered by different life situations (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 9). According to Assagioli, the higher unconscious or Superconscious is also hidden 51

52 from awareness. The higher unconscious region holds the moments of peak experiences and is the region from which we receive our higher intuitions and inspirations (Assagioli, 1965, pp ). Moments of peak experiences refer to Maslow s term for the best moments of the human being, for the happiest moments of life, for the experiences of ecstasy, rapture, bliss, and greatest joy (Maslow, 1971, p. 105). In addition to the three levels of consciousness, Assagioli included the field of consciousness, the conscious self, the Transpersonal Self, and the collective unconscious in his diagram of the personality (see Figure 2.2). The field of consciousness is the part of the personality that one is consciously aware of, including the incessant flow of sensations, images, thoughts, feelings, desires, and, impulses which we observe, analyze, and judge (Assagioli, 1965, p. 18). The field of consciousness includes the conscious self, personal self, or I, which is analogous to the lower self. According to Psychosynthesis, the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects of the personality, such as body, feelings, and mind (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 8). The Transpersonal Self, also called the Self or Higher Self, resides in the higher unconscious and is thought to be one s creative center and essence (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). The collective unconscious refers to the space that holds the consciousness of all beings and the psychic environment in which the process of psychological osmosis occurs. Assagioli (1967) takes Jung s (1955) concept of the collective conscious a step further and divides the collective unconscious into the levels of lower and higher (Firman & Russell, 1992). 52

53 Figure 2.2. Assagioli s Egg Diagram The goal of Psychosynthesis, which is similar to Jung s goal, is to shift the unifying center from the personal self to the Higher Self, so that the lower self and personality can work as a vehicle of expression for the Higher Self. Shifting the center of awareness from the lower self to the Higher Self is accomplished through a two-step process that includes (a) personal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in the personal self; and (b) transpersonal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965; Russell, 1982; Firman and Russell, 1992). 53