Egypt. Ancient Egypt is a source of fascination for historians, writers, and popular culture. The

Transcription

1 Evelyn Bateman Professor Kathlene Baldanza World History April 2013 Egypt Ancient Egypt is a source of fascination for historians, writers, and popular culture. The mysteries of the pyramids, mummification, and the elaborate tombs of pharaohs have captured the public eye, and appear time and time again in books, movies, and magazines. Most general history textbooks cover some aspect of ancient Egyptian culture. Given the prominence of ancient Egypt in the modern historical landscape, it seems necessary to question the source of our information about this highly documented culture. Archaeological discoveries, such as the uncovering of King Tutankhamun's tomb by Howard Carter in 1922, account for much of what historians have come to believe about the lives and culture of the ancient Egyptians. More specifically, how have interpretations of Egyptian artifacts molded historical understanding of ancient Egyptian values? Interpretations of historical artifacts are crucial to shaping our understanding of ancient cultures. This is particularly true of ancient Egypt, whose kingdom was centered in Northern Africa along the Nile River. Part of the reason for the large role of artifacts in studies of ancient Egypt is the tremendous wealth of its archaeological record. Evidence provided by mummies, underground tombs, and even the last standing Wonder of the Ancient World, the pyramids of Giza, are ripe with information about the way the Egyptians lived, thought, and interacted with their environment and with each other. With such an expansive collection of Egyptian structures, art, tools, and writing,...the total complexity of Egyptian society and history cannot be appreciated without fully representative samples of all the types of archaeological data (Clark 832). Artifacts, in all forms, are necessary for the study of Egyptian culture. Perhaps the most striking aspect of Egyptian culture, and the reason for its appeal, are the

2 distinguishing values of the ancients. The ancient Egyptians are noted for their astonishing displays of royal wealth, their feverish concern for the afterlife, and their ingenuity in design, mathematics, and engineering. These attributes do not solely define the civilization, but rather they bring into question the values that motivated the Egyptians to build impossibly large pyramids, sculpt pharaohs with gold, and spend thousands of years developing science and mathematics. While the preserved tombs of royalty and documents of intellectual development are very likely only representative of a small segment of ancient Egyptian society, they certainly speak to the values and aspirations of the culture. Most notably, the lives of Egyptian pharaohs highlight the significance of political control and loyalty in ancient Egypt. Egyptian rulers have held a place of eminence in history for their reputation of absolutist rule and unparalleled wealth. The term pharaoh has even become a common term in the English language to refer to the affluent monarchs of ancient Egypt. A survey of Egyptian documentation on the lives of leaders reveals that the Egyptians revered their pharaohs. Every morning Ramses started his day by bathing in an alabaster tub, a morning ritual that was watched by several important guests, as well as the pharaoh's servants. For invited guests, taking part in the pharaoh's morning routine was considered a great honor (Fitzgerald 49). Ramses II's bathing ritual is a particularly striking example of the honor and respect that the pharaohs of ancient Egypt commanded from the population because it bridges the gap between the public and personal life of the pharaoh. Involving the public in a personal activity like bathing elevates the monarch beyond the realm of the human being, who separates public and private life. The breakdown of this boundary indicates the almost religious attitudes of the Egyptians towards their pharaohs. Evidence of reverence for the pharaoh is further represented through the art of ancient Egypt. Also from 13 th century BC, Ramesses II also had two temples carved into the cliffs near the southern border of Egypt as a memorial to himself and his queen, Nefertari. The larger of the two, the Great Temple, is fronted by four seated statues of the pharaoh 60 feet high (Bell 20). Though the

3 construction of temples, statues, and other forms of memorialization can be viewed as evidence of the loyalty and reverence of the people of ancient Egypt, another interpretation of these works involves the power of the ruling body. It is important to note that Ramses ordered the building of the temples and structures by which he was to be honored. This mechanism of self-aggrandizing likely served a political purpose as far as the establishment of total authority grounded in reverence and respect. In other words, pharaoh-worship was not only engrained in the culture; it played a role in the effectiveness of Egyptian rule. The expectation of honor that was so clearly engrained in Egyptian culture is not necessarily surprising for a civilization of such scale and organization. A strong central figurehead reflects a sense of leadership that seems to be a necessity of a such powerful and cohesive civilization. Additionally, loyalty and faith in the strength and godliness of a pharaoh built a sense of community that united Egyptians and promoted an orderly, productive, and structured society. In this sense, reverent leadership sculpted a society that valued loyalty and community. The Egyptian values of loyalty and unity extended beyond a religious and political identity. It has been proposed that the structure of ancient Egyptian society was actually rooted in the family. The nuclear family was the core of Egyptian society and many of the gods were even arranged into such groupings. There was tremendous pride in one's family, and lineage was traced through both the mother's and father's lines (Brewer and Teeter). In this historical model of Egyptian society, the family was the unifying force within the civilization, and likely also a means for establishing social customs and norms. Family burial sites are another artifact of Egyptian life that historians use to establish family as a structural force within ancient Egypt. The burial customs of the First Intermediate Period therefore emphasize the crucial importance of interpersonal relations on a primary level of social organization...thus the family, as a unit of solidarity and collective responsibility, was acting as an interface between the higher levels of social and political organization (Seidlmayer 116). Interpretations of the family as the center of daily life that arise from the practice of tracing family

4 lineage, the organization of religious figures, and burial practices support the conviction that Egyptians derived much of their political and social structure from the family. It is only natural that a society deeply rooted in religious loyalty to a figurehead and strong family culture should be stable and functioning. Undoubtedly, productivity is a defining feature of Egyptian society. The Egyptians were scientific and innovative, most noted for their pursuits of mathematical-based engineering. Documentation of Egyptian math reveals advanced studies in both applied and theoretical mathematics. Indeed, much of our knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics comes not from the hieroglyphics (carved sacred letters or sacred letters) inscribed on the hundreds of temples but from two papyri containing collections of mathematical problems and their solutions. The two pieces of writing are the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, famous for their examples of geometry, algebra, arithmetic, and problem solving. The practicality of these mathematical skills have suggested to historians that the Egyptians were a progressive society. Recorded mathematical, astronomical, and engineering documents leave no doubt that the Egyptians valued innovation and scientific discipline. Historians often point to the Great Pyramids as the epitome of Egyptian structural and engineering innovation. Indeed, the Pyramids of Giza are some of the most remarkable human-built structures to date. The Great Pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops) in 2550 BC, for example, stands an impressive 46m (150ft) high, with a slope of 51degrees. Its sides, with an average length of 230m (754ft), vary by less than 5cm (2in). Higher than St. Paul's Cathedral, the pyramid was aligned with amazing accuracy almost exactly to true north (Tyldesley). In fact, the pyramids of Egypt are so impressive that historians debate how the Egyptians went about building these massive structures. Though there are several different theories, most can agree that the several-ton blocks were moved using a system of ramps. Regardless of the specifics, the advanced engineering efforts that went into the pyramids reflect a commitment to progress, fueled by mathematical and technological study. All ancient civilisations have contributed in some way to the development of modern society.

5 All therefore are equally deserving of study. Why then do so many people choose to concentrate on Egypt? (Tyldesley) This is a question that has been posed numerous times, and rightly so. Egyptologists dedicate their lives to solving the mysteries of the ancient Egyptians. People from all over the world visit Egypt and flock to museums to get a glimpse at thousand year-old coffins and remnants of this ancient civilization. The sheer volume of Egyptian relics gives historians a meaningful foundation for interpretation of this remarkable civilization. But beyond the physical, what's with the fascination with ancient Egypt and why should we study it? First, the relevance of ancient Egyptian society to the modern world is striking. Besides leaving a plethora of physical evidence for archaeologists and historians to interpret, the ideas of the ancient Egyptians have shaped the course of scientific development. The mathematical knowledge documented in papyrus and evident in Egyptian structure was responsible for augmenting our understanding and use of practical mathematics today. It has been suggested that Egyptian math influenced the Greeks, from whom much of Western classics and education are built. Though mathematical ingenuity is one of the most prominent gems on the crown of Egyptian knowledge, it is certainly not the least of contributions to modern thought. Egyptians also advanced human understanding of astronomy, engineering, and even biomedical technology. Ancient Egyptian values of ingenuity as evidenced through physical artifacts are in many ways the backbone of modern scientific progress. There is a reason that Egypt has gained the interest of both world-class archaeologists and the public. Ancient Egypt is appealing to the imagination, an appeal that likely stems from the success of a society that not only values innovation, but that also values commanding leadership and unity. The sense of organization, progress, and success that we attribute to ancient Egyptian society as a result of our interpretations and study of archaeology is not only influential in our conception of this great civilization, but also in our understanding and reflections of the modern world.

6 Works Cited Bell, Charlotte. A Timeless Culture: Egyptian Architecture & Decorative Arts. n.p Brewer, Douglas, Teeter, Emily. Ancient Egyptian Society and Family Life. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections, Web. 22 April Clark, Desmond J. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Print. Fitzgerald, Stephanie. Ramses II: Egyptian Pharaoh, Warrior, and Builder. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books, Seidlmayer, Stephan. The First Intermediate Period. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Print. Tyldesley, Joyce. Ancient Egypt and the Modern World. BBC, 17 February Web. 22 April 2013.